An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation

Prévia do material em texto

AN INTRODUCTIONTO THE
PRINCIPLESOF
MORALSANDLEGISLATION
BY
JEREMY BENTHAM
@
OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDONPRESS
LONDON NEW YORK AND TORONTO
HENRY FROWDE
M CM VII
No-rR--ThoFirst Editionof this workwas printedin
the year r78o; andfirstpublishedin i789. The present
Editionis a carefulreprintof 'A NewEdition, corrected
bytheAuthor,'whichwaspublishedin1823.
Printedi_ Grit _tain
PREFACE.
Tlzxfollowingsheetswere,as the noteontheoppositepage
expresses,printedsolongagoas the year1780. Thedesign,
in pursuanceof whichtheywerewritten,was not soextensive
as thatannouncedbythe presenttitle. Theyhadat thattime
nootherdestinationthan thatof servingasanintroductionto
aplanof apenalcode in termirds,designedto followthem,in
thesamevolume.
Thebodyof theworkhadreceivedits completionaccording
to the then presentextentof the author'sviews,when,in the
investigationofsomeflawshe haddiscovered,he foundhimself
unexpectedlyentangledin an unsuspectedcornerof the meta-
physicalmaze. A suspension,at firstnotapprehendedto be
morethana temporaryone, necessarilyensued: suspension
broughton coolness,and coolness,aidedby otherconcurrent
causes,ripenedintodisgust.
Imperfectionspervadingthe wholemasshad alreadybeen
pointedout bythe sincerityof severeanddiscerningfriends;
andconsciencehadcertifiedthejustnessof theircensure. The
inordinatelengthof someofthechapters,theapparentinutility
of others,and the dry andmetaphysicalturnof the whole,
suggestedan apprehension,that, if publishedin its present
form,the workwouldcontendundergreatdisadvantagesfor
anychance,it mightonotheraccountspossess,of beingread,
andconsequentlyofbeingofuse.
But,thoughin thismannertheideaof completingthe pre-
sentworkalidinsensiblyaside,thatwasnot byanymoansthe
easewiththeconsiderationswhichh_clledhimto engagein it.
Everyopening,whichpromisedto affordthe lights hestoodin
needof,wasstillpursued: asoccasionarose,theseveraldepart-
mentsconnectedwiththat in whichhe hadat firstengaged,
weresuccessivelyexplored;insomuchthat, in onebranchor
otherof the pursuit,his rese_rohcahavenearlyembracedthe
wholefieldoflegislation.
Jt 2 ,.
iv t'r¢ace.
Severalcauseshaveconspired'at presenttobringto light,,
underthis newtitle,a workwhichunderitsoriginalonehad
beenimperceptibly,butas it hadseemedirrevocably,doomed
tooblivion.In thecourseofeightyears,materialsforvarious
works,correspondingtothedifferentbranchesofthesubjectof
legislation,hadbeenproduced,andsomenearlyreducedtoshape:
'- '_°-' and,ineveryoncef thoseworks,theprinciplesexhibitedin the
J presentpublicationhadbeenfoundsonecessKiy_that,eitherto
transcribethempiece-meal,or toexhibitthemsomewherewhere
theycouldbe referredto in the lump,wasfoundunavoidable.
Theformercoursewouldhaveoccasionedrepetitionstoobulky
to beemployedwithoutnecessityin the executionof a plan
unavoidablysovoluminous: thelatterwasthereforeindisputably
thepreterableone.
Topublishthematerialsin the formin whichtheywere
alreadyprinted,ortoworkthemupintoanewone,wastherefore
theonlyalternative: thelatterhadallalongbeenhiswish,and,
t,adtimeandtherequisitedegreeofalacritybeenatcommand,
itwouldascertainlyhavebeenrealised.Cogentconsiderations,
however,concur,withtheirksomenessofthetask,in placingthe
accomplishmentofit atpresentatanunfathomabledistance.
Anotherconsiderationis,thatthesuppressionof thepreach!
work,haditbeeneversodecidedlywished,isnolongeraltogether
inhispower.Inthecourseofso longaninterval,variousinci-
dentshaveintroducedcopiesintovarioushands,fromsomeof
whichtheyhavebeentransferred,bydeathsandotheraccidents,
intoothersthatareunknowntohim. Detached,butconsiderable
extracts,haveevenbeenpublished,withoutanydishonourable
' views,(forthenameof theauthorwasveryhonestlysubjoined
tothem,)butwithouthisprivity,andinpublicationsundertaken
withouthisknowledge.
Itmayperhapsbenecessarytoadd,tocompletehisexcusefor
offeringtothepublicaworkpetTadedbyblemishes,whichhave
notescapedeventheauthor'spartialeye,thatthecensure,
justlybestowedupontheform,didnotextenditselftothematter.
Insendingitthusabroadintotheworldwithall its imper-
fectionsuponitsh_ad,hethinksit maybeof assistancetothe
fewreadershecanexpect,to receivea Bhortintimationofthe
._r_J'_C¢o V
chiefparticulars,inrespectofwhichitfedlsofcorresponding
withhismaturerviews.Itwillthencebeobservedhowinsome
respectsitfailsofquadratingwiththedesignannouncedbyits
originaltitle,asinothersitdoeswiththatamlouncedbythe
oneitbearsatpresent.
An introductiontoa workwhichtakesforitssubjectthe
totalityofanyscience,oughttocontainallsuchmatters,and
suchsmitersonly,asbelongincommontoeveryparticular
branchofthatscience,oratleasttomorebranchesofitthan
one.Comparedwithitspresenttitle,thepresentworkfailsin
bothwaysofbeingconformabletothatrule.
Asanintroductiontotheprinciplesofmorals,inadditionto
tileanalysisitcontainsoftheextensiveideassignifiedbythe
termspleasure,pain, raotive,and di_ooition,it ought to have
givenasimilaranalysisofthenotlessextensive,thoughmuchless
determinate,ideasannexedtothetermsemotion,passion,al_Tetite,
virtue,vice,andsomeothers,includingthenamesoftheparticular
_'rtuesandvices.Butasthetrue,and,ifheconceivesright,
theonlytlueground-workforthedevelopmentofthelattersetof
terms,hasbeenlaidbytheexplanationoftheformer,thecom-
pletionofsuchadictionary,sotostyleit,would,incomparisonof
thecommencement,belittlemorethanamechanicaloperation.
Again,asanintroductiontotheprinciplesoflegislatio_in
9sacral,itoughtrathertohaveincludedmattersbelonging
exclusivelytothecivilbranch,thanmattersmorepaI_icularly
applicabletothepenal:thelatterbeingbutameansofcom-
passingtheendsproposedbytheformer.Inpreferencethere
Ibre,oratleastinpriority,totheseveralchapterswlfichwillbe
foundrelativeto/rum_hmem,itoughttohaveexhibitedssetof
propositionswhichhavesincepresentedthemselvestohimas
affordinga standardfortheoperationsperformedbygovern-
meat,inthecreationanddistributionofproprietaryandother
civilrights.He meanscertainaxiomsofwhatmaybetermed
•r_ patho!ogy,expressiveoftheconnectionhetwixtthe
feelingsofthepartiesco-cernod,andtheseveralclassesof
incidents,whicheithercallfor,orareproducedby,operations
ofthenatureabovementioned_.
I Forexample.--It/,tvor_etolo#ethansimplytotto9oin.--Alos*falls
vi Preface.
Theconsiderationofthedivisionofoffences,andeverything
elsethatbelongsto offences,ought,besides,to havepreceded
theconsiderationofpunishment:for theideaof/n_i_ae_
presupposestheideaofoffence: punishment,assuch,notbeing
inflictedbutinconsiderationofoffence.
Lastly,theanalyticaldiscussionsrelativeto theclassification
ofoffenceswould,accordingtohispresentviews,betransfened
toa sepsratetreatise,inwhichthesystemof legislationiscon-
sideredsolelyin respectofits form: in otherwoMs,in respect
ofitsmethodand_wninology.
In theserespectsthePerformancefailsofcomingup to the
author'sownideasof whatshouldhavebeenexhibitedin
awork,bearingthetitlehe hasnowgivenit. viz.thatof an
Introductiontot2wPrinciplesof MoralsandLegislation.He
knowshoweverof nootherthatwouldbelessunsuitable: nor
in particularwouldsoadequatean intimationof its actual
contentshavebeengiven,bya titlecorrespondingto themore
limiteddesign,withwhichit waswritten: viz.thatof serving
asanin4roductiontoa 19e7_1code.
Yetmore. DlTslidtediousasa greatpartofthediscussions
it containsmusttmavoidablybefoundbythebulkofreaders,
heknowsnothowtoregretthehavingwrittenthem,noreven
the havingmadethempublic.Undereveryhead,theprac_
ticaluses,to whichthediscussionscontainedunderthathead
appearedapplicable,are indicated:noris there,he believes,
a singlepropositionthathehasnotfoundoccasiontobuildupon
i_ thepenningof somearticleor otherof thoseprovisionsof
detail,ofwhichabodyoflaw,authoritativeortmauthoritative,
mustbecomposed.Hewillventuretospecifyparticularly,in
this view,theseveralchaptersshortlyeharaeterizedbythe
wordsSensibility,Actiora,Inte_ional_y,Con_cia_ness,Mo_iv_,
Dispositions,Consignees.Evenintheenormouschapteron
thelighterbybeingdi_i_k.d.--Tkesurfeit,ofaper_,n_m'tlngrat_4,cat_oa
ofem'4ity,i, greattrt)tantIt_gratificationprodtw,edbyt_ _arn_cause.--2_aese,anda fewotherBwhichhewillhaveoccasiontoexhibit8tthehead
- ofanotherpublit_tion_havethea_meclaimtotheappellationofa__igma,
u thosegivenbymathematiciansunderthat_me; Idnos,rd'erriagto
univ_a_ml_erienae_ theirimmediateimdds,they_ i_ble _ de.gin.
_a'ation,andreq_ onlytobedevelopedandillustrated,inorder_ I_
reo_n_da_meontest_ble.
Preface. vii
thedivisionof offences,whicb,notwithstandingtheforcedcom-
pressiontheplanhasundergonein severalofitsparts,in manner
therementioned,occupiesno fewerthanonehundredand four
closelyprintedquarto pagesz,the tou concludingonesare
employedin a Btatementof the practicaladvantagesthatmay
be reapedfrom the plan of classificationwhich it exhibits.
Thosein whosesight the Defenceof Usuryhasbeenfortunate
enoughto find favour,may reckonas one instanceof those
advantagesthediscoveryoftheprinciplesdevelopedinthatlittle
treatise. In the prefaceto an anonymoustract publishedso
longagoasin z7762,he hadhintedat theutility ofa natural
classificationof offences,in the characterof a test for distin-
guishiuggenuinefromspuriousones. The easeof usuryis one
amonga numberof instancesof thetruth of that observation.
A noteattheendofSect.xxxv.Chap.xw. ofthepresentpublica-
tion,mayservetoshowhowtheopinions,developedinthattract,
owedtheiroriginto the difficultyexperiencedin the attemptto '
findaplacein his systemfor thatimaginaryoffence. Tosome,
readers,as a meansof helping them to supportthe fatigueof
wadingthroughananalysisof suchenormouslength,hewould
almostrecommendthebegi.nniugwiththosetenconcludingpages.
One goodat least mayl_sultfromthepresentpublication;
viz. that the more he has trespassedon the patienceof the
readeron this occasion,the less needhe willhavesoto doon
futureones: so th_ttthis maydo to those,the otfieewhich is
done,bybooksof pure mathematics,to booksof mixedmathe-
maticsand natural philosophy.The narrower the circle of
readersis, withinwhichthe presentworkmaybe condemned
toconfineitself,the lesslimitedmaybe thenumberof thoseto
whomthefruits of his succeedinglaboursmaybe foundaoces-
alble. He maythereforein this respectfindhimselfin thecon-
ditionof thosephilosophersof antiquity,whoare repiesented
ashavingheldtwobodiesofdoctrine,apopular andan occult
one: but. with this difference,that in his instancethe occult
andthepopularwill,hehopes,befoundas consistentas inthose
theywerecontxadJctory;and that in his productionwhatever
i Thefn_teditionwMpublishedin 1789,inquarto.
I A Fmt_montonGovea'mnent,&o.,reprinted182a.
rift Prefo_.
thereis ofoccultnesshasbeen the pureresultof sadnecessity,
andin norespectof choice.
Having,inthecourseofthisadvertisement,hadsuchfrequent
occasionto allude to differentarrangements,as havingbeen
suggestedbymoreextensiveandmaturer views,it mayperhaps
contributeto the satisfactionof the reader,to receivea short
intimationof their nature: therather,as,withoutsuchexplana-
tion, references,made here and there to unpublishedworks,
mightbe productiveof perplexityand mistake. The following
then are the titles of the worksby the publicationofwhichhis
presentdesignswouldbe completed.Theyareexhibitedin the
order whichteemedtohim bestfitted forapprehension,and in
whichthey wouldstand disposed,were the wholeassemblage
readyto comeout at once: but the order,in whichthey will
eventuallyappear,mayprobablyenoughbe influencedin some
degreebycollateraland temporaryconsiderations.
Part the Ist. Principlesof legislationin matters of civil,
moredistinctivelytermedpr/vate distributive,or for shortness,
distributive,law.
Part the 2nd. Principlesoflegislationin mattersofpenallaw.
Part the 3rd. Principlesof legislation in matters of Fro-
cedure: unitingin one view the c_'rnina/and dvil branches,
betweenwhichnolinecan bedrawn,but a veryindistinctone,
and that continuallyliableto variation.
Part the4th. Principlesof legislationin mattersofreward.
Part the 5th. Principlesof legislationin mattersof2yblic
distribu_ircLmmore.conciselyas well as familiarlytermedconstitu-
tional,law. "
Part the 6th. Principlesof legislationin mattersofpolitical
tactics: or of the art ofmaintainingorderin the proceedingsof
politicalassemblies,so as to direct them to the end of their
institution: viz. bya systemof rules,whichare to the constitu-
tional branch,in somerespects,whatthe lawofprocedureis to
the civiland the penal.
Part the 7th. Principlesof legislationin mattersbetwixt
nationand nation,or, to use a new thoughnot inexpressive
appellation,in matters of inte,rna_io_alhtw.
Part the8th. Principleaof legislationin mattersoffinane_.
Preface. ix
Part the 9th. Principlesof legislationin mattersof/w//tica_
Part the toth. Plan of a bodyof law,completein all its
branches,consideredin respectof itsform,, in otherwords,in
respectof its methodand terminology; includinga viewof the
originationandconnexionofthe ideasexpressedby the shortlist
of terms,the expositionof whichcontair,s all that can be said
with proprietytobelongto the headofuniversaljurisprudenc,_.
Theuse of the principleslaid downunderthe aboveseveral
headsis topreparethe wayforthe bodyof lawitself exhibited
in terminis;andwhichtobecomplete,.withreferencetoa_ypoli-
tiealstat¢,mustconsequentlybecalculatedforthe meridian,and ' '
adaptedto thecircumstances,ofsomeonesuchstateinparticular.
Had he an unlimitedpowerof drawingupontime,and every
otherconditionnecessary,it wouldbe his wishto postponeths
publicationof each part to the completionof the whole. In
pal_icular,the useof the ten parts, whichexhibitwhat appear
to himthe dictatesofutility in everyline,being nootherthan
to furnishreasonsforthe severalcorrespondingprovisions¢_on-
tai-n-ed_oT law--the exact truth of the former
cah-nevdr'l_ibi-e'e'ise'/y"as_eertained,till the provisions,to which
they aredestinedtoapply,are themselvesascertained,andthat
in tmvninis. But as the infirmityof humannature rendersall
plans precariousin the execution,in proportionas they are
extensiveinthe design,andas hehas alreadymadeconsiderable
advancesin severalbranchesof the theory,withouthavingmade
correspondentadvancesin thepracticalapplications,hedeemsit
morethan probable,that the eventualorderof publicationwill
not correspondexactlywith that which,had it been equally
practicable,wouldhaveappearedmosteligible. Of this irregu-
laritythe unavoidableresult will be,a multitudeof imperfec-
tions,which,if the executionof the bodyof lawin terminishad
kept pacewith the developmentof the principles,so that each
part hadbeenadjustedandcorrectedby the other,mighthave
beenavoided. His conducthoweverwill be the lessswayedby
thisinconvenience,fromhissuspectingit to beof the numberof
I Sucha_obligation,right,power,pommasion,title,exemption,immunity,franchise,privilege,nullity,vMidity,andthelike.
x _Preface.
thosein whichthepersonalvanityofthe authoris muchmore
concerned,thanthe instructionof the public: sincewlm_ver
amendmentsmaybe suggestedin the detailof the principles,
by the literalfixationof the provi_ionsto whichtheyarerela-
tive,mayeasilybe made in a correctededitionof theformer,
succeedinguponthe publicationof the latter.
In the courseofthe ensuingpages,referenceswillbe found,
asah-eadyintimated,sometotheplan ofa penalcodeto which
thisworkwasmeantasan introduction,sometootherbranches
of the above-mentionedgeneralplan, undertitlessomewhat
differentfromthose,by whichtheyhavebeenmentionedhere.
Thegivingthisw_ning isallwhichit is in the author'spower
todo, toave the readerfrom the perplexityof lookingout for
whathas not as yet any existence. The recollectionof the
changeof planwill in likemanneraccountfor severalsimilar
incongruitiesnot worthparticularising.
Allusionwas made,at the outsetof this advertisement,to
someunspecifieddifficulties,as thecausesof theoriginalsuspen-sion,andunfinishedcomplexion,of thepresentwork. k,sh_med
of his defeat,andunableto dissembleit, heknowsnothowto
re_'uschimselfthe benefitof suchan apologyasaalightsketch
of thenatureofthosedifficultiesmayafford.
Thediscoveryof themwas producedby the attemptto solve
thequestionsthatwillbe foundat theconclusionofthevolume:
Whereinconsiaedtheidentitya_clcompletenessofa law? What
the distinction,and wherethe separation,betweena penal arvl
a civil law? Whatthe distlnetion,and wherethe seloaration,
betweenthepenalandotherbranchesof the law
Togivea completeandcorrectanswerto thesequestions,it
isbut tooevidentthat the relationsanddependenciesof every
partof thelegislativesystem,withrespectto everyother,must
havebeencomprehendedandascertained. But it in0nlyupon
a viewofthese parts themselves,that suchan operationcould
have beenperformed.To the accuracyof such a surveyone
necessaryconditionwouldthereforebe,thecompleteexistenceof
thefabricto besm-veyed.Of theperformanceofthis condition
_.,d_ noexampleis as yet to be metwithanywhere. Commonlaw,
_" 'i _ it styles itselfin England,judiciary law,as it mightmore
F
Tr_aee. xi
aptlybestyledeverywhere,thatfictitiouscompositionwhich
h.sno_o,,nperso_forit,._.;_r,nokno.__m_Tageof
wordsforits_ubBtane_,formseverywherethemainbodyofthe
legalfabric:likethatfanciedether,which,indefaultofsensible
matter,fillsup the measureof theuniverse. Shredsandscraps
of reallaw,stuckon uponthat imaginaryground,compo_ethe
furnitureof ever)-nationalcode. Whatfollows_---thathewho;
forthepurposejustmentionedorforanyother,wantsanexample
ofacompletebodyoflawtoreferto,mustbeginwithmakingone.
Thereis, or ratherthereought to be, a logicof thewill, as _ ]
well as of the understanding: the operationsof the former . ._...
faculty,are neitherless sasceptible,norlessworthy,than those
ofthe latter,of beingdelineatedbyrules. Ofthesetwobranches _,_..
of that reconditeart, Aristotlesawonlythelatter: succecding :
logicians,treadingin thestepsoftheirgreatfounder,havecon-
curredin seaingwithnoothereyes. Yet sofarasadifference
canbeassignedbetweenbranchesso intimatelyconnected,what-
everdifferencethereis, in pointof importance,is in favourof
thelogicof thewill. Sinceit is onlybytheircapacityofdirect-
ing the operationsof this faculty,that the operationsof the!
understandingareof any consequence.
Of this logic of the will, the scienceof law,consideredin
respectof itsform, is themostconsiderablebranch,--themost
importantapplication. ]t is,.to theal_of legislation,whha/,_the
science of anatomyisto thealt of medicine: withthisdifference,
thatthe'su_ of it is whatthea_ist hastowor_Hg.L_h, ins_ad
of beingwhathe hasto operateuteri, l_or is the bodypolitic
lessin dangerfroma wantof acquaintancewith theonescience,
than the body natural from ignorancein the other. One
example,amongsta thousandthat mightbe adducedin proof
of this assertion,may be ieen in the note whichterminates
this volume.
Suchthenwerethedifficulties: suchthe preliminaries:--an
unexampledworktoachieve,andthenanew a_i_ne_to er_t,__,_
anewbranchto add_ooneof the mostabstruseof sciences.
Yetmore: abodyofproposedlaw,howcompletesoever,would
becomparativelyuselessanduninstructive,unlessexplainedand
justified,andthat in everytittle,byacontinuedaccompaniment.
xii Preface.
a perpetualcommentaryof reasonst: whichreasons,thatthe
comparativevalueof such as point in olJpositedirectionsmay
be estimated,and the conjunctforce,of suchas point in the
samedirection,maybe felt,mustbemarshalled,andput under
subordinationto suchextensiveand leadingonesas are te_ed
, trrinciTleS.There mustbe therefore,not onesystemonly,but
, two parallel and connectedsystems,runningon together,the
oneoflegislativeprovisions,the otherof politicalreasons,each
affordingtothe othercorrectionandsupport.
Areenterpriseslike theseachievable? Heknowsnot. This
onlyhe knows,that theyhave beenundertaken,proceededin,
and that someprogresshasbeenmadein all of them. He will
ventureto add, if at all achievable,neverat least byone,to
whomthe fatigueof attendingto discussions,as arid as those
whichoccupythe ensuingpages,wouldeitherappearuseless,or
feelintolerable. I-Iswillrepeatit boldly(for it has beensaid
beforehim),truths that formthe basisof politicalandmoral
sciencearenot to.bedi_pyeredbut by investigationsas severe
as mathematicalones,andbeyondallcomparisonmoreintricate
and extensive.Thefamiliarityof the termsis a presumption,
but it is a mostfallaciousone, of the facilityof the matter.
Truthsin generalhavebeencalledstubbornthings: the truths
just mentionedare so in their own way. Theyarenot tobe
forcedinto detachedand generalpropositions,unincumbered
with explanationsand exceptions. They will not compress
themselvesinto epigrams. Theyrecoilfrom the tongueand
thepenof thedeclaimer.Theyflourishnot in th_ same soil
withsezltiment. Theygrow amongthorns; and are not to
be plucked,like daisies,by infantsas theyrun. Labour,the
inevitablelot of humanity,is in no track moreinevitablethan
here. In vainwouldan Alexanderbespeaka peculiarroadfor
royalvanity,or a Ptolemy,a smootherone,forroyalindolence.
Thereis noKing's ]_oad,no Stadthold_'sGate,to legislative,
anymorethantomathematicscicl_ce.
I To theaggregateofthem_ common denorn_n_tlonha8 aincebeen
F,llo_ted--t_e¢'ati_e.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
OFTH'_PRINCIPLEOF UTILITY.
PAGE
Mankindgovernedbypain and_leasure l
Prinei_,leqfutility,what 2
.4principle,what a
Utility,what . 2
lnt_est ofthecommunity,what 2
An actionconformabletothelrrincipleofutility, what • 3
.4 measttrtof governmentconformableto the pri_wipleof utility,
what 3
.Lawsordictatesofutility, what 3
Apartisan of theprincipleof utility, who . • 3
Ought,oughtnot,roht andwronq,&c.,howto be understood 3
Toprovetherectitudeof thisprinciplehiatonceunnecessaryandim-
possible 4
It hasseldom,however7as yet,beenconsistentlypursued 4
It canneverbeconsistentlycombated. 4
Courseto be takenfor surmountingprejudicesthat mayhavebeen
entertainedagainstit 5
CHAPTER II.
. OF PRINCIPLESADVERSETOTHATOF UTILITY.
All otherprinciplesthanthatof utilitymustbe wrong
Waysin whicha principlemaybe wrong 8
A_iclsm, originof theword 8
Principlesofthe Monks 8
Pr/_'/p/_of as..elieis_r6what . 9
A partisanof theprincipleof asceticism,who. • 9
This principlehas hadin somea philo6ophical,in othersa religiotm
origin . . 9
It has beencarriedfartherbythe religiouspartythanbythe philo-
sophical . xo
The philosophioalbranchof it hM hadmoat influenceamongper-
sonsof education,thereligiousamongthe vulgar. . lo
Theprincipleof asceticismhasneverbeensteadilyappliedbyeither
partyto thebufinegaofgovernment . n
Th. principleof asceticism,in its origin,wasbut that of utility
misapplied. . xz
xlv Costent#.
PAOli
It canneverbeconsistentlypursued ]3
_e l_rincipleof_mi_athyandantipathy,what . 13
Thisis ratherthenegationofall principle,thanany tilingpoeitlve . ]6
Sentimentsof a partisanof theprincipleofantipathy. . 16
ThesystemsthathavebeenformedconcerningthestandardofriyM
andwrong,area]]reducibleto thisprinciple . 17
Variousphrases,that have servedas the characteristic
marksofsomanypretendedsysteu_s !7
I. M_al Sense _7
_. Common8_,a 17
3. Understanding 17
4 RuleofRi_ 17
5. Fitnes_of Thing_. r7
6. I_w of Nature -- • I8
7.Law of Reason,RiolttReason,NaturalJustice,l_a_ral
.Equity,andGoodOrder. . [8
8. TT_t_ . . . z8
9. Dootri_,eof.Election . x8
xo.Repugna_wu to Nalure . I8
Mischieftheyproduce , x8
Whetherutilityis actuallytilesolegroundof alltheappro-
bationweeverbestow,is a differentconsideration z9
Th|eprinciplewillfrequentlycoincidewiththat ofutility . 18
Thisprincipleismostapttoerronthesideof ,ever/St/ . 2o
Buterrs,in someinstances,on theaideof/en/ty . a!
Thet_eologicalprincipal,what--nota separateprinciple . 2z
Theprincipleoftheologyhowreducibleto oneoranotherof
theotherthreeprinciples . . 2_
Antipathy,lettheactionsitdictatesbe eversoright,inneverof itmelf
a rightgroundofe_tion . . 2
CHAPTER III.
OFM FOURSANCTIONSORSOURCI_SOFPAINANDPI,JgA$UR_.
Connexionofthlmchapterwiththepreceding . a4
Foursanotion*orsourcesof pleamxreandpain . 24
s. Thepays/eelmnction • _5
_. Thepolitical . • 25
3- Themoralorpolmlo¢ . a$
4- Thereligloas . . • 25
Thepleasuresandpainlwhichbelongto the r_tgious1auction,may
regardeitherthepremotlifoora future . . 25
_a_ea_s. xv
PAOE
Tho_whichregardthepreBentlife,fromwhichsoeversourcethey
flow,differenlyin the circumstanceseftheirproduction. . 26
Example . . 26
Thosewhiehregarda futurelifeare notspecificallyknown . 27
Thephy,icalsanctienincludedineacheftheetherthree . 27
Useofthinchapter • _7
CHAPTERIV.
VALUE OF A LOT OF PLEASURE OR PAIN HOW TO BE _lgASURED.
Useofthischapter . . . 29
Circumstancesto betakenintotheaccountin estimatingthevalueof
a pleasureor painconsideredwithreferenceto &singleperson,
andbyitself • _9
-- consideredasconnectedwithotherpleasureserpains . a9
--,consideredwithreferenceto a numberofpereeae . . 3°
Precemforestimatingthe tendencyefanyacterevent • 30
Useof theforegoingprocen . 3I
Thesameprocessapplicableto 9oedand_ilj profitandmlschief,and
all othermodificationsefpleasureandpain 3r
Conformityofmen'spracticeto thistheory • 3;
CHAPTERV.
PLEASURES AND PAINS_ TI:LI_IR KINDS.
PleMureened_ m-eeither,i. Simple; ora. Comple_ • 33
TheebnpleFleasuresenumerated • 33
Thesimplepain*enumerated. • 33
An-lyricalview,whynonegiven • 34
x.Pleaam'esof_ enumerated. • 34
2. Ple_uree ef wea/2A,whichare eitherof ac ,u/_/on, or ef
34
3. Ple_urteefskill 34
4-Ploaaurmof amity . 35
5"Ple_urmofa 9eedname 35
6. Plcazuresofpo_ 35
7.Pleasur_efpiety 35
8. Pin, ureaof be,eve/eat#orgood.._ll 36
9"Pleamu_efma/eco/en_or ill-will 36
to. Flea,armof thememory 36
tr. Pleaauzeaofthe_na_tnatien 36
xvi Content_.
PAGE
In. Plea.,ure_ofexpectation 36
*3.Ple,_uresdependingon a_soeiafion 37
I4. Pleasuresofrelief 37
_. Pairs ofprivation 37
Theseinclude,x.Painsofdolre 38
a.Paineof disappointment 38
3.Painsof regret 38
2. Painsof thea_mses 38
No positivepainscorrespondto the fleasttreof the sexual
sense 38
3. Painsofawkwardness . 39
No positivepainscorrespondtothe pleasureof novelty 39
-- nor tothoseof wealth . 39
Inthisa distinctpositivepain,or onlyapainof privationT $9
4. Painsof enmity. 39
5. Painsof an ill-name 39
Thepositivepainsofan ill-name,andthepainsof privation,
opposedto the pleasuresof a goodname,runinto one
another . 39
6. Palmofpiety ..... 4°
No pomtivepainscorrespondto thepleasuresof power • 40
The positiveImimof piety,and the pains of privation,
opposed to the pleMuresof piety, run into one
another . 4°
7' Painsofbenevolence 4°
8. Painsofmalevolence . 4°
9' Painsofthemernor_ 4°
_o.Painsoftheimayi_gt_on 40
xi. painsof expectation 4x
12.Painsofassociction 4l
Pleasuresandpainsareeitherself-re#ardincdor eztra.r_arding . 4x
Pleasuresandpainsof amityand enmitydistinguishedfrom
thoseofbenevolenceandmaievolenoe. . • 4i
InwhatwaythelawisconcernedwiththeabovepainsandpleMurse41
ComplexpleMuresandpainsomitted,why . . 4I
Speeimen.--Pleasuresofacountryprospect. . 42
CHAPTERVI.
OF CIRCUMSTANCESINFLUENCINGSENSIBFLITY.
Painandpleasurenotuniformlyproportionedtotheircauses. • 43
Degreeor q_m_tumof sensibility,what • 43
B/a_orqualityofsensibility,what . • 43
J_zcitin9 oauawp_as_rableanddolortfie • 44
Conte_[_. xvii
PAGE
Cireunagtsneesinflue_in9 aenst_ility,what . 44
CireumJtancesin/tuendngeen_ibilityenumer&t,ed 44
Extentandintricacyofthissubjeot . 45
I. H_alth 45
a.Strength . . . 46
Measureof strength,the weighl;a m_ncanlift 46
Weakne88,what 46
3. Hardine_ . 46
Differencebetweenetrengthandha&rdineJs 47
4. Bodilyimperfeetioa . . 47
5- Quantityandqualityof knowledge 47
6. StrengthofinlelleclualFowers . 48
7. Firm,s of mind 48
8. 8teadin_s . 49
9"Bentof inclinations 49
Io. Moralsensibility 49
xI. Moralbiases rio
Ia. _eligioussensibility 50
n3. //*l/_ b/a_es. 50
t4.8ympatAetiessn_7_ilitll. 50
I5. 8_/mpatlteliebiases . 5o
16,!7. Antipalhsticsensibilityand Mase, fit
x8. Insanitl;. . 5t
x9. Habltualoccupatione . 5z
so. Pecuniarycireumatanees. 5a
at. 6'onnex/omin thewa_ofsympo,tlty 53
a2. Connextonsin the wayofantipath_ 55
z3. Re,dicalfram¢ofbody . 55
a4. l'tadicalframeofmind 56
Idiosynerar9,what , 56
ThildiJtinetfromthecircumstanceof frameof body 56
Whetherthe soul be malarialor immaterialmake* no
di_erenee. S6
-- madfrom&llother_. . 57
Yet there.titofthemis notseparatelydi*cernible 57
Frameof bodyindieatem,but notcertainly,thatofmind ._7
Eeeenda_influencingclrcumstsm_ 58
aG.Ee_ 58
a6.Age 59
aT. Ramk 60
_8._Edue.ation 60
39.Climate , 6z
so. _ . 62
3t. _ment . 65
3_. llel_ prof_ffon 6_
xviii Co_¢ea_.
PAGI
Useoftheprecedingobservations . 64
Howfartheeireumetancminquestioncanbe t_kenintoaccount 65
Towhatexcitinge_usesthereismostoccasionto applythem. . 66
Analytiealviewofthecircumstancesinfluencingsensibility. 68
Anal_/tiealoiewof the constituentarl,ielesin a man'spe-
cuniarycircumstances . 69
CHAPTER VII.
OFHUMANACTIONSIN"GENERAL.
The demandfor lmni*hrnentdependsin partuponthe _enden¢!lof
theact . _ . . 70
Tendencyofanactdeterminedbyiracoruequence_ • 7o
Mater(alconsequencesonlyareto beregarded • 70
Thesedependin par_upontheintention . 71
Theintentiondependsaswelluponthe understandb_asthewill 71
In an actionaretobeconsidered,I. Thea,et. z. The_ireemetaneea.
3"The intsntionality. 4_The oonaeiousaeas.5"The motives.
6.Thedisposition. 7I
Actsl_o#itiveandne#atire . 72
Actsofomi_donarestillact8 . 7_
Negativeactsmsybesorelativsljtorabsolutely . 7_
Negativeactsnmybeexpressedpositively;madviceversd 7_
Actsexternalandinternal 73
Aet_ofdr*course,wimt. . 73
Externalactsmaybe orandtiveorintrar_iJive.. 73
Dhtinctlonbetweentnmaitiveactsand iatrmaitive,recog-
nisedbygrAmmtrians..... 7]
A trmamltivos,vt, ire commencerS,term/a_at/on,and intermediate
pro#roe* ....... 74
An intransitiveact, itscommencement,andtern,;nLtlon • 74
Actatrar_s_ntandco_i.ued .... 74
Differencebetweena continuedactanda repet(tlo_ofacts • 74
Differencebetween_ repelitionof actsanda tutbil . . 75
Actsareindivisible,ordiddble,anddivimble,as wellwithregardto
matteras tomotion . . 75
C,_utionrespectingtheambiguityoflmaguagu. 76
Cireurrartoneeaaret,obeeonlidered 76
Olreuaukmees.what . . . 76
Cireumsb'zase,mhetypationoftile word 77
Ckenmntauces,materialandintma4erla| 77
Conte_s. xix
PAGE
A cireumetanoemay be related to an event in pointof oausa/ity,
in fourwaye,vlz. r. Prodnclion. 2. Derivation. 3. CoU,de_'_l
connexion.4. Conjunvtinfluence • 77
Example. Assa_-_inationof Buckingham • • 78
It isnoteveryeventthat haseireutmttaneesrelatedto it in all those
ways . • 79
Useof thischapter . 80
CHAPTEI_ VIII.
OF INTENTIONAIATY.
Recapitulation. 82
Theintentionmayregard,L The act: or,2. Theeonsequcnce_ 8a
Ambiguityof thewordsvoluntaryandinvoluntary . 8a
It mayregaxdtheactwithoutanyof theconsequences 83
-- ortheconsequenceswithoutregardingthe actin allits stages 83
--butnotwithoutregardingtheflrttstage. 83
An act unintentionalin its first stage, may be so with
respectto L Quantityofmatter moved: _. Direct_n:
3. Velocity ..... 83
A consequence,whenintentional,maybedirectlyso, orobliquely 84
Whendlreetlypultimatelyso,or mediately . . 84
Whendirectlyintentional,it maybe exclusivelyso, orin, elusively 85
When inexclusiveiy_it may be co_unetively,disjunctively,or indis-
criminatelyso . 85
Whendisjunctively,it maybe w/th or withontpreferen_ 8_
Differencebetweenan incident'sbeing unintentional,and
disjunctivelyinttnt£onal,whenthe electionis in favour
of theother 85
Example . 85
I-utentionalityof the act withrespectto its differentstages, howfar
material ..... 87
Ooednessand badnessof i_lent_ondismissed . . 87
CHAPTER IX.
OFCONSCIOUSNESS.
Connexionof thi_chapterwiththe foregoing. 89
Act_adv/medandunadvised; consciousness,what . 89
Umutvisednemmayregardeitherex/_tence,ormateriality 89
Theeircumltancemay havebeenpresent,past,orfuture 89
unadvisedactmay be/usu//ess,or_ot heedless 89
b misadv6_dact,what,--s minttppoeal 9°b2
xx Co_t_M.
PAGg
The Beppo*edeimumstanee might have been nmterialin the way
eitherof prevention or of compensation . 9°
It may have beensupposedpre_ent, past, orfr_ture . 9°
Example,continuedfrom the last chapter 9°
In what case _nsciousnessextends the intentionalityfxom theact to
the o0nsequenees. 91
Examplecontinued . 9 2
A misadvisedact may be rash or not rash , . 92
The intention may be good or bad in i_self, Jndependentlyof the
motive aswell as the eventualconsequences 9a
It is better, whenthe intention ie meantto be spokenof _sbeing good
or bad, notto lay, the motive 93
Exmnple . . 93
Intention, in whatc_sesit may be innocent . 94
Intentionality andconseleusness,howspokenof in the Roman law . 94
Ule of _ and the precedingchapter 95
CHAPTER X.
O:F MOTIVES.
§ I, D_t'7"_'l_t _enseo of the word Motive.
Motivea,why considered . 97
Purely qmwulativemotiveshave nothing to dohere 97
Motives to the will . 98
_ratire and enfv_urativeser_se_of the word 98
Motives interior and _terior . 99
Motive in Frowner--motive in ¢#se . 99
Motives _rnmediab_and remote . Ioo
Motives to the_nderst_ndin9 how they mayinfluence the will lol
§ 2. )Vo Motives either constantly 9ood or constantly bad.
Nothing canantofit4elf a_nmotive, but the idmofpl,.asureorpain IOX
No mortof motive iain itJelfa bad one . . . xoa
Ina_ur_y of expre_sionlin whichgood orbad are applied to motiv_ xoa
Any sort of metersmay give birthto anyeortof act . . • ] o2
Di_oulties whichstead in the way ofan analysisof this sort • zo3
§ 3" Catalogue of Motives coercing to #m_ of Pleama'e,s
and Pain_.
2_hy_oaldedre corrupondingto plesanr_ of _e in ge_ral . Io__
The motive¢ocreepondingto the pi_tuurej of the palate . Io_ I
Uonfen/s. xxl
PAOE
Baztmld_-/rscorrespondingtothepleasuresof thesexualscnqe Io6
Curlo*ity,&e,,correspondingtothepleasuresof curiosity zo7
Nonetopleusureeofsense . . . ]o7
.Peountaryintere*tto thep/ensuresofwealth j07
Noneto thepleasuresofskill .... Io7
Tothepleasuresof amity,the desireofingratiatingone'sself IO7
Tothepleasure*ofa goodname,the lot'eofrept_tatfon 1o8
Tothepleasuresofpower,thelo_o/power. xxo
Themotivebelongingto thereligioussanction III
Good-will,&e.to thepleasure*ofsFmp_t._g. I I2
Ill-rain,&e.to thepleasuresofantipatAv 114
Sdf-preserration,totheseveralkindsof pa6_s x15
Tothe2oainsofezertlon,theloveofease . li7
Motivescanonlybebadwithreferencetothemostfrequentcom.
plexionoftheireffeas . . xx8
Howit istimtmotives,suchLslust,arariee,&c.,areconstantlybad. xz8
UndertheM)overestrictions,motivesmaybe distinguishedinto,toed,
bad,andindifferentor_eutral , z19
Jmaanve_ieneesof thisdistribution . . . IJ9
It is onlyin individualinstancesthatmotivescanbegoodorbad . 120
Motivesdistinguishedintosocial,d_odal, andsdf-regarding . z2o
-- _ciM,into_urely-social,andsemi-social. . I2!
§ 4. O,'der of _'e-eminene,e amtmg Motives.
Thedict_tosof good-,willarethe surestofcoincidingwiththoseof
utility ...... x2
l_wsanddictatesconceivedas issuingfrommotives I'_I
YetdonotinaJlos,ses. xst
Next'tothemcomethoseofthe lo_eofreputation . I22
lqexttheseof thed_ire ofaml?9 I_4
Difficultyofpl_cingthoseof religion. I_4
Tendeucy_theyhp,ve toimprove . xz6
Afterwardscomethe selforegardirud motives: and,lastly, that of
d6rplea_ro . i27
§ 5. Conflict amo,a9 Motives.
MotivesimpellingLndrestraining,whtt , . z27
Whatere the motivesmostfrequentlyat vm-tsmce. . . I28
Exampleto illustratea str_ggleamongcontondin9 motives . , I28
Pr_tical useof theabovedlfquisttionsrelativeto motives . . Ia9
xxii Go_geng_.
CHAPTERXI.
OF HUMANDISPOSITIONSLNGENERAL.
PAGE
Disposition,what . . I3I
Howfar it belon_ tothe presentsubject . 13I
A mis_ie_o_ disposition; a merito_w_sdisposition; what . 132
Whataman'sdispositionis,canonlybematterofpresumption 132
It dependsuponwhatthe actappearstobe to him . !3z
Whichpositionis groundedon two facts: 1. The correspondencc
betweenintentionsandconsequences ]33
_. Betweentheintentionsofthe samepersonat differenttimes • _33
A disposition,fromwhichproceedsahabitof doingmischief,
cannotbeagoodone ]33
The di_)o_itionis tobeinferred,I. Fromtheapparentfendencyof the
act : 2. Fromthe natureofthe moti_,e . I3_
CaseI. Tendency,good--motive,8elf-regaldin9 :34
Case2.Tendency.bad--motive,self-re#arding 134
Case3. Tendency,good---motive,9ood-will . ]34
Case4. Tendency,bad--motive,good.will 135
Thiscasenotan impossibleone 135
ExampleI. z35
ExampleII. 135
ExampleIII. . . z36
Ca_e5"Tendency,good--motive,/eveof reputation L_6
The bulkofmankindapt to depreciatethil motive I36
Ceee6. Tendency,bad--motive,honour 137
ExsmpleI. I,_7
ExampleII. . . z38
Ceee7-Tendency,good,--motive,lYiety 138
Case8. Tendency,bad--motive,religton I38
Thedispositionmaybe badin this ease 139
Case9. Tendency,good--motive,male_,olence 14o
Example . 140
Casere. Tendency,bad--motive,maleroleacs z41
Example . 141
Problem_tomeuurethedeprarityin n man'sdisposition z41
A man'sdispositionisconstitutedbythe sumofhisinb_ntion8 142
whichowetheirbirthto _wtices 14_
A seducingorcorrttplingmotive,wh_t_atutelaryorpre_e_'ratory
motive • _4_
Tutelarymotivesareeitherstandingor_asional. • _4_
Con/ea_,. xxiii
PAOE
8tandi_jtutelarymotivmare,I.Oood.wi_l. • z43
a. Theloveofreputatfim . 143
3"Thedesireof amitq • '44
4. Themotiveofreliyion . 144
Oeeadonaltutela_ motivesmaybeanywhatsoever. • z45
Motivesthatarepartic,darlyapt toactin thischaracterere,L Lore
of eose. z.8elf-preservative . 145
/)angersto whichself-preserrationis mostapt in this ease tohave
respect,are, I. DLngerspurelyphysical, z. Dangersdepending
on detection . . . i46
Dangerdependingon detectionmayresultfrom,I. Oppositionon
thespot: 2. Subsequentlm_ishment . I46
The forceof the twostandingtutelarymotivesofloveofreputatiov,
anddedreof amity,depenchupondetection • ]46
Strengthofa _emptatic_b whatismeantby it • z47
Indicationsaffordedbythis andothercircumstancesresl_'tingthe
deprat_t9of an offender'sdisposition . ]48
Rulesfor meLsuringthe depravityof digpmitionindicatedby an
offence . ]49
Use ofthischapter . t5t
CHAPTER XH.
OP THE CONSEQUENCESOF A MISCHIEVOUSACT.
I. Shapesinwhichthe_nischiefofasActmayshowitself.
Recapitulation. • ]5_
MischiefofLnact,thejggreg_teofitsmischievousconsequences• ]5_
Themi_ohiefofan act,primer9 orsecondary. 15a
Primary--originalorderitatite . 153
Theseeondary_t.Alarm: or,2.Danger • ]53
Ezample .... r53
The dgngertchencoit _a past offences_'ordsno directmotire
to ,,future • t55
But it suggestsfec_7_ility,and weakcqsthe forceof restrai,ffny
motives ..... I55
viz. t. ThomDironingfromthepoliticalsanction . I._5
z. ThoseiMuiugfromthemoral. . i56
It Istoddto opemtoby theinfluenceof example . 156
Thea_,m and thedanger,thoughconnected,aredlsti_gtddmMe . z57
Bothmayhaverespectto the mineperson,orto others . . z57
Thepc/marlyconsequencesof an act maybe mlacMerou._,and the
secondary,beneficial . xS_
xxiv Conte_.a.
PtGE
Avalydsofthedifferentshap_inwhichthemischiefofanactmay
showitself. 158
appliedtothe precedingeamm . . . 159
to examplesofothereaseswherethemischiefis leasconspicuous 159
ExampleI An actofself-intoxication i59
ExampleIf.Non-paymentofatax. x5o
Noalarm,whenno'e_mignablepersonis the object . 162
§ z. How intentio,aatity, _'c. *nay influence the fai_hief of
an Act.
E_dary mischiefinfluencedby thestateof theagent'smiad 163
Ca_ex. Ineoluntaeine_ • • x64
Case_. Unintentionalitywithheedlessness . x64
Case3. Mi_uppoealof a eompl_lejwstiflea_ion,withoutrashness x65
Ca_e4. Mi_uppesalorspartialjustification,withoutrashness 165
CMe5-Mi_upposal,withra_h_w,_. x6_
Case6. Consequencesoompl_elyintentional, sad fe_ from mis-
e=ppoml....... 165
Them_tureof_,motivetakesnotatoaythemimchiefof the secondary
consequenc_J . 165
Northebenofieialness. .... . z66
But it rosy ag#ramtethe miJehievommess,where they are mis.
chievot_ . . . x66
Butnot themo#tin thecaseof theworstmotives . . . 166
It doegthemore,themoreconsiderablethe t_denc.¢of themotive
toproducesuchacts . . ]67
whichisas it_atrex_tAandoomtan_y . 167
Generale._caeqofa speciesof motive,howmeamu'md . x67
A mischievousact is moreBe,wheniNulngfroms se[f-cegardin9
thanwhenfi'oma diswoialmotive . ]67
-- soevenwheni_uingfromthemotiveofre'igloo . . 168
Howthe secondarymischiefis influencedbydispos_io_ . 168
Connexionof thiswiththesucceedingchapter . z68
CHAPTER X1-H.
cAszsU_MEZZFORPusrsa_sT.
§z.Generalviewof¢ase_unmeetfor Punishment.
Theendoflaw is,to&agmenthappiness • !70
But punlahmentis anevil . x70
Co.onto. x-xv
PAGI
Whatconcernstheemd,andseverslothert0pleB,relativeto
punishment,dismissedtoanotherwork. rTo
Conciseviewof theendsof punishment 17°
Thereforeoughtnotto beadmitted 17x
I. Where9roundlsss. x7z
_. Xme.o%a¢io_. xTI
3"Unprofitable 171
4. Orneedless ]7r
§ =. Caseo17_w]ffch_unishrnent i8 groundless.
i i. Wherethereha=neverbeen mischief: asintheeaseofcon_ent
an_/ 17I
a. Wherethe mischiefwasoutweio_ed:as in p_eoaultoaagainst
l calamity, ofFowors . . . x7aandtheexe]_ci_
t 3. -- orwill,fors certtinty,be_red bycompen#alion z7z
i Hencethe favoursshownto the offencesof responsible
i offenders: suchsa *implemercantilefraads . . z7a
§ 3.Cases in which Pu,tishmem must be ine_adous.
i. Wherethepenalprovisioncomestoolate:as inL Anez-po_t-faeto
law. a. Anultla.le#alsentence..... :7a
a. Orisnot madeknown: as ins law_ot sufficientlypromulgated 173
3. Wherethetriblca=notbedcterredfromanyaet,ssin,[s] [nfanc9 ]73
[b]Xnmnity. 173
[el Intoxication . . . 173
In infsncynedintoxicationthec_e canhLrdly_ proved
tocomeundertherute . • - I73
Thereasonfor notpunhhi_gin thesethreecasesis com-
monlyputupons wrongfooting . • J74
4' Ornotfromthe individualactinquestion,as in, 174
Is] Ueinten_ionalily i74
_b] U_onsd_:_e_s 174
EelMi_=l_poml .... I_'4
5"Orisactedonbyanoppositesuperiorforce as by,: ]74
[=]PILysCeo,l danger. :75
[b] Tl_reatenodmieeMef . . 175
Whytheinfluenceorthemoralandrdiglo_ssanctionsm
notmentionedinthestoneview 175
6. -- orthe bodilyorganscannotfollow it_determivalion: ss under
physical¢omp,hdo_orrestraint. • ]75
xxvi Contenta.
§ 4. CaseswhereP_nishme'atis _zntn'ofltable.
PAGE
I. Where,in the8errof easeinquestion,thepunishmentwouldpro-
ducemoreevilthantheoffencewould . !75
E*il producibleby a punishment--itsfourbranches--viz.[a] Re-
straint . I_5
[b] AFFrellension 176
[el Sufferance . 176
[d] Deritativeevils . . . 176
Tileevilof the offence,beingdifferentaeeordingto the natureof the
offence,cannotberepresentedhere i76
2. -- Or in the iTuhvidualeaseinquestion: by reasonof 176
[a] ThemultitudeofdelinqueTd_ z76
[b]Thevalueof a delinff,,ent'_eelvice x77
[el Thedisplea_wreofthepeot,le 177
[d] Thedispleasureofforeignpowers a77
§ 5. Cases where Punish.recur is needless.
L Where the mischiefis to be preventedat a ckeaperrate : asby
instruction • !77
CHAPTERXIV.
OFTH'EPROPORTIONBETWEENPUNISHMENTSANDOFFENCES.
Recapitulation. . I78
Fourobjeotsof punishment x78
let Object---topreventall offe'ace#. 178
2ndObject---topreventthe _ord . 178
3rdObject.--tokeepdownthe mischief I78
4thObject,--toactat the leastexpe.se 178
Rulesofproportio_betweenpunishmentsandoffences 178
Thesamerulesapplicableto motivesin general x79
RuleL--Outwei#hthe profitof the offence. r79
Profit maybeof any otherkind,as wellaspecuniary 179
Improprietyof thenotionthat thepunisl6mentotudktnot to
increase_ith the temptation . T79
The proprietyof takingthe strengthof thetemptationfor&ground
ofabatement,no objectionto thisrule . . . 18o
Rule 2._VentuLremoreng_inat&greatoffencethana lm¢llone . 18!
Example.--Ineendiari4rmandcoinin9 . 18I
Rule 3.--Causethe/cantof twooffence*to bepreferred . 18!
Rule4.--PunishforeacAparticbsofthe mischief . 181
Example._IJablowsgiven,andmoneystolen . xSx
6'enterS. xxvii
PAOE
Rule5.--Punishin nodegreewithouts/_/al reason. . I82
Rule6.--Attendtocircumstancesinfiuerwin#_ibility 182
Compar,_tiveviewofthe aboverules. . 182
]nto theaccountof the valueof a punishment,must be takenits
deficiencyinpointof c_'taint._andproximity . . 18_
.Also,intothe accountof themiscMefand profitof the offence,the
mischiefandprofitofotheroffencesoftilesamel_bit . • J83
Rule7.--Wantofcertaintymustbemadeup inmaguitude. . 184
Rule8--_o e.leowantofproxhnity . . I84
Rule 9.--For actsindicativeofa habit,punNhas forthe habit . x84
Theremainingrulesareof lessimportance . I84
Rule[o.--Forthesakeof quality,increusein q_ant_ty z84
Rulei [.--Particularlyforachoralle_on . . . [84
A gJwaiahmentappliedbyuay of mot,1 lesson,_vhat x84
Examplc.--Insimplecorporalinjuries 185
Example.--Inmilitarylaws, [85
Rulex2.--Attendto circumstanceswhichmayrenderpunishment
unprofitable . . J85
Rule[3.--Forslmplleity's_ke, smLlldisproportionsmaybeneglected 185
Proportionalitycarriedveryfar in the presentwork--why 185
Auxiliaryforceof thephysical,moral,and reliffioussanctions,not
hereallowedfor--why . 186
Recapitulation. . . [86
Thenicetyhereob6elvealvindicatedfromthechargeof inutility 187
CHAPTERXV.
OF THIgPROPERTIESTOHE GIVENTO A LOTOF PUNISHMENT.
Propertiesare tobegoveroedbyproportion. . ]89
PropertyI. Irarlability . 189
Propertya. Equzlbility .... r9o
PtmishmentswhichareapLtobe deficientinthisrespect . 19[
Property3. Uomolens_rabilityto otherpunishments. . 19t
How two lots of punishmentmaybe renderedperfectlycommen-
surable . 191
Property4. Charaoteristieal_ess . . x92
Themodeofpunishmentthemo_temineutlycharacteristic,isth_,tof
retaliatlon . [92
Property5. Exemplarity . . . 19,a
Themosteffectualwayof renderinga punishmentexemplaryis by
meansofanalogy. . 194
Property6. Frugality. . 194
Frugalitybeloagiin perfectiontopecuniaryp_nidtment 194
xxviii Contents.
PAGE
J_zeraplarit!¢andfrugal_lyinwhattheydifferandagree . z95
Otherpropertiesofinferiorimportaneo , z95
Property7.Subservienc_/toreformat_on '. z95
appliedtooffa_neesoriginatinginiILw/]l. 195
--tooffencesoriginatinginindolencejoinedtopecuniaryinterest 196
Property8. _ff/cacg with respecttodisablement z96
--ismostconspicuousineapltalpunishment, z96
Otherpunishment_inwhichitistobefound. 197
Property 9' Subserviencyto carm2en_alion 197
Propertyre.Popularlly . . r98
Charuet_rLsticalne_renders a punishment, r. menwrabte:
3. exemplary: __.Topular I98
Misahieflr_ulting fromtheunfopularityofa punlslmaent_d/svontent
amongthe people,andweakne_*in the law z98
This proper_ysupposesa prejudice whlohthele_dslatm ought to cure z99
Property xI. ReTniabibility .... 199
Toobtainalltheseproperties,punishmentsmustbe_i_red. . 2oI
The foregoingpropertiesreeapitalated . znz
Connexionof this with the ensuing chapter . . 2o_
CHAPTERXVI.
DMSION OF OFFENCES.
§,.Classeso/Offences.
Methodpursuedin the followingdivision . . . Io4
Distinction between what are offencesand whato_yht?obe zo4
No act ought to be an offence but what is delrimental to the corn-
mun/a# ..... =oS
To be so.it mu._tbe detrimentalto someone or moreofit_me_ers . 2o5
These maybeasdgnable ornot . ao5
:Personsa,_s/9_b_e, how . . 2o._
If az_nAble, the o_e'nderhtnmelf,orother_ . . _o5
ClassL pe/vat_offences . _os
Clam_. Be_i-pubilo offence,s ..... 2O6
JAmi_s between private, semi-public,and public offences,
are,s_rictlyspewing, undlstinguieh,,ble . =o6
CI_ _. _el.f-regard_n@offences , . . :to6
Cl_s 4. Public offences ...... _o7
C-2amS. M_Itiform offencu,vJz,z. Offenoeebyfal_hood. _. O_enCes
against truzt ....... no7
The imperfectionsof language_aoh_le to arrangement. 207
Irregularityof this class . . . 2o8
-- which couldnotbe avoidedomany other plan . ao_
Conteu_. xxix
§z. D_d_onsand _b-didrRma.
]FAGS
Divieionsof Cl_u r. l_Offencesagainstperson. _Propertg.
$--]lep:dallon.4--Cund_tion.5--Personancl_rop_rfy.6.--
Personand reputation ..... no8
In whatmannerpie&sureandl_independupontherelafio_
a m,mbearstoexteriorobjects. . 209
Divhionsof Class3. I. Offeucesthroughcalamify. . 21I
Sub-divisionsofoffencesthroughcalamity,dismiMed. . . 21a
2.0ffenceeofmeredelinq=en¢_,howtheycorr_pondwiththedivi-
sionsofprivateoffenc_ .... _12
Divisionsor'.Cla_s$coincidewiththoseofClassI . 2t2
DivizioneofClass4 .... 213
.Exh,au,_livemethoddepartedfrom . • 213
Cohesionofthe.inefiret divibion_onewithanother . 2x4
Connexionofoffencesagainstreli#io_withtheforegoingones . 2_[9
Connexionofoffencesagainstthe nationalinterestingeneralwiththe
rest 2aI
8ub-dirition_ofCla_s5 enumerated. . 2g1
Divieioneofoffencesbyfal_e_ood . _=z
OffencesbyfaJBehood,in whattheyagreewithonea_aother. . =_I
inwhattheydiffer..... zj2
_ub-d_v/_/o_of offence_by/aide,codaredeterminedbythedivisions
oftheprecedingclauses. . . a2a
Offencesof thisclass,in somei_stances,changetheirn_mes;in
other_,not . _23
A trust,what...... za3
Pomerandr/g,_,whynocompletedefinitionisheregiven
ofthem ....... 224
0ffenoesafainstte_st,eo*tdition,andpropert_,whyrankedunder
separatedivisions. . az6
Offencessga_n_ttr=st--theirconnexionwitheachother . a34
Prodisali_yi_ trusteesdismissedto Cla_s3 .... z4_
Theeub-divido_ofoffencesagainst_ru_lareslsodeterminedby the
divisionsof theprecedingchume. . , . a4I
Uonnev/o_betweenoffencesbyfakeAood_d offencesagain_tru#t. a4a
§S.Oe_r,'aofCla__.
A.mdy_intogenm-apursuednofartherth_nCI_sI . . _4_
Offences_inst an individualr_tybe _implein theireffectsorcam-
pIez .... _43
0._.enoesafaim_person--theirgenera a43
Off_ t_d_t r_/on 246
xxx Coulenls.
['AGE
Offencesagainstproperty 247
Payment,what 248
Offencesagainstpersonandreputation 253
Offencesagainstpersonandproperly. 254
Offencesagainstcondi(ion--Conditionsdomeslwor civil 255
Domesticconditionsgroundedonnaturalrelationships 255
Relations--tworesultfromeverytwoobjeet._ _56
Domesticrelationswhicharepurelyof Issal institu_im_ 258
Offencestouchingthe eo_ufittonof a master . 261
VariousmodssofsetdZude 263
Offencestouchingthe con,titianofa servant . a64
Gtmrdianship,what---Necessityofthe in_titutlon 266
Durationto begiventoit a69
Powersthatmay,anddutiesthatoughtto be,annexedto it 269
Offencestouchingthe conditionof a guardian 27°
Offeneeatouchingtheconditionofa ward 272
Offencestouchingtheconditionofa paren_ . 274
Offencestouchingthefilial condition. 276
Conditionof ahusband.--Powers,duties,andr/yht_, that maybe an-
uexedto it . z78
Offencestouchingthe conditionofa husband. . 280
Offencestouchingtheconditionofa wife . 28z
Civilconditions . 287
§ 4. Advantages of the present method.
Generalide_ofthemethodherepursued 296
Itsadvantages. . . _99
--I. It is convenientforthe apprs_nslonandthe memory 299
--2. It givesroomforg_neralpropositiona. 300
--3- It pointsoutthe reasonofthe/aw 3oI
--4" It is alikeapplicabletothelawsofall nation_ _ 3or
§ 5. Characters of the five classes.
Charaet_sof the elassesjhowdeduciblefromtheabovemethod 302
Charactersof c/a_ I . 3o2
Charactersof clast2 . 304
Chin-octetsof class3 • 305
Ch_-actersof class4 • Ao6
Char_terlof dass 5 • 307
Con_e,_. xxxi
CHAPTER XVII.
OFTIlELIMITSOFTHEPENAl,BRANCHOFJURISPRUDENCE.
§ t. Limits bawe_ wiva_ Ethics and tt_ art of Legis_tlo'a.
PA_E
Useofthischapter . . 309
Eth/csiageneral,what . 3Io
Pri_ateethics ........ 31o
Theartofgo_er_,nt: thatis,oflegtslatio_andadmlnCstralion. 3to
Intereet_of the inferiora_timalsimproperlyneglectedin
legislation . 5to
Artut"_duoa_ion . . . 51
Ethicsex]alhittherulesof,I.Pr_d_#_e.2,]_robit_.3.Benefice_ce3tz
Probityandbeneficencehowtheyconnectwithprudence. , 312
Everyactwhichisaproperobjectofethicsisnotoflegislation. 5x2
Thellmitsbetweentheprovincesofpr_vateetIticsandlegidation,
markec]outbythecasesunmeetforpunishment . 514
L Neitheroughttoapplywherepunishmentisgroand_ess. . _I_
2.How farprivateethicscanapplyinthecaseswherepunishment
wouldbe_neff_caciou_ . . 3_5
Howfarjwhereit wouldbe_nproflta6Ze . 3x5
Whichitm_ybe, I.Althoughconfinedtothe9_ilty" . 316
2.Byenvelopingtheinnocent . 318
Legislationhowfaxnecessaryfor the enforcementof thedi_tateeof
_ru_le_ce. , 3_9
--Apttogotoofarinthisrespect • 3:0
--Particularlyinmattersofreligion.... 5_o
-- Howfaxnecessaryforthe enforcementof thedictatesofprob_'t3f. 3_
ofthedictatesofbeneficence . . 52_
Differencebetweenprivateethicsandtheartof legislationrecapit_-
laled • 5_3
§ Z. Juri_vM_nce, its _anclt_.
Jurisprudence,ez]_osffory--cen_or_!. . . 3a3
Expositoryjurisprudence,a_Owri_lit_-.-.l_r_z_thorit_tive 3_4
Sourcesofthe distinctionsyet remaining 324
Jurisprudence,_oc_l----ualver_aI 3_5
i_v_ev,nalandint_ernational .... 3a6
Internaljurisprudence,nationaland2_rO_ncial,lanaiorparticular 3z7
Jurisprudence,a#eie_C--livin9 3z8
Jurisprudence,statutor]/--customary. 3z9
Jurisprudence,dvil_penaL-,._imina_ 3z9
Que_tlon,concerningthedistinctionbetweenthecivilbranchandthe
Imaal,_ated • _9
xxxii Co, tents.
FAGE
I. Occasion,rodpurpoeeofthisconcludingnotB . 33°
II.Byalawhereisnotmeantsstafi_te. . 33o
III.Everylawiseitheracommand,orarevocat/onofone . 33°
IV.A declaratorylateisnot,properlyspeaking,alaw . 330
V. Everyeo_'civelawcre,qesan offence . . • 350
VI.A lawcrestingano_'e_ce,andoneappoinfingpsn_s_nt,
aredistinctlaws .... 33I
VII. A diecoercivehawcanhavenopunitoryoneappert_ningto
itbutthroughtileinterventionofacoerciveone 35[
VIII.Buts punitorylawinwflve8the_/mpl#im2Jerali_ooneit
belongsto . . . 331
IX.Thesimplyimperativeonemightthereforebespared,but
foritsexpositorymatter • 35t
X. Natureofsuchexpositorymatter . . . 331
XI. Thevastnemof its comparativebulkis not peculiarto
legialativecommands 332
XII. The samemauof expositorymattermayservein common
[orman_l_ws . . 35_
XIII.Theimperativecharacteressentialto]sw,iaapttobecon-
cealedinand byexposgorym_tter . . . 333
X.IV.Theconcealmentis favouredbythe multitudeof indirect
formsinwhichimperativematteriscapableofbeing
couched.... 53z
XV. NumberandnatureoftheLawsint cede,bowdetermined.335
XVI.GenerMideaofthelimitsbetweenacitilandapenalcode533
XVII. Contentsofa c_mlcode • 333
XVIII. Contentsofapenaleode • 333
XIX. In the CodeFredericthe imperativecharacteris almost
lost in theexpositorym_tter . • 535
XX. Soin theRomanlaw . . . 334
XXI. In thebarbariancodesit standscoospicuous • 334
XXII.Constitulionalcode,itsconnexionwiththetwoothers• 334
XXIlI. Thus the matterof one law maybe dividedamonga/I
threecodes . • 354
XXIV. Erpositorymatter,a great quantityof itexistseverywhere,
in nootherformthanthatof commonorjndiciarylaw 354
XXV. Hence the deplorablestate of the scienceof legiMation,
consideredinrespectofit_form • 335
XXVI.Oootsio_affordingan exemplificationof the difficultyu
wellasimportanceof tl_ branchofscience;--attempts
tolimitthepo@ersof_pr_ reprcsenlativel_islat_re_ 335
XXVIL _mple : Am_ioandeelaratlo_sqfrigh_. • 53fi
AN INTRODUCTION
TOTHX
PRINCIPLES OF MORALS AND LEGISLATION.
CHAPTERI.
OF TZi_ PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY.
J[.NATUREhasplacedmankindunderthegovernanceoftwoMankind
_ eovernod
sovereignmasters,pain and pleasure. It is forthemaloneto5y_n end
pointoutwhatweoughtto do,as wellas to determinewhatwepte_ura
shalldo. Onthe onehand thestandardofrightand wrong,on
the otherthe chain of causesand effects,are fastenedto their
throne. Theygovernus in all wedo, in all we say, in all we
think: everyeffortwecanmaketo throwoffoursubjection,will
servebut to demonstrateandconfirmit. In wordsa manmay
pretendto abjuretheirempire: butin realityhe willremain
subjectto it allthe while.Thepr/nc/p/eof utilityz recognises
t Noteby theAuthor,July x822.Tothisdenominationhasoflatebeenadded,orsubstituted,the_¢eat
happ/ne_sorgrea_e_/diei_yprinciple: thisforshortness,insteadofsaying
at length_ pr/ncildewhichstatesthegreatesthappinessofallthose
whoseintereetisinquestion,asbeingtherightandproper,andonlyright
andproperandumverssllydesirable,endofhumanaction:ofhumanaction
ineverysituation,andinparticularinthatofafunctionaryorsetoffunc-
tionariesexercisingthepowersofGovernment,Theword_/ty doesnot
soclearlypointtotheideasof2dea_ureandlminasthewordshapp/nessand
./dieitydo: nordoesit leadustothe considerationofthenumber,ofthe
interestsaffected;tothenumber,asbeingthecircumstance,whichcontri-
butes,inthelargestproportion,totheformationofthestandardherein
question;thestandardoftightandwro_7,bywhichalonetheproprietyof
humanconduct,ineverysituation,canwithproprietybetried.Thiswant
ofa suffciontlymanifestconnexionbetweentheideasofhapp/nessand
_e ontheonehand,andtheideaofu_//_jontheother,Ihaveevery
nowandthenfoundoperating,andwithbuttoomuchefficiency,asa barto
theacceptance,thatmightotherwisehavebeen8iven,tothisprinciple.
Bmvr_.tx B
oft,teP_i_ifleof U_itity. [cn^P.
thissubjection,andassumesit forthefoundationofthatsystem,
theobjectofwhichisto rearthefabricoffelicityby thehands
of reasonandoflaw. Systemswhichattempt to questionit,
dealinsoundsinsteadof sense,incapriceinsteadof reason,in
darknessinsteadof light.
But enoughofmetaphoranddeclamation: it isnotbysuch
meansthatmoralscienceisto be improved.
II. Theprincipleof utifityis thefoundationof the presen
work: it willbe properthereforeat the outset togivean ex-
plicitanddeterminateaccountofwhatismeantby it. Bythe
Principleofprinciplexofutihtyis meantthat principlewhichapprovesorutihty,
wh_t. disapprovesof everyactionwhatsoever,accordingto the ten-
dencywhichit appearsto haveto augmentor diminishthe
happinessofthepartywhoseinterestisin question: or,whatis
the samething in otherwords,to promoteorto opposethat
happiness.I sayofeveryactionwhatsoever; andthereforenot
onlyofeveryactionofaprivateindividual,butofeverymeasure
of government.
utility III. Byutilityismeantthatpropertyinanyobject,wherebywhat.
it tendstoproducebenefit,advantage,pleasure,good,orhappi-
ness,(all thisin the presentcasecomesto the samething)or
(whatcomesagaint_)the samething)to preventthe happening
ofmischief,pain,evil,or unhappinesstothe partywhoseinterest
is considered: if that partybe thecommunityin general,then
the happinessofthecommunity:if aparticularindividual,then
thehappinesso[thatindividual.
ap,t_e. _ThewordprincipleisderivedfromtheLatinprlnaipium:whichseems
,_t. tobecompoundedofthetwowords_imus,first,orchief,andcip/u*a,
aterminationwhichseemstohederivedfromcapio,totake,asinma_i-
p_um,mu¢iclpium;towhichareanalogous,auceps,forceps,andothers.It
isatermofveryvagueandveryextensivesignification:it isappliedto
anythingwhichisconceivedtoserveasafoundationor beginningtoany
seriesofoperations: insomeeases,ofphysicaloperations; betofmental
operationsinthepresentcase.
Theprinciplehereinquestionmaybetakenforanactofthemind; a
sentiment; asentimentofapprobation;asentimentwhich,whenappliedtoanaction,approvesofitsutility,asthatqualityofit bywhichthe
measureofapprobationordisapprobationbestoweduponit oughttobe
governed.
L] oftkeP_incife¥ Vtimy. 3
IV.TheinterestofthecommunityisoneofthemostgeneralInt_ otthecom_u--
expressionsthatcanoccurin thephraseologyof morals: nonity,what.
wonderthat themeaningofit is oftenlost. Whenit hasa
meaning,it is this. Thecommunityisa fictitiousbody,com-
posedof theindividualpersonswhoareconsideredasconsti-
tutingasitwereitsmembers.Theinterestofthecommunity
thenis,what?--thesumoftheinterestsoItheseveralmembers
whocomposeit.
V.It is invainto talkof theinterestofthecommunity,
withoutunderstandingwhktis theinterestoftheindividualx.
Athingissaidtopromotetheinterest,ortoberettheinterest,
ofanindividual,whenit tendstoaddto thesumtotalofhis
pleasures: or,whatcomesto thesamething,to diminishthe
sumtotalofhispains.
VI.Anactionthenmaybesaidto beconformableto theAaa_o_CO_Lformableprincipleofutility,or,forshortnesssake,toutihty,(meaningto_laeprin-
• elploofut_-
withrespectto thecommunityat large)whenthe tendencyitht_.what.
hastoaugmentthehappinessofthecommunityisgreaterthan
anyithastodiminishit.
VII.A measureofgovernment(whichisbut a particularAme_ureof
• . . g'overnme,atkindofactaon,performedbTal_artlcular_ersonorl_ersons)mayconformablo
....... toth tin• . . . @ -be saidto beconformableto ordictatedby theprmclphof_leo_uti-hty, what.
utility,whenin likemannerthe tendencywhichithastoaug-
mentthehappinessofthecommunityisgreaterthananywhich
it hastodiminishit.
VIII.Whenanaction,orinparticulara measureofgovern-Lambordic-
• . , _te.s ofuti.
meat,is supposedbya mantobeeonformabhto theprincipleU_,wh,t.
o!utility,itmaybeconvenient,forthepurposesofdiscourse,to
imaginea kindof lawordictate,calleda lawor dictateof
utility: andtospeakoftheactioninquestion,asbeingcon-
formabletosuchlawordictate.
IX. Amanmaybesaidtobeapartizanoftheprincipleofx_-_nof
-- theprinmplo
utility,whentheapprobationordisapprobationheannexestootu_i,y,
" . _ WhO,
anyaction,ortoanymeasure,isdeterminedbyandproportmned
t Interest i_ one of thoeewords, which not h_vingany superior_us,
cannotintheordinarywaybedefined,
B2
4 Oft_ P_iple_ U/.ility. [caxr.
to thetendencywhichhe conceivesit tohaveto augmentorto
diminhhthehappinessofthecommunity:orinotherwords,to
itsconformityorunconformitytothe lawsordictatesofutility.
ought,. X. Ofanactionthatisconformabletotheprincipleotutihty
oughtno_
mht_ onemayalwayssayeitherthat it isonethatoughttobedone,
he.tobe or at leastthatit is notonethatoughtnot to bedone. One
tmderstcod.
maysayalso,thatit is rightit shouldbedone; atleastthatit"
is notwrongit shouldbe done: thatit isa rightaction; at
leastthat it isnotawrongaction. Whenthusinterpreted,the
wordsougfit,andT/gritandwren, andothersof that stamp,
haveameaning: whenotherwise,theyhavenone.
Toprovet_eXI. Hasthe rectitudeof thisprinciplebeeneverformally
reclaimdeof 2tampnnei,contested. It shouldseemthatit had,by thosewhohavenotpie_ atonce . . .
unnmmsryknownwhattheyhavebeenmeamng. Is it susceptibleof any
andimp_-
sible, directproof? it shouldseemnot: forthatwhichis usedto
proveeverythingelse,cannotitselfbeproved:achainofproofs
musthavetheircommencementsomewhere.Togivesuchproof
isas impossibleasit isneedless.
Ithassel- XII. Not thatthereisoreverhasbeenthathumancreature
dora,how-
ever.myet breathing,howeverstupidorperverse,whohasnotonmany,beencon-
_enu_ perhapson mostoccasionsof his life,deferredto it. By thenaturalconstitutionof thehumanframe,onmostoccasionsof
theirlivesmeningeneralembracethisprinciple,withoutthink-
ingof it : if not fortheorderingoftheirownactions,yet for
thetryingoftheirownactions,aswellasofthoseofothermen.
Therehavebeen,at thesametime,notmany,perhaps,evenof
themostintelligent,whohavebeendisposedtoembraceit purely
andwithoutreserve.Thereareevenfewwhohavenot taken
someoccasionorotherto quarrelwithit, eitheronaccountof
theirnotunderstandingalwayshowto applyit,oronaccountof
someprejudiceorotherwhichtheywereafraidto examineinto,
orcouldnotbearto partwith. Forsuchis thestuffthatman
is madeof: inprincipleandinpractice,inarighttrackandin
awrongone,therarestofallhumanqualitiesis consistency.
Itmrn_varXIII.Whenamanattemptstocombattheprincipleofutility,
ocnsi_
eut_com.it is withreasonsdrawn,withouthis beingawareof it, fromImlZd.
_.] oft/,_e,-i,_ir__ vt_uy. ._
that very principle itselft. His arguments,if they prove any _
thing, provenot that the principleis wren, but that, according
to the applicationshesupposesto bemade of it, it is misapplied.
Is it possible for a man to move the earth _ Yes ; but he must
first find out another earth to stand upon.
XIV. To disprove the propriety of it by arguments is im.Co_Wb¢take_for1'Theprincipleofutility,(Ihaveheardit said}isa dangerousprinciple:
it isdangerouson certainoccasionsto consultit.' Thisis asmuchas to
say,what? thatit is notconsonanttoutility,toconsultutility: inshort,
that it is notconsultingit, to consultit.
Additionby theAuthor,July z82z.
Notlongafter thepublicationof theFragmenton Government,anne
1775,inwhich,inthecharacterofanall-comprehensiveandall-cummanding
principle,theprincipleof_///tywasbroughttoview,onepersonbywhom
observationtotheaboveeffectwasmadewasA/e.zanderWedderbura,at
ttrattimeAttorneyorSolicitorGeneral,afterwardssuccessivelyChiefJus-
ticeoftheCommonPleas,andChancellorofEngland,underthesuccessive
titlesof LordLoughberoughandEarl of Rosslyn. It wasmade--not
indeedin my hearing,but in the hearingof a personby whomit was
almostimmediatelycommunicatedtome. Sofarfrombeingsell-contra-
dictory,it wasa shrewdand pedectlytrueone. Bythat distinguished
functionary,thestateoftheGovernmentwasthoroughlyunderstood: by
theobscureindividual,at thattimenotsomuchassupposedtobeso : his
disquisitionsbadnotbeenasyetapplied,withanythinglikea comprehen-
siveview,tothefieldofConstitutionalLaw,northereforetothosefeatures
oftheEnglishGovernment,bywhichthegreatesthappinessoftheruling
onewithorwithoutthatofafavouredfew,arenowsoplainlyseentobc
theonlyendstowhichthecourseofithasatanytimebeendirected.The
principleof_ilitywasanappellative,atthattimeemployed--employedby
me,asithadbeenbyothera,todesignatethatwhich,inamoreperspicuous
andimtructivvmanner,may,asabove,bedesignatedbythenameofthe
weatestbap_ness_'ind!de.'Thisprinciple(saidWedderburn)isadan-gereusone.Sayingso,hesaidthatwhich,toacertainextent,isstrictly
true:aprinciple,whichlaysdown,astheonlyr/ghtandjustifiableendof
Government,thegreatesthappinesselthegreatestnumber--howcanitbe
deniedtobeadangerousone? dangerousitunquestionablyis,toevery
governmentwhichhasforitsaetutdendorobject,thegreatesthappiness
ofacertainone,withorwithouttheadditionofsomecomparativelysmall
numberofothers,whomitismatterofpleasureor_commodationtohim
toadmit,eachofthem,toashareintheconcern,onthefootingofso
manyjuniorpartners.Dangerousitthereforereallywas,totheinterest----
thesinisterinternal,---ofallthosefunctionaries,himselfincluded,whose
interestitw_s,tomaximizedelay,vexation,andexpense,injudicialand
othermodesofprocedure,forthesakeoftheprofit,extractibleoutofthe
xpe_,e. InaGovernmentwhich_ foritsendinviewtheg_.stest
ppmessotthegrnatestnumber,AlexanderWedderburnmighthavebeen
AttorneyGeneralandthen Chancellor:but he wouldnot lmvebeen
AttorneyGeneralwith£_5,oocayear,norChancellor,withapeeragewith
avetouponalljustice,with£2Loooa_ye_.,andwith5oosinecuresathis
disposal,underthen_meofEcelefiasttcalBenefices,besidesetcentrals.
6 O/tke Principle_ Utility. [eaaP.
_o_t_ possible;but,fromthecausesthathavebeenmentioned,or
_udl_t_y fromsomecon/nsedorpartialviewofit,a manmayhappentol'm,vebeen
ente_tain_lbedisposednottorelishit. Wherethisisthecase,ifhethinks
agamstit,thesettlingofhisopinionsonsuchasubjectworththetrouble,
lethimtakethefollowingsteps,andatlength,perhaps,hemay
cometoreconcilehimselftoit.
z. Lethimsettlewithhimself,whetherhewouldwishto
discardthisprinciplealtogether; ifso,lethimconsiderwhatit
is thatallhisreasonings(inmattersofpoliticsespecialJy)can
amountto?
2. Ifhewould,lethimsettlewithhimself,whetherhewould
judgeandactwithoutanyprinciple,orwhetherthereisany
otherliewouldjudgeandactby?
3. If therebe,lethimexamineandsatisfyhimselfwhether
theprinciplehethinkshehasfoundisreallyanyseparatein-
telligibleprinciple; orwhetherit benotamereprinciplein
words,akindofphrase,whichatbottomexpressesneithermore
norlessthanthemereavermentofhisownunfoundedsenti-
ments;thatis,whatinanotherpersonhemightbeapttocall
caprice?
4. Ifheisinclinedtothinkthathisownapprobationordis-
approbation,annexedtotheideaofanact,withoutanyregard
t_i_ consequences,isasu$cientfoundationforhimtojudge
andactupon,lethimaskhimselfwhetherhissentimentistobe
astandardofrightandwrong,withrespecttoeveryotherman,
orwhethereveryman'ssentimenthasthesameprivilegeof
beingastandardtoitself?
5. Inthefirstcase,lethimaskhimselfwhetherhisprinciple
isnotdespotical,andhostiletoalltherestofhumanrace?
6. Inthesecondcase,whetheritisnotanarchial,andwhether
at thisratetherearenotasmanydit_erentstandardsofright
andwrongastherearemen? andwhethereventothesame
man,thesamething,whichisrightto-day,maynot(withoutthe
leastchangeinitsnature)bewrongto-morrow? andwhether
thesamethingisnotrightandwrongin thesameplaceat the
_ametime_ andineithercase,whetherallargumentisnotat
_.] of_ P,i,,oi_¥ _tlzit_. 7
anend? andwhether,whentwomenhavesaid,' I likethis,'
and'Idon'tlikeit,'theycan(uponsuchaprinciple)haveany
thingmoretosay?
7.Ifheshouldhavesaidtohimself,No:forthatthesenti-
mentwhichheproposesasastandardmustbegroundedon
reflection,lethimsayonwhatparticularsthereflectionisto
turn? ifonparticularshavingrelationto theutilityoftheact,
thenlethimsaywhetherthisisnotdesertinghisownprinciple,
andborrowingassistancefromthatveryonein oppositionto
whichhesetsit up : orif notonthoseparticulars,onwhat
otherparticulars?
8. Ifheshouldbeforcompoundingthematter,andadopting
hisownprincipleinpart,andtheprincipleofutilityinpart,let
himsayhowfarhewilladoptit ?
9. Whenhehassettledwithhimselfwherehewillstop,then
lethimaskhlm.elfhowhejustifiestohimselftheadoptingitso
far?andwhyhewillnotadoptitanyfarther!
IO.Admittinganyotherprinciplethantheprincipleofutility
tobearightprinciple,a principlethatit is rightforamanto
pursue; admitting{whatisnottrue)thatthewordr/ghtcan
haveameaningwithoutreferencetoutility,lethimsaywhether
thereisanysuchthingasa motivethata mancanhaveto
pursuethedictatesofit : if thereis,lethimsaywhatthat
motiveis,andhowit is tobedistinguishedfromthosewhich
enforcethedictatesofutility: if not,thenlastlylethimsay
whatit isthisotherprinciplecanbegoodfor
CHAPTER II.
OFPRINCIPLESADVERSETOTHATOFUTILITY.
Allether I. IF the principleof utihty be aright principleto be governedDnnciples
t_n taLtorby, and that in all cases, it follows Item what has been justutilitymust
bew,o_z, observed, that whatever principle differs from it in any case
must necessarily bea wrong one. Toproveany other principle,
therefore,to be a wrong one, there needs no more than just to
show it to be what it is, a principle oI which the dictates are in
some point or other different from those of the principle of
utility : to state it is to confute it.
wa_.[u II. A principle may be different from that of utility in twowhlcha
_noipleways:x.By beingconstantlyopposedtoit:thisistheeasem_ybe
_Tons. witha principlewhichmay betermedtheprincipleofasceti-
c/sinz 2.By beingsometimesopposedtoit,andsometimes
Asc_c_m. i Asceticisa termthatkasbeensometimesappliedtoMonks.It comes
word._Sduort_efromaGreekwordwhichsignifiesex_c_c.ThepracticesbywhichMonks
_o_ of soughttodistinguishthemselvesfromothermenwerecalledtheirExer-
theMo_. cises. Theseexercisesconsistedin soninnycontrivancestheyhadfor
tormentingthemselves.Bythistheythoughtto ingratiatethemselves
withthe Deity. FortheDeity,saidthey,is a Beingef infinitebenevo-
lence: nowa Beingof themostordinarybenevolenceis pleasedto see
othersmgkethemselvesashappyastheycan:thereforetomakeourselves
as unhappyaswecanisthe wayto pleasethe Deity.Ifanybodyasked
them,whatmotivetheycouldfindfordoingallthis?Oh!saidthey,you
arcnottoimaginethatwearepunishingourselvesfornothing: weknew
verywellwhatweareabout. Youareto knew,thatforeverygrainef
painitcostsusnow.wearetohaveahundredgrainsofpleasurebyandby.
Thecaseis, thatGodlovestoseeustormentourselvesatpresent: indeed
he hasas goodastoldusse. Butthisisdoneonlytotryus,inorderjust
toseehowwesheuldbehave:whichitisplainhecouldnot]mow,without
makingtheexperiment.Nowthen,fromthesatisfactionitgiveshimto i
seeusmakeourselvesasunhappyaswecanmakeourselvesinthispresent ]
[i/e,wehavea sureproofof thesatisfactionit willgivehimtoseeusa_happyashecanmakeus ina lifeto come.
OfPrinciple8adverseto tkat of Utility. 9
not,asitmayhappen: thisisthecasewithanother,whichmay
betermedtheprincipleofsympathyanda_til_thy.
III. Bytheprincipleof asceticismI meanthatprinciple,P_ncivleof
which,liketheprincipleofutility,approvesordisapprovesoIwilt.
anyaction,accordingtothetendencywhichitappearstohave
to augmentordiminishthehappinessofthepartywhosein-
terestisinqusstion; butinaninversemanner: approvingof
actionsinasfarastheytendto diminishhishappiness; dis-
approvingoftheminasfarastheytendtoaugmentit.
IV.It isevidentthatanyonewhoreprobatesanytheleastA_a_mnof
_ _ _ . _ . theprmcip[eparticleofpleasure,assuch,xromwna_eversourcecLenveo,isof_ti.
Forantsa partizanoftheprincipleofasceticism.It isonlycir. who.
uponthatprinciple,andnotfromtheprincipleofutility,that
themostabominablepleasurewhichthevilestof malefactors
everreapedfromhiscrimewouldbetobereprobated,ifit stood
alone.Thecaseis,thatit neverdoesstandalone; butisneces-
sarilyfollowedbysuchaquantityofpain(or,whatcomestothe
samething,sucha chanceforacertainquantityofpain)that
thepleasureincomparisonofit,isasnothing: andthisisthe
trueandsole,butperfectlysufficient,reasonformakingit a
groundforpunishment.
V.Therearetwoclassesofmenofverydifferentcomplexions,The,Dr,n-
b. W .... ciplelu_ lindV hemthepnnclpleofascetmmmappearstohavebeenera-in_e
. 1. • philosophi.braced; theoneasetofmoralists,theotherasetoIreugmn-_l,inobhers
• a r_ligioumists. Differentaccordinglyhavebeenthemotiveswhichappearo_in.
tohaverecommendedittothenoticeofthesedifferentparties.
Hope,thatistheprospectofpleasure,seemstohaveanimated
theformer:hope,thealimentofphilosophicpride: thehopeof
honourandreputationat thehandsofmen.Fear,thatis the
prospectofpain,thelatter: fear,theoffspringofsuperstitious
fancy: thefearoffuturepunishmentat thehandsofasplen-
eticandrevengefulDeity. I sayinthiscasefear: forofthe
invisiblefuture,fearis morepowerfulthanhope. Thesecir-
cumstancescharacterizethe twodifferentpartiesamongthe
partizansoftheprincipleofasceticism; thepartiesandtheir
motivesdifferent,theprinciplethesame.
l
_o Of Principlesadverseto Ilealof Utility. [CHAr.
xth_been VI. Thereligiousparty,however,appeartohavecarriedit
earnedfar....
tilerbythefartherthanthephilosophical:theyhaveactedmoreconsistently
religioua . . •
_ts _ha_andless_asely.Thephilosophicalpartyhavescarcelygone
bythephilo- . .sopbical,fartherthantoreprobatepleasurethereligiouspartyhavefre-
quentlygonesofarastomakeitamatterofmeritandofduty
tocourtpain.Thephilosophicalpartyhavehardlygonefarther
thanthemakingpainamatterofindifference.Itisnoevil,
theyhavesaid:theyhavenotsaid,itisagood.Theyhavenot
somuchasreprobatedallpleasureinthelump.Theyhave
discardedonlywhattheyhavecalledthegross;thatis,such
asareorganical,orofwhichtheoriginiseasilytracedupto
suchasareorganical:theyhaveevencherishedandmagnified
therefined.Yetthis,however,notunderthenameofpleasure:
tocleanseitselffromthesortiesofitsimpureoriginal,itwas
necessaryitshouldchangeitsname:thehonourable,theglorious,
thereputable,thebecoming,thehonestum,thedecorum,itwas
tobecalled:inshort,anythingbutpleasure.
Tttophilo- VII.Fromthesetwosourceshaveflowedthedoctrinesfrom
aol_hiealbranchofitwhichthesentimentsofthebulkofmankindhaveallalongre-hashad
mo_tinflu-ceivedatinctureofthisprinciple; somefromthephilosophical,
enc_amongpersonsor somefromthereligious,somefromboth. Menofeducation
education,tl_ereil_ou8morefrequentlyfromthephilosophical,asmoresuitedto the
amongthov_r. elevationoftheirsentiments: thevulgarmorefrequentlyfrom
thesuperstitious,dsmoresuitedtothenarrownessoftheirin-
tellect,undilatedbyknowledge: andto theabjectnessoftheir
condition,continuallyopentotheattacksoffear.Thetinctures,
however,derivedfromthe twosources,wouldnaturallyinter-
mingle,insomuchthatamanwouldnotalwaysknowbywhich
ofthemhewasmostinfluenced: andtheywouldoftenserveto
corroborateandenlivenoneanother.It wasthisconformity
that madea kindofalliancebetweenpartiesofa complexion
otherwisesodissimilar:anddisposedtheretouniteuponvarions
occasionsagainstthecommonenemy,thepartizanoftheprin-
cipleofutility,whomtheyjoinedinbrandingwiththeodious
nameofEpicurean.
_l.] Of P.rineiple8adver,e to tkat of Utility. Ix
VIII. The principleof asceticism,however,with whateverTboprinei-
warmthit mayhavebeenembracedby its partizansas aruleof_l_m°fb__m°t_
nev$r beenprivateconduct,seemsnotto havebeencarriedto anyeousidet-steelyap-
phed by
ablelength,whenappliedto thebusinessof government. In _eitherparty
fewinstancesit hasbeencarrieda littlewaybythephilosophicalnesst°theofBUSl-
party:witnesstheSpartanregimen. Thoughthen, perhaps,it ment.G°vern"
maybeconsideredas havingbeena measureofsecurity:andan
application,thoughaprecipitateandperverseapplication,ofthe
principleof utifity. Scarcelyin any instances,toanyconsider-
ablelength,by thereligious: forthevariousmonasticorders,
andthesocietiesoftheQuakers,Dumplers,Moravians,andother
religionists,havebeenfreesocieties,whoseregimennomanhas
beenastrietedto withouttheinterventionof his ownconsent.
Whatevermerit a man may have thought there wouldbe in
makinghimselfmiserable,nosuch notionseemsever to have
occurredto anyof them,that it maybe a merit,muchlessa
duty,tomakeothersmiserable:althoughit shouldseem,that if
acertainquantityof miserywerea thingsodesirable,it would
not mattermuchwhetherit werebroughtby eachmanupon
himself,orby onemanuponanother. It is true,that fromthe
samesourcefromwhence,amongthereligionists,theattachment
totheprincipleofasceticismtookitsrise,flowedotherdoctrines
andpractices,fromwhichmiseryin abundancewasproducedin
onemanby theinstrumentalityof another: witnesstheholy
wars,and the persecutionsfor religion. But the passionfor
producingmiseryin thesecasesproceededuponsomespecial
ground: the exerciseofit wasconfinedtopersonsof particular
descriptions: theyweretormented,notas men,but asheretics
andinfidels.To haveinflictedthesamemiserieson theirfellow-
believersand fellow-sectaries,wouldhavebeenasblameablein
the eyesevenof thesereligionists,as in thoseof a partizanof
theprincipleof utility. Fora man to give himselfa certain
numberofstripeswasindeedmeritorious:but to givethe same
numberof stripesto anotherman, notconsenting,wouldhave
beenasin. We readof saints,whoforthe goodof theirsouls,
andthe mortificationof theirbodies,havevoluntarilyyielded
I_ 0/Prir_ipleaadveraeto lhato/ UtiZlty. Fcs_.
themselvesapreytovermin: batthoughmanypersonsofthis
classhavewieldedthereimo£empire,wereadof nonewho
havesetthemselvestowork,andmadelawsonpurpose,witha
viewofstockingthebodypoliticwiththebreedofhighwaymen,
housebreakers,oriaoendiafies.Ifatanytimetheyhavesu_ered
thenationtobepreyeduponbyswarmsofidlepensioners,or
uselessplaeemen,it hasratherbeenfromnegligenceandim-
beeility,thaufromanysettledplanforoppressingandplundering
ofthepeople.If at anytimetheyhavesappedthesourcesof
nationalwealth,bycrampingcommerce,anddrivingtheinhabi-
tantsintoemigration,it hasbeenwithotherviews,andinpur-
suitofotherends. If theyhavedeclaimedagainstthepursuit
ofpleasure,andtheuseofwealth,theyhavecommonlystopped
at declamation: theyhavenot,likeLycurgus,madeexpress
ordinancesforthepurposeofbanishingthepreciousmetals.If
theyhaveestablishedidlenessbya law,ithasbeennotbecause
idleness,themotherofviceandmisery,isitselfa virtue,but
becauseidleness(saythey)istheroadtoholiness.Ifunderthe
notionoffasting,theyhavejoinedintheplanofconfiningtheir
subjectstoadiet,thoughtbysometobeofthemostnourishing
andprolificnature,ithasbeennotforthesakeofmakingthem
tributariestothenationsbywhomthatdietwastobesupplied,
butforthesakeofmanifestingtheirownpower,andexercising
theobedienceofthepeople.If theyhaveestablished,orsuffered
to.beestablished,punishmentsforthebreachofcelibacy,they
havedonenomorethancomplywiththepetitionsof those
deludedfigorists,who,dupesto theambitiousanddeep-laid
policyoftheirrulers,firstlaidthemselvesunderthatidleobliga-