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Energy Technology 2019
Carbon Dioxide Management and
Other Technologies
Edited by
Tao Wang
Xiaobo Chen
Donna Post Guillen
Lei Zhang
Ziqi Sun
Cong Wang
Nawshad Haque
John A. Howarter
Neale R. Neelameggham
Shadia Ikhmayies
York R. Smith
Leili Tafaghodi 
Amit Pandey
The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series
Tao Wang • Xiaobo Chen • Donna Post Guillen •
Lei Zhang • Ziqi Sun • Cong Wang •
Nawshad Haque • John A. Howarter •
Neale R. Neelameggham • Shadia Ikhmayies •
York R. Smith • Leili Tafaghodi •
Amit Pandey
Editors
Energy Technology 2019
Carbon Dioxide Management and Other
Technologies
123
Editors
Tao Wang
Nucor Castrip Arkansas
Blytheville, AR, USA
Xiaobo Chen
Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Donna Post Guillen
Idaho National Laboratory
Idaho Falls, ID, USA
Lei Zhang
University of Alaska Fairbanks
Fairbanks, AK, USA
Ziqi Sun
Queensland University of Technology
Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Cong Wang
Northeastern University
Shenyang, China
Nawshad Haque
Commonwealth Scientific
and Industrial Research Organization
Clayton South, VIC, Australia
John A. Howarter
Purdue University
West Lafayette, IN, USA
Neale R. Neelameggham
IND LLC
South Jordan, UT, USA
Shadia Ikhmayies
Al-Isra University
Amman, Jordan
York R. Smith
University of Utah
Salt Lake City, UT, USA
Leili Tafaghodi
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, BC, Canada
Amit Pandey
LG Fuel Cell Systems
North Canton, OH, USA
ISSN 2367-1181 ISSN 2367-1696 (electronic)
The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series
ISBN 978-3-030-06208-8 ISBN 978-3-030-06209-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06209-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018964932
© The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 2019
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Preface
This volume contains selected papers presented at the Energy Technologies
Symposium organized in conjunction with the TMS 2019 Annual Meeting &
Exhibition in San Antonio, Texas, USA, and organized by the TMS Energy
Committee. The papers in this volume intend to address the issues, intricacies, and
the challenges relating to energy and environmental science. This volume also
contains selected papers from the two other symposia: Solar Cell Silicon and 5th
Symposium on Advanced Materials for Energy Conversion and Storage.
The Energy Technologies Symposium was open to participants from both
industry and academia and focused on energy-efficient technologies including
innovative ore beneficiation, smelting technologies, recycling, and waste heat
recovery. The volume also covers various technological aspects of sustainable
energy ecosystems, processes that improve energy efficiency, reduce thermal
emissions, and reduce carbon dioxide and other greenhouse emissions. The papers
addressing renewable energy resources for metals and materials production, waste
heat recovery, and other industrial energy-efficient technologies, new concepts or
devices for energy generation and conversion, energy efficiency improvement in
process engineering, sustainability and life cycle assessment of energy systems, as
well as the thermodynamics and modeling for sustainable metallurgical processes
are included. This volume also includes topics on CO2 sequestration and reduction
in greenhouse gas emissions from process engineering, sustainable technologies in
extractive metallurgy, as well as the materials processing and manufacturing
industries with reduced energy consumption and CO2 emission. Contributions from
all areas of nonnuclear and nontraditional energy sources, such as solar, wind, and
biomass are also included in this volume.
We hope this volume will provide a reference for materials scientists and
engineers as well as metallurgists for exploring innovative energy technologies and
novel energy materials processing. We would like to acknowledge the contributions
from the authors of the papers in this volume, the efforts of the reviewers dedicated
v
to the manuscripts review process, and the help received from the publisher. We
appreciate the efforts of Energy Committee members for enhancing this proceed-
ings volume. We also acknowledge the organizers of the other symposia that
contributed papers.
Tao Wang
Xiaobo Chen
Donna Post Guillen
Lei Zhang
Ziqi Sun
Cong Wang
Nawshad Haque
John A. Howarter
Neale R. Neelameggham
Shadia Ikhmayies
York R. Smith
Leili Tafaghodi
Amit Pandey
vi Preface
Contents
Part I 2019 Energy Technologies and Carbon Dioxide Management
Symposium
Analysis on Energy Efficiency and Optimization of HIsmelt
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chao-zhen Cao, Yu-jie Meng, Fang-xing Yan, Dian-wei Zhang, Xin Li
and Fu-ming Zhang
The Characterizations of Hydrogen from Steam Reforming
of Bio-Oil Model Compound in Granulated Blast Furnace Slag . . . . . . 13
Xin Yao, Qingbo Yu, Guowei Xu, Qin Qin and Ziwen Yan
Feasibility of a District Heating System in Fjardabyggd Using
Waste Heat from Alcoa Fjardaal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Leo Blaer Haraldsson, Gudrun Saevarsdottir, Maria S. Gudjonsdottir
and Gestur Valgardsson
Research and Application on Waste Heat Recycling and Preheating
Technology of Iron-Making Hot Blast Stove in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Xin Li, Fuming Zhang, Guangyu Yin and Chaozhen Cao
Influence of Proportion of Pellet on Burden Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Jiansheng Chen, Haibin Zuo, Jingsong Wang, Qingguo Xue
and Jiapeng Liang
High-Temperature Online Reforming of Converter
Gas with Coke Oven Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Binglang Ren, Lin Lin and Jingsong Wang
Preparation and Characterization of Manganese-Based
Catalysts for Removing NO Under Low Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Kaijie Liu, Qingbo Yu, Junbo San, Zhicheng Han and Qin Qin
vii
Simultaneous CO2 Sequestration of Korean Municipal Solid
Waste Incineration Bottom Ash and Encapsulation of Heavy
Metals by Accelerated Carbonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
T. Thriveni, Ch. Ramakrishna and Ahn Ji Whan
Effect of Biomaterial (Citrullus Lanatus Peels) Nanolubricant
on the Thermal Performance and Energy Consumption
of R600a in Refrigeration System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Oluseyi O. Ajayi, Caleb C. Aba-Onukaogu, Enesi Y. Salawu,
F. T. Owoeye, D. K. Akinlabu,A. P. I. Popoola, S. A. Afolalu
and A. A. Abioye
Performance and Energy Consumption Analyses of R290/Bio-Based
Nanolubricant as a Replacement for R22 Refrigerant in
Air-Conditioning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Oluseyi O. Ajayi, Teddy I. Okolo, Enesi Y. Salawu, F. T. Owoeye,
D. K. Akinlabu, E. T. Akinlabi, S. T. Akinlabi and S. A. Afolalu
Characterizations of Manganese-Based Desulfurated Sorbents
for Flue-Gas Desulfurization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Yanni Xuan, Qingbo Yu, Kun Wang, Wenjun Duan and Qin Qin
The Manganese-Based Zirconium (Zr) and Chromium (Cr) Polymeric
Pillared Interlayered Montmorillonite for the Low-Temperature
Selective Catalytic Reduction of NOx by Ammonia (NH3)
in Metallurgical Sintering Flue Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Zhicheng Han, Qingbo Yu, Kaijie Liu, Huaqing Xie and Qin Qin
Characterization of Polymeric Solutions with TiO2 Photocatalytic
Conversion Efficiency Exposed to Different CO2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Aline Hernández, Natalia Loera, Gerardo Pérez and Francisco Blockstrand
Comparison Between Lactuca sativa L. and Lolium perenne:
Phytoextraction Capacity of Ni, Fe, and Co from Galvanoplastic
Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Aline Hernández, Natalia Loera, María Contreras, Luis Fischer
and Diana Sánchez
Determination of Crystallite Size and Its Effect on Sulfur Content,
CO2 Reactivity, and Specific Electrical Resistance of Coke . . . . . . . . . . 149
Saeb Sadeghi, Mohsen Ameri Siahooei, Sid Hadi Sajadi
and Borzu Baharvand
Determination of Limiting Current Density, Plateau Length,
and Ohmic Resistance of a Heterogeneous Membrane
for the Treatment of Industrial Wastewaters with Copper
Ions in Acid Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
K. S. Barros, J. A. S. Tenório, V. Pérez-Herranz and D. C. R. Espinosa
viii Contents
Effect of pH and Potential in Chemical Precipitation of Copper
by Sodium Dithionite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
I. A. Anes, A. B. Botelho Junior, D. C. R. Espinosa and J. A. S. Tenório
Study of Separation Between CO with H2 on Carbon Nanotube
by Monte Carlo Simulation in Aluminum Smelter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Mohsen Ameri Siahooei, Borzu Baharvand, Alireza Fardani,
Mokhita Vahedi Zade and Sid Hadi Sajadi
Vinylic and Waterproofing Paint with TiO2 as Photocatalytic
Active Effects in Lolium Perenne Germination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Aline Hernández, Natalia Loera, Gerardo Pérez and Francisco Blockstrand
Part II Solar Cell Silicon
The Influence of Boron Dopant on the Structural
and Mechanical Properties of Silicon: First Principles Study . . . . . . . . . 191
Shadia Ikhmayies and Yasemin Ö. Çiftci
The Influence of Phosphorus Dopant on the Structural
and Mechanical Properties of Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Shadia Ikhmayies and Yasemin Ö. Çiftci
Simple and Highly Effective Purification of Metallurgical-Grade
Silicon Through Metal-Assisted Chemical Leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Fengshuo Xi, Shaoyuan Li, Wenhui Ma, Kuixian Wei, Jijun Wu,
Keqiang Xie, Yun Lei, Zhengjie Chen, Jie Yu, Xiaohan Wan and Bo Qin
Wettability Behavior of Si/C and Si–Sn Alloy/C System . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Yaqiong Li and Lifeng Zhang
Phase Diagrams of Al–Si System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Shadia Ikhmayies
The Separation of Refined Silicon by Gas Pressure Filtration
in Solvent Refining Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Tianyang Li, Lei Guo, Zhe Wang and Zhancheng Guo
Part III 5th Symposium on Advanced Materials for Energy
Conversion and Storage
Comparison of Solar-Selective Absorbance Properties
of TiN, TiNxOy, and TiO2 Thin Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Hanan Abd El-Fattah, Iman El Mahallawi, Mostafa Shazly
and Waleed Khalifa
Electrophoretically Deposited Copper Manganese Spinel Coatings
for Prevention of Chromium Poisoning in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells . . . . . 265
Zhihao Sun, Srikanth Gopalan, Uday B. Pal and Soumendra N. Basu
Contents ix
Observations on Accelerated Oxidation of a Ferritic Stainless
Steel Under Dual Atmosphere Exposure Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Michael Reisert, Ashish Aphale and Prabhakar Singh
DOC-Stabilized PVAc/MWCNTs Composites
for Higher Thermoelectric Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Hussein Badr, Mahmoud Sorour, Shadi Foad Saber, Iman S. El-Mahallawi
and Fawzi A. Elrefaie
Synthesis and Electrocatalytic Properties of Ni–Fe-Layered
Double Hydroxide Nanomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Mengxin Miao, Xiaobo Han, Rulong Jia, Wei Ma and Guihong Han
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
x Contents
About the Editors
Tao Wang is the Chief Metallurgist at Nucor Steel. He
is the Lead Engineer in the process and product research
and development areas. Dr. Wang’s current focus is to
develop andmodify a novel thin strip casting technology,
which uses up to 90% less energy to process liquid steel
into hot rolled steel sheets than conventional casting
methods. Dr. Wang has rich experience in metallurgical
thermodynamics, thermal energy storage and transfer,
steelmaking, metal solidification and casting, and metal
corrosion. He obtained his Ph.D. and M.S. from the
University of Alabama and received his B.S. from Xi’an
Jiao Tong University in China. In his areas of research,
Dr. Wang has published over 20 papers and patents
which have led to breakthroughs in thermodynamic
modeling, high-efficiency thermal energy transfer med-
ium development, and thin strip metal casting technol-
ogy. Dr. Wang received the 2017 SME Outstanding
Young Manufacturing Engineers from Society of
Manufacturing Engineers, and the 2013 Light Metals
Division (LMD) Best Energy Paper Award from TMS.
He is also the 2016 TMS Young Leaders Professional
Development Award winner. Dr. Wang was selected to
become amember of TMSEmerging Leaders Alliance in
2015. He serves on the TMS Energy Committee and
Pyrometallurgy Committee, and the Metallurgy—
Steelmaking & Casting Technology Committee and
Continuous Casting Technology Committee, Southeast
Chapter within the Association for Iron & Steel
Technology (AIST).
xi
Xiaobo Chen earned his Ph.D. from Deakin University
in 2010 for his work in materials science and engineer-
ing and then joined the Department of Materials Science
and Engineering at Monash University as Postdoctoral
Research Fellow, DECRA Awardee, and Senior
Research Fellow. He joined RMIT as VC Senior
Research Fellow in March 2017 and is based in the
School of Engineering at City Campus.
His research is multidisciplinary and spans from
chemistry and materials science through to corrosion,
electrochemistry, and biomaterials, and shows promise
in benefitting the wider community. Dr. Chen’s research
aims to provide functional characteristics to the surface
of light metals to satisfy a large range of engineering
applications in automotive, 3C, and biomedical indus-
tries.
Dr. Chen has attracted extensive research funding from
the ARC as the Lead Chief Investigator on a 3-year ARC
Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DECRA) in
2013, a 3-year ARC Linkage grant in 2015, and a 3-year
research grant with the ARC Research Hub for
nanoscience-based construction materials manufacturing
in 2017. He hasalso worked with the Baosteel-Australia
Joint Research and Development Centre and Mitsubishi
Heavy Industry on three research contracts.
Donna Post Guillen has more than 30 years of research
and engineering experience and has served as Principal
Investigator for numerous multidisciplinary projects
encompassing energy systems, nuclear reactor fuels
and materials experiments, and wasteform development.
She is experienced with X-ray and neutron beamline
experiments, computational methods, tools and software
for data analysis, visualization, application development,
machine learning and informatics, simulation, design,
and programming. Her core areas of expertise are
thermal fluids, computational fluid dynamics, and heat
transfer analysis. She has performed irradiation testing of
new materials and thermal analysis for nuclear reactor
experiments in her role as Principal Investigator/
Technical Lead for the DOE Nuclear Science User
Facility Program. She is the lead inventor on two patents
for a new metal matrix material to produce a fast neutron
flux environment within a pressurized water reactor. She
xii About the Editors
actively mentors students, routinely chairs and organizes
technical meetings for professional societies, serves
in leadership capacity for the American Nuclear
Society (Thermal Hydraulics Executive and Program
Committees), The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society
(former Chair of the Energy Committee, JOM Advisor),
and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(Thermal Hydraulics and Computational Fluid Dynamic
Studies Track Co-Chair), provides subject matter
reviews for proposals and technical manuscripts, has
published over 100 papers and received two Best Paper
awards, authored technical reports and journal articles,
and written/edited three books.
Lei Zhang is an Associate Professor in the Department
of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Alaska
Fairbanks (UAF). Prior to joining the UAF, Dr. Zhang
worked as a postdoctoral associate in the Department of
Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering at the
University of Pennsylvania. Dr. Zhang obtained her
Ph.D. in Materials Science and Engineering from
Michigan Technological University in 2011, and her
M.S. and B.E. in Materials Science and Engineering
from China University of Mining and Technology,
Beijing, China, in 2008 and 2005, respectively. Her
current research mainly focuses on the synthesis of
metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and MOF-based
nanocomposites, and the manipulation of their proper-
ties and applications in gas storage, separation, and
water treatment. She is also working on the development
and characterization of anticorrosion coatings on metal-
lic alloys for aerospace and biomedical applications.
Dr. Zhang has served on TMS Energy Committee
since 2014, including the Vice-Chair role in 2018–2019,
and served on a Best Paper Award Sub-committee of the
committee. She has served as a frequent organizer and
session chair of TMS Annual Meeting symposia (2015–
present). She was the recipient of 2015 TMS Young
Leaders Professional Development Award.
About the Editors xiii
Ziqi Sun is an Associate Professor and an ARC Future
Fellow at the School of Chemistry, Physics and
Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of
Technology, Australia. He received his Ph.D. in 2009
from Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of
Sciences and his B.Eng. in 1999 from Central South
University China. He was awarded with prestigious
awards and fellowships including the TMS Young
Leaders Development Award from The Minerals,
Metals & Materials Society (TMS, 2015), Future
Fellowship (FT2, 2018) and Discovery Early Career
Research Award (DECRA, 2014) from Australian
Research Council, Alexander von Humboldt
Fellowship from AvH Foundation Germany (2009),
Australian Postdoctoral Fellowship from Australian
Research Council (APD, 2010), and Vice-Chancellor’s
Research Fellowship from University of Wollongong
(2013). He is also serving as Chair of the Energy
Committee of TMS, Editor of Sustainable Materials
and Technologies (Elsevier), Principal Editor of
Journal of Materials Research (MRS), Associate
Editor of Surface Innovations (ICE Science), Editorial
Board Member of Scientific Reports (Nature Publishing
Group), and Journal of Materials Science and
Technology (Elsevier). He was also Guest Professor
of Shenzhen Institute, Peking University, and Honorary
Fellow of University of Wollongong. Dr. Sun is the
program leader for three ongoing Australian Research
Council Projects. He held the roles as lead organizer in
TMS conferences, ACerS annual conferences, and
AM&ST18 symposium. His major research interest is
the rational design of bio-inspired metal-oxide nano-
materials for sustainable energy harvesting, conversion,
and storage.
xiv About the Editors
Cong Wang is a Professor in the School of
Metallurgy, Northeastern University, China. Prior to
joining the faculty of his alma mater, he worked in
Northwestern University, Saint-Gobain, and Alcoa, all
in the United States. He obtained his Ph.D. from
Carnegie Mellon University, M.S. from Institute of
Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and
B.S. (with honors) from Northeastern University. He is
now leading a group dedicated to oxide metallurgy.
Dr. Wang is an active member and a prolific scholar
in the global metallurgy community. He has been
recognized with distinctions such as TMS Early Career
Faculty Fellow Award, CSM Youth Metallurgy S&T
Prize, Newton Advanced Fellowship, JSPS Invitational
Fellowship, TÜBİTAK Fellowship, and SME Out-
standing Young Manufacturing Engineer Award. He
serves as a Key Reader and Vice-Chair for the Board of
Review forMetallurgical and Materials Transactions B;
Review Editor for Journal of Materials Science and
Technology; Editorial Board Member of International
Journal of Refractory Metals and Hard Materials and
Journal of Iron and Steel Research, International;
and Corresponding Expert for Engineering. He chaired
the TMS Energy Committee from 2016 to 2017. He is
the inaugural chair for the ASM Shenyang Chapter,
and faculty advisor for Material Advantage North-
eastern University. He initiated the International
Metallurgical Processes Workshop for Young Scholars
(IMPROWYS), and organized major conferences/
symposia of technical significance.
Nawshad Haque is a Senior Scientist at the Australian
national research agency Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO). He is
leading a range of projects that evaluates technology
for resources industries for saving energy, water and
operating costs. Currently his main projects are to study
the techno-economic and environmental impacts of
hydrogen and ammonia production technologies, fuel
cells, off-grid, solar, wind, biomass and hybrid energy
systems, and life cycle based emission studies of LNG
production. He joined CSIRO Mineral Resources as a
Research Scientist (Process Modelling) in 2007. His
current research focuses on process, project, and
About the Editors xv
technology evaluation applying life cycle assessment
(LCA) methodology and techno-economic capabilities
using various tools, software, and databases. He has
contributed to develop a number of novel technologies
and flowsheets for “Mine to Metal” production and
energy processing at CSIRO. His publications and
industry reports are widely used internally and exter-
nally and assist in decision-making both in Australia
and internationally. Dr. Haque completed his Doctorate
in Engineering at the University of Sydney on process
modeling, simulation, and optimization in 2002. He
commenced work as a Research Scientist at New
Zealand Forest Research Institute (Scion) and later
seconded to CSIRO at Clayton to conduct research on
drying process simulation and technology evaluation
for industries. He is an active leader in professional
societies—anelected Fellow of the Australian Institute
of Energy and the Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, a member of The Minerals, Metals &
Materials Society, and a Director of Australian Life
Cycle Assessment Society. Dr. Haque has supervised
undergraduate and Ph.D. students, and he coordinates
and offers mineral processing and life cycle assessment
courses for undergraduate students and workshops for
professionals. He has a number of international collab-
orations with the universities and publicly funded
research laboratories on mineral, metal processing,
energy processing, and sustainability.
John A. Howarter is an Associate Professor in
Materials Engineering at Purdue University with a
joint appointment in Environmental & Ecological
Engineering. His research interests are centered on
synthesis, processing, and characterization of sustain-
able polymers and nanocomposites, value recovery
through recycling and reprocessing of waste materials,
and sustainable materials which can enable improved
design for the environment.
John is Chair of the TMS Public and Governmental
Affairs committee and serves on the TMS Board of
Directors. Since 2014, he has served as the chapter
advisor for the Purdue University Material Advantage
student organization. John earned a B.S. from The Ohio
State University in 2003 and Ph.D. from Purdue
University in 2008, both in Materials Engineering.
xvi About the Editors
From 2009 to 2011, he was a National Research
Council postdoctoral scholar in the Polymers Division
of the National Institute of Standards and Technology
in Gaithersburg, Maryland.
Neale R. Neelameggham is “The Guru” at IND LLC,
involved in international technology and management
consulting in the field of critical metals and associated
chemicals, thiometallurgy, energy technologies, soil
biochemical reactor design, lithium-ion battery design,
and agricultural uses of coal. He was a visiting expert at
Beihang University of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Beijing, China and a plenary speaker at the Light Metal
Symposium in South Africa on the topic of low carbon
dioxide emission processes for magnesium.
Dr. Neelameggham has more than 38 years of expertise
in magnesium production and was involved in process
development of the startup company NL Magnesium
through to the present US Magnesium LLC, UT until
2011. He and Brian Davis authored the ICE-JNME
award-winning (2016) article “21st Century Global
Anthropogenic Warming Convective Model.” He is
presently developing “stored renewable energy in coal”
Agricoal™ for greening arid soils and has authored an
e-book Eco-stoichiometry of Anthropogenic CO2 That
Returns to Earth on a new discovery of quantification of
increasing CO2 returns to Earth.
Dr. Neelameggham holds 16 patents and patent
applications, and has published several technical papers.
He has served in the Magnesium Committee of the TMS
Light Metals Division (LMD) since its inception in
2000, chaired it in 2005, and in 2007 he was made a
permanent coorganizer for the Magnesium Technology
Symposium. He has been a member of the Reactive
Metals Committee, Recycling Committee, and Titanium
Committee, and was a Program Committee Repre-
sentative for LMD.
Dr. Neelameggham was the inaugural chair, when in
2008, LMD and the Extraction and Processing Division
created the Energy Committee, and he has been a
coeditor of the Energy Technology symposium through
the present. He received the LMDDistinguished Service
Award in 2010. While he was the chair of Hydromet-
allurgy and Electrometallurgy Committee, he initiated
the Rare Metal Technology symposium in 2014. He is
About the Editors xvii
coeditor for the 2019 symposia on Magnesium
Technology, Energy Technology, Rare Metal
Technology, REWAS 2019, and Solar Cell Silicon.
Shadia Ikhmayies received B.Sc. and M.Sc. from the
physics department at the University of Jordan in 1983
and 1987, respectively, and a Ph.D. on the topic of
producing CdS/CdTe thin film solar cells from the same
university in 2002. She now works at Isra University in
Jordan as an Associate Professor. Her research is
focused on producing and characterizing semiconductor
thin films, and thin film CdS/CdTe solar cells. She also
works in characterizing quartz in Jordan for the
extraction of silicon for solar cells and characterizing
different materials by computation. She has published
48 research papers in international scientific journals,
73 research papers in conference proceedings, and 3
chapters in books. She is the author of two books for
Springer, Silicon for Solar Cell Applications and
Performance Optimization of CdS/CdTe Solar Cells
(both in production), editor of the book Advances in
II–VI Compounds Suitable for Solar Cell Applications
(Research Signpost), the book Advances in Silicon
Solar Cells (Springer), an eBook series about material
science (in development with Springer), and several
TMS proceedings publications. She is the winner of the
TMS Frank Crossley Diversity Award (2018), and the
World Renewable Energy Congress 2018 (WREC-18)
Pioneering Award.
Dr. Ikhmayies is amember of theTheMinerals,Metals
& Materials Society (TMS) and the World Renewable
Energy Network (WREN). She is a member of the
international organizing committee and the interna-
tional scientific committee in the European Conference
on Renewable Energy Systems (ECRES2015–
ECRES2018). She is a member of the editorial board
of the International Journal of Materials and Chemistry
(Scientific & Academic Publishing), and has served as a
technical advisor/subject editor for JOM (2014 and
2019). She has been a guest editor for topical collections
from the European Conference on Renewable Energy
Systems in the Journal of Electronic Materials, and an
editorial advisory board member for Recent Patents on
Materials Science (Bentham Science). She is a reviewer
for 24 international journals, was the Chair of the TMS
xviii About the Editors
Materials Characterization Committee (2016–2017), and
has been lead organizer of more than four symposia at the
TMS Annual Meeting and Exhibition.
York R. Smith is an Assistant Professor of
Metallurgical Engineering in the College of Mines
and Earth Sciences at the University of Utah, where he
specializes in extractive metallurgy. Growing up in
Northern Michigan, his love for snow-covered peaks
and open spaces led him to the University of Nevada,
Reno where he obtained his B.S. and M.S. in Chemical
Engineering. Given his only criterion of decent skiing,
he then moved to the University of Utah where he
obtained his Ph.D. in Metallurgical Engineering. After
a postdoctoral research appointment from the U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy, Dr. Smith joined the faculty of the
College of Mines and Earth Sciences at the University
of Utah. His current research interests include nonfer-
rous metal recycling, electrochemistry and interfacial
phenomena, and sustainable/green metallurgical engi-
neering.
Leili Tafaghodi is an Assistant Professor and the
extractive metallurgy industry research chair at the
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
Leili’s research is built around the idea of sustainable
high-temperature extraction and refining of materials.
She obtained her Ph.D. from the University of Toronto
and specializes in thermodynamics and kinetics of
high-temperature materials processes and synthesis and
refining of high-quality metals and alloys.
About the Editors xix
Amit Pandey is a Manager (Manufacturing Innovation
and Integration) at LG Fuel Cell Systems (LGFCS) in
North Canton, Ohio. Previously, he was employed at
Johns Hopkins University (JHU) and Oak Ridge
National Laboratory (ORNL). He is primarily interested
in structural and functional materials for energy con-
version and storage.
Dr. Pandey received his B.S. (2003) in Mining
Engineeringfrom Indian Institute of Technology (IIT–
BHU) Varanasi, India. Later, he received his M.S.
(2005) in Civil Engineering from University of Arizona
and Ph.D. (2010) in Mechanical Engineering from
University of Maryland. He has Google Scholar
citations *700 and has received young leader awards
from various materials societies (ACerS, TMS, ASM).
In 2017, he was selected to attend the US. Frontiers of
Engineering Symposium, National Academy of
Engineering, USA.
xx About the Editors
Part I
2019 Energy Technologies and Carbon
Dioxide Management Symposium
Analysis on Energy Efficiency
and Optimization of HIsmelt Process
Chao-zhen Cao, Yu-jie Meng, Fang-xing Yan, Dian-wei Zhang, Xin Li
and Fu-ming Zhang
Abstract HIsmelt process is a clean and efficient iron-making technology. The
production of the first HIsmelt commercial plant of China, which was built in 2016,
is stable at present, and remarkable results have been achieved in environmental
protection and production cost aspects. The energy efficiency and itsmain influencing
factors of HIsmelt process were systematically analyzed in this paper, combining
with China’s HIsmelt plant production practice. It has been pointed out that the
main restrictive factors are the high efficient utilization of high temperature and low
calorific value SRV off-gas to further improve the energy efficiency of HIsmelt. It
introduced the process improvement and optimization of the HIsmelt plant in China,
around the hot air blast position control, iron ore powder preheating, gas purification,
and waste heat recovery.
Keywords HIsmelt · Smelting reduction · Iron-making · Energy efficiency
Improvement
HIsmelt process is a typical “one-step” melting reduction process; its reduction and
melting process take place in the same vessel, which can directly use powder ore and
pulverized coal in. It did not use coke anymore, and the raw materials do not need to
be agglomerated. So it is a meaningful smelting reduction process [1]. China’s first
HIsmelt plant with annual production of 80×104 t hot metal was put into operation
in 2016, and this plant has achieved significant results in rawmaterial flexibility, envi-
ronmental protection, and production costs. Compared with blast furnace process,
the successful implementation of Chinese HIsmelt plant has a significant and lead-
ing role in promoting the development of smelting reduction iron-making technology
[2].
HIsmelt process as a representative “metal bath” smelting reduction process, the
raw materials were deep injected into the iron bath specially. On the one hand, the
C. Cao (B) · Y. Meng · F. Yan · X. Li · F. Zhang
Beijing Shougang International Engineering Technology Co., Ltd, Beijing, China
e-mail: cczts@sina.com
D. Zhang
Shougang Research Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
© The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 2019
T. Wang et al. (eds.), Energy Technology 2019, The Minerals, Metals & Materials
Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06209-5_1
3
4 C. Cao et al.
pulverized coal inject into the iron bath can be directly carburized by the molten
iron; on the other hand, under the action of carrier gas the iron bath produces strong
stirring; it forms “fountain”. The liquid slag and iron droplet splashing after being
heated in the upper high-temperature zone, and then returned to the metal bath. The
heat generated by off-gas post-combustion continuous transfers to the bath,which can
be achieved higher heat transfer efficiency under the higher post-combustion degree,
which is a key part of the whole process. Currently, compared with the blast furnace
process, there are still some gaps in energy utilization efficiency, which shows that
the process energy consumption is higher, so it is important to optimize the energy
efficiency of the HIsmelt plant in order to improve the technology competitiveness.
Operation Practice of Chinese HIsmelt Plant
In 2012, Rio Tinto signed a licensing agreement with Chinese companies to build
HIsmelt industrial plants in China. In the design and construction periods, this Chi-
nese HIsmelt plant has carried out the improvement and optimization in accordance
with the problems occurred on the equipment, technology, and production process in
Kwinana plant. After more than 5 years working on process adjustment and equip-
ment optimization, it accomplished continuous stable production in 2017 [3].
Chinese HIsmelt plant started construction in 2013, completed in August 2016, it
goes into stable production in September 2017. It has a total of 450,000 tons of high-
purity pig iron until March 2018, daily maximum production reached 1930 t; average
daily output reached 1685 t in October 2017, monthly output reached 51,714 t, coal
consumption per iron tons gradually reduced, it goes to 900 kg/thm during the stable
production, and the lowest coal consumption is 810 kg/tHM, close to the reach design
value. The molten iron contains less P, the harmful element content is very low, and
the quality of pig iron has reached to Chinese high pure pig iron national standard
level. SRV lining condition is still good, and the first campaign life of SRV lining
has been more than 450,000 tons iron, only a partial repair, especially the slag line
part erosion problem has been better resolved [4] (Table 1; Fig. 1).
Table 1 Production indexes of Chinese HIsmelt plant
Items Index Time
Daily maximum output 1930 t 2017 year
Monthly maximum output 51714 t 2017 year
Minimum coal consumption 810 kg/tHM 2017 year
Weekly maximum operating rate 100% 2017 year
Continuous production record 116 days 2017 year
Erosion of the lining 45 Mt hot metal Never changed
Analysis on Energy Efficiency and Optimization of HIsmelt Process 5
Fig. 1 Chinese HIsmelt plant
SRV Heat Balance Analysis
Based on the Chinese HIsmelt plant production practice and technological parame-
ters, the SRV thermal equilibrium is calculated and analyzed, and the calculation is
shown in Table 2 (Fig. 2).
As shown in the calculation results, the SRV heat incomes mainly come from
the pulverized coal burning, which accounts for 78% of the total heat income, the
higher post-combustion degree of the hearth gas, the more heat is generated. In the
heat expenditure items, hot metal taken away accounted for 7.6%, slag taken away
accounted for 3.5%, iron oxide reduction and coal and carbonate decomposition
endothermic amount accounted for about 48%, gas away heat for 33.4%, and SRV
furnace heat loss accounted for about 7%, which shows that in addition to reducing
Table 2 Heat balance calculation of Chinese HIsmelt plant
Serial
no.
Items GJ/tHM % Serial
no.
Items GJ/tHM %
1 Hot blast 3.4 14.8 1 Hot metal 1.7 7.6
2 Coal
combustion
17.8 78.0 2 Slag 0.8 3.5
3 Hot ore 1.3 5.8 3 Off-gas 7.6 33.4
4 Coal and fluxes 0.1 0.5 4 Dust 0.1 0.4
5 Slag forming
heat
0.2 1.0 5 Endothermic
reactions
11.0 48.1
6 Heat loss 1.6 6.9
Total 22.8 100.0 Total 22.8 100.0
6 C. Cao et al.
14.8 , 
15%
78.0 , 
78%
5.8 , 6% 0.5 , 0%
1.0 , 1%Heat Income
Hot blast
Coal combustion
Hot ore
Coal& fluxes
Slag forming heat
7.6 , 8%
3.5 , 4%
33.4 , 
33%
0.4 , 0%
48.1 , 
48%
6.9 , 7%
Heat Expenditures
Hot metal
Slag
Offgas
Dust
Endothermic 
reaction
Heat loss
Fig. 2 Energy balances calculation of SRV
heat consumption, SRV exhaust took too much heat; this is mainly because the off-
gas of the SRV temperature is very high, and at 1450 °C above, the off-gas volume
of per ton hot metal is about 2240 Nm3/tHM, so how to further improve the heat
transfer efficiency in the furnace, reduce the heat brought out by off-gas per ton hot
metal and to achieve higher energy recovery efficiency of waste heat of SRV off-gas,
it is a key point to improving the energy utilization efficiency of HIsmelt process.
SRV Heat TransferProcess Analysis
The Heat Transfer Efficiency of the Fountains in SRV
The heat of the SRV mainly comes from the high-temperature flame zone which is
generated by oxygen-enriched hot blast of HAB and hearth gas combustion; its heat
transfer is divided into three parts: (1) heat transfer to the bath, (2) heat to the gas and
ash, and (3) heat to the side cooling wall. Among them, the heat transfer to the coal
gas and ash is about 7.7 GJ/tHM, the heat transfer to the sidewall is 1.6 GJ/tHM, the
heat transfer to the slag iron is 13.5 GJ/tHM, and the effective thermal efficiency is
only 59.2%.
The Factors Affecting SRV Fountain Heat Transfer Efficiency
The SRV heat transfer from the post-combustion high-temperature zone to molten
slag and iron includes three ways: radiation, conduction, and convection. These three
kinds of heat transfer methods must be considered when the slag layer forms the
fountain. The formation of slag fountain area gives the primary and post-combustion
heat and fountain flow a good heat transfer conditions in SRV; the falling droplets
get the heat and merge with the rising droplet. And there is a balance transfer process
Analysis on Energy Efficiency and Optimization of HIsmelt Process 7
through conduction and convection. After the droplets return to the slag layer, remix
the pulverized coal which was just injected into the fountain, accepting the new heat
transfer so the cycle repeats.
The main factors affect the heat transfer efficiency in bath include:
(1) The contact surface area between the high-temperature air flow and the fountain
flow generated by the primary and post-combustion
The contact surface area of hot blast flow and fountain flow depends on the
lances height, injection angle, injection pressure, slag viscosity, etc., which the slag
viscosity may be the critical factor affecting the fountains forming effect. The greater
the slag viscosity, the smaller the depth of the fountain penetrating high-temperature
airflow, the larger the diameter of slag droplets in the fountain flow, and the worse the
dispersion and uniformity in the off-gas, thus affecting the convective heat transfer
effect. In addition, the contact area between the high-temperature airflow and the slag
surface is affected by the distance between the lance and the slag face. The different
heights of the lance position will directly affect the heat transfer and the effect of
post-combustion.
(2) Temperature gradient between high-temperature air flow and slag droplet in
fountains
The temperature gradient between the high-temperature airflow and the droplet
can be improved by increasing the post-combustion degree, hot air temperature, and
oxygen enrichment rate. The post-combustion degree has a great relationship with
the high-temperature gas recirculation ratio; the lower the cycle ratio, the higher
the oxygen potential in the airflow and the higher the post-combustion degree; the
higher the cycle ratio, the lower the combustible gas concentration and the lower the
post-combustion degree. The high-temperature airflow recirculation ratio is related
to the furnace size H/D (the height from the outlet to bath/furnace diameter) and the
lance height, as well as the reasonable position distribution between the lance inlet
and the flue gas outlet.
(3) Reduce the sensible heat taken away by off-gas
The sensible heat of off-gas depends on the volume and temperature. The off-gas
quantity reduction focuses on reducing the N2 content and reducing the SRV off-gas
temperature to improve heat transfer.
(4) Reduce the heat taken away by cooling water
The radiation heat transfer from high-temperature combustion zone to the furnace
wall should be effectively controlled. On the one hand, to strengthen the fountain
effect and increase the radiation to the slag, thereby inhibiting the radiation to the
furnacewall. On the other hand, the cooling panel should forma stable and reasonable
thickness of the slag layer, which can reduce the heat conduction of the furnace wall
significantly.
8 C. Cao et al.
The Influence of SRV Heat Transfer on Reduction Reaction
The slag layer and fountain in SRV is a multiphase reaction system with gas, liquid,
and solid coexistence. After the iron ore powder injects in the iron bath, iron oxides
will be reduced by carbon or CO in the slag to produce hot metal. The hot metal
and non-molten carbon contact with the upper zone O2 and CO2 by the fountain
action and are reoxidized; this process is called “reverse reaction”. In order to ensure
that the reduction reaction can be carried out smoothly, and at the same time, it is
better to inhibit the occurrence of the inverse reaction, the droplet should have a
certain degree of particle size, which is a pair of contradictions with heat transfer to
the droplet size requirements. Controlled the particle size distribution of the molten
droplets is a crucial operation to achieve the optimal equilibrium of the heat transfer
and reduction reaction.
Energy Efficiency Optimization of the HIsmelt Plant
in China
In order to further improve the energy efficiency, the processes have been optimized
in the design and construction process on the basis of the Kwinana practice, which
includes the lance position control, the iron ore powder preheating system, the gas
purification, and the waste heat utilization. And these have been practical applied in
China HIsmelt factory.
Optimization of Lance Position Control for HAB
The structure, position control, and swirl characteristic of theHABare very important
to control the degree of inverse reaction in the SRV and improve the heat transfer
efficiency in the molten bath. A relative lower position of the HAB is conducive
to improving the heating strength, but an excessively low HAB position will cause
an excessive reverse reaction, so the best position of the HAB can maximize the
transmission of energy to the molten bath, and ensure that the reduction reaction can
proceed normally. In order to improve the heat transfer efficiency in the SRV and
adjust the lance position of the HAB, the HAB position design has been optimized
in the design process of the HIsmelt plant in China.
The HAB position can be adjusted according to production requirements, by four
600 mm water-cooled spools. By adjusting the position of four water-cooled short
tubes, the height gradient of HAB can be adjusted to 0, 0.6, and 1.2 m, which can
provide more control means to ensure the working state of the HAB (Fig. 3).
Analysis on Energy Efficiency and Optimization of HIsmelt Process 9
Fig. 3 Position adjustment schematic of HAB
Optimization of Off-Gas Waste Heat Utilization
Wet dedusting process is used for SRV off-gas scrubbing in Kwinana plant, in which
the high-temperature gas enters the water-cooled hood, the temperature dropped to
800–1000 °C, and then dedusted and cooled through the ring seam scrubbing tower.
After that, the gas temperature is dropped to below 100 °C, and the off-gas dust
content is below 10 mg/Nm3; then after further cooling, quality of the gas can meet
the requirements of the following procedure. The above dedusting process can meet
the dust content requirements of the gas, but the disadvantage is that the physical
heat of the gas below 1000 °C cannot be recycled.
In order to achieve efficient utilization of waste heat and purification of SRV off-
gas, the new process is adopted in the Chinese plant (see Fig. 4). The SRV off-gas
with temperature of 1450–1650 °C is cooled firstly through the water-cooled hood
down to 800–1000 °C, and then enters the cyclone to catch large particle dust, so
that the dust content of the gas decreases to 20 g/Nm3. The gas temperature drops
to 200–250 °C in waste heat boiler, and then the gas is further dedusted and cooled
by ring seam scrubbing tower. The highest production of middle pressure steam is
about 56 t/h (5.4 MPa). By adoptingthe above process, the utilization efficiency of
the waste heat of SRV off-gas can be remarkably improved.
10 C. Cao et al.
Fig. 4 SRV off-gas purification and energy recovery process
Ore+Coal
Ore+Coal
Coal
Coal
Ore
Ore
Ore
Ore
Coal
Coal
Coal
Coal
Fig. 5 Schematic of SRV ore+coal injection
Optimization of Solid Lance Arrangement
The design philosophy of multi points and small lances of ore and coal injection is
used in SRVofKwinana plant. The purpose is, throughmultipoint injection, to realize
a uniform distribution of iron slag and solid material in the hearth, which helps to
improve the kinetic condition of hearth reaction. There are four coal injection lances
and four ore injection lances, which are located above hearth refractory and evenly
alternately distributed along the circumferential direction (Fig. 5).
Analysis on Energy Efficiency and Optimization of HIsmelt Process 11
It has been proved by the research and production practice that the size range
control ability of the slag and iron droplet can be further improved by reducing the
number of lances and increasing the injection capacity of single mega lance, which
can meet the need of heat transfer and reduction reaction and the requirement of the
active furnace cylinder and the ore-coal injection amount. During the design process
of the new plant, the design scheme of solid injection lances is simplified by reducing
the lances from 8 to 4, which can realize the coal and oremixed injection, simplify the
solid injection system, reduce the equipment failure potential, and further improve
the SRV production efficiency.
Conclusions
(1) The Chinese HIsmelt plant has been completed and put into operation in August
2016. At present, the plant operation is stable. Compared with the blast furnace
process, the HIsmelt technology has significant advantages in the raw material
flexibility, environmental protection, production cost, and so on, which has a
bright development perspective.
(2) The SRV off-gas takes up about 33.4% of the total heat income, further improv-
ing the heat transfer efficiency and efficient utilization of the SRV off-gas is the
key to improve the energy utilization efficiency of the HIsmelt process.
(3) The effective heat transfer efficiency in the SRV furnace is 59.2%, which is
affected by the contact surface area in gas–liquid two-phase flow, temperature
gradient, and the high-temperature gas quantity.
(4) In order to further improve the energy efficiency of theHIsmelt plant, the process
improvement and optimization of the HIsmelt plant in China are carried out in
the position control of HAB, ore powder preheating, gas purification, and waste
heat utilization.
References
1. Goodman N, Dry R (2010) HIsmelt ironmaking process. World Steel 2:1–5
2. Cao C, Men X, Zhang F (2017) Latest progress and design optimization of the first HIsmelt
process in China. AIST2017, pp 421–429
3. Men X, Lin LI, Zhang F (2015) Application on HIsmelt smelting reduction process in China.
Association for iron and steel technology. AISTech2015 proceedings. Association for iron and
steel technology, Cleveland, pp 1135–1145
4. Cao C, Meng Y, Mei C (2017) Latest progress in industrialization of HIsmelt process. In: 11th
iron and steel conference of China proceedings, pp 1–7
The Characterizations of Hydrogen
from Steam Reforming of Bio-Oil Model
Compound in Granulated Blast Furnace
Slag
Xin Yao, Qingbo Yu, Guowei Xu, Qin Qin and Ziwen Yan
Abstract The purpose of this research investigating the characterizations of steam
reforming of bio-oil model compound in granulated BF (blast furnace) slag was to
recoverwaste heat and obtain hydrogen. The results indicated that hydrogen yield and
hydrogen fraction first increased and then decreasedwith the increase of temperature.
When S/C increased, hydrogen yield and hydrogen fraction increased. But they
decreased with the increasing LHSV. Hydrogen yield and hydrogen fraction were
1.68 m3 per kg of bio-oil model compound and 65.39% at the optimum condition
with the temperature, S/C and LHSV reaching 750 °C, 9, and 0.9 h−1, respectively.
Granulated BF slag containing metallic oxides as CaO and Fe2O3 could promote
hydrogen yield and hydrogen fraction, so it was regarded as an excellent heat carrier
for the reaction of steam reforming of bio-oil model compound.
Keywords Hydrogen · Steam reforming · Bio-oil model compound
Granulated blast furnace slag · Heat recovery
Introduction
Biomass with high production and low ash is recognized as an excellent material
to produce hydrogen [1]. There are many chemical processes obtaining hydrogen
through biomass such as pyrolysis, gasification, and fermentation [2]. Meanwhile,
flash pyrolysis biomass then steam reforming of bio-oil obtained from the pyrolysis
process is known as one of the promising methods to obtain hydrogen, which is
first proposed by Wang [3]. The technology of flash pyrolysis biomass is developed
X. Yao · Q. Yu (B) · G. Xu · Q. Qin · Z. Yan
School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, Liaoning, People’s Republic of
China
e-mail: yuqb@smm.neu.edu.cn
Q. Yu
Northeastern University, NO 11, Lane 3, Wenhua Road, Heping District, 345, Shenyang,
Liaoning, People’s Republic of China
© The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 2019
T. Wang et al. (eds.), Energy Technology 2019, The Minerals, Metals & Materials
Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06209-5_2
13
14 X. Yao et al.
maturely and the researchers mainly focus on the catalysts of steam reforming of
bio-oil to promote hydrogen yield and hydrogen fraction [4]. But it is uneconomical
to provide heat for the endothermal reaction of steam reforming of bio-oil using fossil
fuels. So, searching an appropriate heat carrier is also a key factor for the industrial
application of steam reforming of bio-oil.
On the other side, blast furnace (BF) slag as a byproduct in the pig iron process
is discharged at 1550 °C [5]. Molten BF slag through rotary cup atomizer (RCA)
as one of the treatment technologies can obtain granulated BF slag with high glassy
phase, which can be used as the raw material of cement [6, 7]. Besides, the obtained
granulatedBFslag is also discharged at 1100 °Cwith high-gradeheat.Using chemical
reaction to recover waste heat of granulated BF slag has drawn many researchers’
attentions in recent years. Luo [8] investigated biomass steam gasification recovering
waste heat from granulated BF slag, demonstrating that granulated BF slag could be
used as not only a heat carrier, but also a catalyst for the gasification reaction. Using
coal gasification [9], biomassCO2 gasification [10], sludge pyrolysis [11], and sludge
gasification [12] to recover waste heat from granulated BF slag were investigated.
These results indicated that granulated BF slag could weaken C–C bond and promote
the decomposition of hydrocarbons and decrease activation energy of reactions.
Therefore, the steam reforming of bio-oil recovering waste heat from granulated
BF slag is feasible but lacks the corresponding study. Besides, the components of bio-
oil were so complicated that researchers generally investigated the steam reforming
of bio-oil model component before that of true bio-oil [13, 14]. In this paper, the
steam reforming of bio-oil model component in granulated BF slag was investigated
to evaluate the effects of temperature, S/C (mole ratio of steam to carbon in bio-oil
model compound), and liquid hourly space velocity (LHSV) on hydrogen yield and
hydrogen fraction, obtaining the optimal parameters to guide industrial production.
Experiment
Materials
The compositions of true bio-oil were extremely complex, thus the model compound
of bio-oil was used to replace true bio-oil to master the characterizations of steam
reforming of bio-oil in granulated BF slag generally and easilyin the studies [13,
14]. The true bio-oil mainly contained acids, alcohols, ketones, and phenols, so the
mixture of acetic acid, ethanol, acetone, and phenol with equal quality was used as
bio-oil model compound in this study [13]. The chemical component of BF slag
analyzed through X-ray fluoroscopy (XRF) is placed in Table 1. Granulated BF slag
with diameter less than 2 mm was obtained through the RCA. In order to master the
effects of granulated BF slag on the steam reforming of bio-oil model compound,
the ceramic ball with similar diameter was used as a blank heat carrier, which had
no catalytic effect on the steam reforming reaction [8].
The Characterizations of Hydrogen from Steam Reforming … 15
Table 1 The chemical component of BF slag
BF slag SiO2 CaO MgO Al2O3 Fe2O3 TiO2 Trace
component
Mass% 34.38 41.21 8.22 11.05 2.78 0.35 2.01
Apparatus and Procedures
The schematic diagram of the experiment of steam reforming of bio-oil model com-
pound is shown in Fig. 1. The systems contained reaction system, cooling system,
and analysis system. Themodels of equipmentwere explained in our previous studies
[13, 15]. First, granulated BF slag or ceramic ball with height of 15 cm was heated to
the desired temperature with a heating rate of 10 °C/min under nitrogen atmosphere.
The desired temperature was held for 10 min to maintain temperature balance in the
furnace. Then, the different proportions of bio-oil model compound and water were
carried into the electric furnace through peristatic pump for 20 min. The syngas was
cooled and analyzed in the cooling system and analysis system, respectively. The
gas meter and gas analyzer recorded gas volume and gas fraction, respectively. Last,
when the fractions of H2, CO, CO2, and CH4 in the syngas were equal to zero, the
electric furnace was shut down.
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of experiments of steam reforming of bio-oil model compound
16 X. Yao et al.
Steam Reforming Reaction and Evaluation
During the process of steam reforming of bio-oil model compound, the primary
reactions contained thermal cracking reaction, steam reforming reactions, water gas
reaction, and water gas shift reaction, respectively. Those equations were shown as
follows.
The thermal cracking reaction is
CnHmOk → CxHyOz + oH2 + pCO + qCO2+rCH4 + sC, �Hθ800 ◦C > 0 (1)
The steam reforming reactions are
C2H6O + 3H2O → 2CO2 + 6H2, �Hθ800 ◦C � 210.26 kJ/mol (2)
C2H4O2 + 2H2O → 2CO2 + 4H2, �Hθ800 ◦C � 153.33 kJ/mol (3)
C3H6O + 5H2O → 3CO2 + 8H2, �Hθ800 ◦C � 295.90 kJ/mol (4)
C6H6O + 11H2O → 6CO2 + 14H2, �Hθ800 ◦C � 473.68 kJ/mol (5)
CH4 + 2H2O → CO2 + 4H2, �Hθ800 ◦C � 191.10 kJ/mol (6)
The water gas reaction is
C + H2O → CO + H2, �Hθ800 ◦C � 135.77 kJ/mol (7)
The water gas shift reaction is
CO + H2O ↔ H2 + CO2, �Hθ800 ◦C � −34.12 kJ/mol (8)
The methanation reaction is
C + H2 → CH4, �Hθ800 ◦C � −89.45 kJ/mol (9)
The hydrogen yield and syngas fraction were used to evaluate the characteriza-
tions of steam reforming reaction to obtain the optimum condition in the industrial
application. They were defined as follows.
The H2 yield (YH2 , Nm
3/kg) was calculated using the following equation:
YH2 �
VH2
mbio-oil
(10)
where VH2 and mbio-oil were the volume of hydrogen (Nm
3) and quality of bio-oil
model compound (kg), respectively.
The syngas fraction (X, %) was calculated using the following equation:
The Characterizations of Hydrogen from Steam Reforming … 17
XH2(CO,CO2,CH4) �
nH2(nCO, nCO2 , nCH4)
nH2 + nCO + nCO2 + nCH4
× 100% (11)
where nH2(nCO, nCO2 , nCH4) was the mole of H2 (CO, CO2, and CH4) in the syngas.
The liquid hourly space velocity (LHSV, h−1) was controlled through the fre-
quency of peristatic pump and it was defined in the following equation:
LHSV � Volumetric flow rate of bio-oil model compound
volume of granulated BF slag
(12)
Results and Discussion
Effect of Temperature
Figure 2 shows H2 yield and syngas fraction at different temperature, S/C of 9 and
LHSV of 0.9 h−1 with granulated BF slag. It could be obtained that H2 yield and H2
fraction first increased then decreasedwith the increasing temperature.When temper-
ature reached 750 °C, themaximumvalues ofH2 yield andH2 fractionwere obtained,
whichwere 1.68m3 per kg of bio-oil model compound and 65.39%, respectively. The
variation of CO2 fraction showed the opposite trend compared to that of H2 fraction.
While CO fraction increased but CH4 fraction decreased with the increase of tem-
perature. The reasons were shown as follows. With the increasing temperature, the
endothermic reactions (Eqs. 1–7) shifted to the right side, increasing H2 yield and H2
fraction. But the increasing temperature would shift the exothermic reaction (Eq. 8)
to the left side, decreasing H2 yield and fractions of H2 and CO2, but increasing CO
fraction. It could be obtained from Table 1 that granulated BF slag contained 41.21%
CaO. The increasing temperature was adverse to endothermic reaction (CaO + CO2
→CaCO3), increasing CO2 fraction in the syngas. The endothermic steam reforming
of CH4 (Eq. 6) would shift to the right side, decreasing CH4 fraction in the syngas.
Thus, the optimal temperature was 750 °C during the process of steam reforming of
bio-oil model compound recovering waste heat from granulated BF slag.
Effect of S/C
Figure 3 shows H2 yield and syngas fraction at different S/C, 750 °C, and LHSV of
0.9 h−1 with granulated BF slag. It could be obtained that H2 yield and H2 fraction
first increased then changed not obviously with the increasing S/C. When S/C was
up to 9, H2 yield and H2 fraction were almost up to maximum values. The variation
of fractions of CO and CO2 showed the opposite trend compared to that of H2
fraction. The S/C had no obvious effect on CH4 fraction. With the increasing S/C,
the steam reforming reactions (Eqs. 2–6), water gas reaction (Eq. 7), and water
18 X. Yao et al.
Fig. 2 Effects of
temperature on hydrogen
yield and syngas fraction
Fig. 3 Effects of S/C on
hydrogen yield and syngas
fraction
gas shift reaction (Eq. 8) would shift to the right side, increasing H2 yield and H2
fraction. The decreasing fractions of CO, CO2, and CH4 could bemainly attributed to
the increasing H2 yield. Meanwhile, the increasing H2 yield would shift methanation
reaction (Eq. 9) to the right side, increasingCH4 fraction. Thus, CH4 fraction changed
not obviouslywith the increasing S/C.WhenS/Cwas up to 9,H2 yield andH2 fraction
were almost invariablewith the continuously increasing S/C. Besides, the higher S/C,
the more heat would be carried from granulated BF slag, which was disadvantageous
to the industrial application. Considering all the factors, the optimal S/Cwas 9 during
the process of steam reforming of bio-oil model compound recovering waste heat
from granulated BF slag.
Effect of LHSV
Figure 4 shows H2 yield and syngas fraction at different LHSV, 750 °C, and S/C
of 9 with granulated BF slag. It could be obtained that H2 yield and H2 fraction
The Characterizations of Hydrogen from Steam Reforming … 19
Fig. 4 Effects of LHSV on
hydrogen yield and syngas
fraction
decreased with the increasing LHSV. While the variation of CO2 fraction showed
the opposite trend compared to that of H2 fraction with the increase of LHSV. The
LHSV had little effect on fractions of CO and CH4 during the steam reforming of
bio-oil model compound process. The higher LHSV, the steam reforming reaction
was more insufficient, decreasing H2 yield and H2 fraction. But the higher LHSV,
the more handing capacity of bio-oil model compound was obtained in the industrial
application. As shown in Fig. 4, H2 yield and H2 fraction decreased not obviously
with the LHSV increasing from 0.6 h−1 to 0.9 h−1. Considering all the factors, the
optimal LHSV was 0.9 h−1 during the process of steam reforming of bio-oil model
compound recovering wasteheat from granulated BF slag.
Effect of Granulated BF Slag
The effects of granulatedBF slag on theH2 yield and syngas fraction at 750 °C, S/C of
9, and LHSV of 0.9 h−1 are listed in Table 2. As shown in Table 2, granulated BF slag
could promoteH2 yield and fractions ofH2 andCO, and decrease the fractions of CO2
and CH4 in the syngas. It could be obtained that granulated BF slag could catalyze
the reaction of steam reforming of bio-oil model compound. As shown in Table 1,
granulated BF slag contained 41.21% CaO and 2.78% Fe2O3. Those metallic oxides
could weaken C–C bond and promote the decomposition of hydrocarbon, which was
illustrated in the corresponding researches [8, 11, 15, 16]. Thus, there was no doubt
that granulated BF slag could be beneficial to the process of steam reforming of
bio-oil model compound.
20 X. Yao et al.
Table 2 Effects of granulated BF slag on hydrogen yield and syngas fraction
Conditions Production fraction (%) H2 yield
(m3/kg)
H2 CO CO2 CH4
With BF slag 65.39 7.40 20.94 6.27 1.68
Without BF
slag
56.57 5.84 30.89 6.70 1.44
Conclusions
The steam reforming of bio-oil model compound recovering waste heat from gran-
ulated BF slag was proposed. The characterizations of steam reforming of bio-oil
model compound in granulated BF slag were illuminated through fixed bed exper-
iments. The results indicated that granulated BF slag could provide heat for the
reaction of steam reforming of bio-oil model compound and catalyze steam reform-
ing reaction, increasing hydrogen yield and hydrogen fraction in the syngas. Thus,
granulated BF slag was regarded as a superior heart carrier for the reaction of steam
reforming of bio-oil model compound. The optimal temperature, S/C, and LHSV for
the reaction of steam reforming of bio-oil model compound in granulated BF slag
were 750 °C, 9, and 0.9 h−1, respectively. At the optimum condition, hydrogen yield
and hydrogen fraction were up to 1.68 m3 per kg of bio-oil model compound and
65.39%, respectively.
Acknowledgements This research was supported by the Major State Research Development Pro-
gram of China (2017YFB0603603), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51576035),
the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (N172504019), the National Natu-
ral Science Foundation of China (51604077), the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(51704071), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (N170204016).
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Feasibility of a District Heating System
in Fjardabyggd Using Waste Heat
from Alcoa Fjardaal
Leo Blaer Haraldsson, Gudrun Saevarsdottir, Maria S. Gudjonsdottir
and Gestur Valgardsson
Abstract The Alcoa Fjarðaál smelter in Iceland consumes 4600 GWh annually to
produce aluminum. About 50% of the total energy absorbed by the cells is reduced
to waste heat of which roughly 40% is currently lost through exhaust gases. The
exhaust gases leave the cells at about 110 °C before entering the gas treatment
center (GTC). The feasibility of operating heat exchangers upstream of GTCs has
been demonstrated at other smelters. Reyðarfjordur, which is 5.5 km from Fjarðaál
currently uses electricity for domestic heating, like other surrounding communities.
Previous research has shown that the waste heat from Fjarðaál is more than enough to
supply space heating for the local community. This paper will address the technical
challenges and suggest solutions to deliver heat in a closed-loop heating circuit from
the Fjarðaál plant to Reydarfjordur and estimate the total investment cost for the heat
regeneration system.
Keywords Heat regeneration · Waste heat · Exhaust gases · Heat exchanger
Energy recovery
Introduction
The aluminum production industry requires a lot of energy. In many cases, power
plants are installed specifically for aluminum plants. Indeed, this is the case for Alcoa
Fjarðaál in Reyðarfjörður, Iceland. The annual production of aluminum at Fjarðaál
is about 350,000 tons. This results in roughly 4600 GWh per year being delivered
[1]. The sad thing is that only about 50% of this energy ends up as chemical energy
in the aluminum metal and the other 50% is lost in various ways. Figure 1 shows the
distribution of heat loss in a typical cell. The heat lost through flue gases is about
L. B. Haraldsson (B) · G. Saevarsdottir · M. S. Gudjonsdottir
Reykjavik University, Menntavegi 1, Reykjavik 101, Iceland
e-mail: leobharaldsson@gmail.com
L. B. Haraldsson · G. Valgardsson
EFLA Consulting Engineers, Höfðabakki 9, Reykjavík 110, Iceland
© The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 2019
T. Wang et al. (eds.), Energy Technology 2019, The Minerals, Metals & Materials
Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06209-5_3
23
24 L. B. Haraldsson et al.
Fig. 1 Heat loss from a typical Hall Heroult cell [2]
40% of the total heat loss but is quite accessible.In view of the vast amounts of heat
lost through flue gases, it begs the question of whether or not it could be possible to
regenerate some of this heat, for example, by adding a heat regeneration unit.
Alcoa Fjarðaál is located in the east part of Iceland next to Reyðarfjörður where,
currently, there is no geothermal source being utilized to provide hot water and heat-
ing for homes.Whether this is due to a lack of a usable geothermal heat source in this
location or lack of initiative is up for debate. The lack of hot water from a geothermal
source is rather uncharacteristic for Iceland since about 90% of Icelandic houses are
heated with geothermal hot water [3]. Therefore, there is a strong awareness of the
benefits of district heating in Iceland, and a good reason to explore whether heat
recovery from the pot-room flue gas is a viable option.
Background
When it comes to locating a heat regeneration system there are two options; upstream
or downstream from the gas treatment center (GTC). Implementing a heat regener-
ation system upstream from the gas treatment center, or on the dirty side, has its
benefits as well as drawbacks. The temperature of the gas before it enters the GTC is
higher than after the gas has been treated, by roughly 15 °C [4].When considering the
total amount of gas flowing in the system, this energy is quite substantial, in particu-
lar as the temperature of the flue gas is not much higher than the serving temperature
Feasibility of a District Heating System in Fjardabyggd Using … 25
Fig. 2 Relationship between gas temperature and HF emission [5]
of a typical district heating system. Therefore, from an efficiency standpoint, when
it comes to energy regeneration, placing a heat regeneration system on the dirty side
seems to be a clear choice.
Reducing the temperature of the gas before it goes through the GTC can also be
beneficial. Hydrogen fluoride (HF) emission has been shown to be directly related
to gas temperature. A test performed by Geir Wedde shows that the relationship
appears to be exponential, meaning that with higher gas temperature entering the
dry scrubber HF emission increases exponentially [5]. Figure 2 shows the results of
Wedde’s test.
Filter bags also have an increased lifetime if the temperature of the gas is lower
[5]. This means that even if the heat regenerated is not being utilized, there are
clear benefits from just reducing the temperature of the gas before it enters the gas
treatment center.
The challenge in placing a heat regeneration unit on the dirty side is just that—it
is dirty. The gas is filled with all sorts of particles that form residue or fouling
inside pipes [6]. Too much fouling could reduce the performance of a heat exchanger
drastically, so much so that the cost of maintenance for the heat exchanger could
outweigh the benefits. This is something that could possibly be solved through clever
design.
There are existing solutions that tackle the problem with fouling on the dirty
side. Fives Group has developed, but not implemented, a heat exchanger on the dirty
side, and General Electric (Alstrom) has developed and successfully implemented
heat exchangers into the flow of gas at the dirty side. For example, in Mosjoen,
Norway, a counterflow fire tube heat exchanger from General Electric has been
operational for over 8 years without having required cleaning due to pressure loss,
while still maintaining an acceptable heat transfer coefficient. General Electric has
four solutions set up around the world. One in Mosjoen, Norway, another one in
26 L. B. Haraldsson et al.
Fig. 3 Relationship between
heat regeneration capacity
and outlet temperature of gas
[2]
Karmoy, Norway, the third in Hamburg, Germany, and the last one in Bahrain, Saudi
Arabia [7, 8].
At Fjarðaál, the total volumetric flow rate of flue gas is 910 m3/s. The amount of
energy that can be regenerated depends on the outlet temperature of the gas. The acid
dew point of the gas is 84 °C and in regular practice, it is not advisable to cool the
gas below that mark to avoid corrosion [2]. However, it has been shown that since
the amount of acid in the gas is limited, or only 1–2% of the gas, it is safe to cool
the gas to 40–50 °C without running into corrosion problems [7, 9]. The amount of
energy relative to an outlet temperature of the gas is shown in Fig. 3.
The temperature of the gas when it comes out of the pot rooms is roughly 110 °C.
The average ambient temperature difference among seasons in Iceland is relatively
small compared to other countries, which results in the temperature difference of the
gas also being relatively small. The average temperature of the gas ranges from 95
to 130 °C [2].
System Description
The goal of the system is to utilize enough heat from the exhaust gases from Fjarðaál
to supply Reyðarfjörður with hot water for district heating as well as consumable
hot water. The current heat demand for district heating in Reyðarfjörður is roughly
4 MWth and about 5 MWth when consumable hot water is included [10, 11]. One
idea is to have the heat delivered in a closed-loop heating circuit from Fjarðaál to
Reyðarfjörður. A flow diagram for a suggested system is shown in Fig. 4.
Water is heated to about 80 °C and pumped to a storage tank in Reyðarfjörður.
From there the water is either distributed into the town for district heating or run
through another heat exchanger to heat cold water for domestic use. The water is
then returned to Fjarðaál at about 40 °C and heated back up to 80 °C.
Feasibility of a District Heating System in Fjardabyggd Using … 27
Fig. 4 Flow diagram of the suggested heating system
Assuming the heat in the gas is utilized so that �T�60 °C (110–50 °C), theo-
retically only roughly 1/10 of the gas flow is needed to supply Reyðarfjörður with
hot water for district heating and domestic consumption. However, achieving such a
high �T might not only be difficult, but also unnecessary.
At Fjarðaál there are two GTCs (west and east), which both operate on half of
the total gas flow in the plant. There are two branches leading into each GTC, each
supplying a quarter of the total gas flow. These branches are then split into two
separate branches that gather the exhaust gases from 42 pots each, or an eighth of
the total gas flow in the plant. Intuitively, there are two ideal locations to place a heat
regeneration unit at Fjarðaál; either connecting to the branch carrying a quarter of
the gas or an eighth. These locations are shown in Fig. 5.
Having equal suction from each pot is important since an imbalance in suction
can lead to increased emission an unequal gas collection efficiency between the pots
[12]. At Fjarðaál, the gas is sucked through the piping system with main fans at each
GTC. This means that the only way to control the suction to each pot rooms is to
change the suction to half of the pot rooms at the plant. This means that placing a
heat exchanger system at, for example, a single 1/8 location wouldn’t be ideal since
it would create unequal suction in the plant. Having the same size heat exchanger
system at each 1/4 branch or at each 1/8 branch would work with regards to suction.
There is, however, one other possible solution. Currently, the suction at Fjarðaál
is not completely balanced. As seen in Fig. 5 the distance from the gas treatment
center to the pot rooms is much greater at one end compared to the other. This results
28 L. B. Haraldsson et al.
Fig. 5 Layout of west wing piping system to the GTC
in a greater pressure loss at one end, or about 200–300 Pa more [13]. Designing a
heat regeneration system where the pressure loss is within 600 Pa and placing it on
the shorter end would result in an unchanged �P in the system. Having the pressure
loss of the heat regeneration system at about 300 Pa would even mitigate the suction
imbalances in the plant. This might