Nutritional Periodization Applications for the Strenght Athlete

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Nutritional Periodization:
Applications for the
Strength Athlete
Jacob A. Mota, MS,1,2 Greg Nuckols, MA,1 and Abbie E. Smith-Ryan, PhD1,2,3
1Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina;
2Human Movement Science Curriculum, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and
3Department of Allied Health Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
A B S T R A C T
NUTRITIONAL PERIODIZATION IS
DEFINED AS THE PREPLANNED AND
STRATEGIC USE OF NUTRITIONAL
INTERVENTIONS IN EFFORTS TO
OPTIMIZE EXERCISE PERFOR-
MANCE AND BODY COMPOSITION
THROUGHOUT THE TRAINING PRO-
GRAM OF ATHLETES. OWING TO
THE NOVELTY OF THE BODY OF
LITERATURE SURROUNDING NUTRI-
TIONAL PERIODIZATION, THE
DIRECT APPLICATION OF THIS IDEA
TO STRENGTH OR POWER ATH-
LETES HAS YET TO BE THOR-
OUGHLY DISCUSSED. THE
PURPOSE OF THIS REVIEW IS TO
SYNTHESIZE THE AVAILABLE LITER-
ATURE REGARDING NUTRITIONAL
STRATEGIES THAT MAY AID THE
PERFORMANCEOFSTRENGTHAND
POWER ATHLETES AND DISCUSS
HOW THESE NUTRITIONAL STRAT-
EGIES CAN BE PERIODIZED AND
INTEGRATED INTO THE ATHLETE’S
PREPROGRAMMED TRAINING PLAN.
INTRODUCTION
F
or almost half a century, period-
ization has been used to shape
exercise programs to enhance
performance adaptations for athletes
(6,32,36,50,51,56). Periodization is gen-
erally defined as the consolidation of
short-, medium-, and long-term plan-
ning to optimize training-driven alter-
ations in human performance, while
simultaneously providing the athlete
with programmed rest and recovery
strategies. The concept of periodiza-
tion is often used in professional and
collegiate sports, as well as in power-
lifting and weightlifting.
Although exercise stimuli can be consid-
ered a primary driver of sport perfor-
mance adaptations, proper nutritional
habits also play vital roles in sport and
body composition goals. Indeed, dietary
carbohydrate and protein consumption
have received much attention in the lit-
erature for their potential links to athletic
performance (21,22,34,35,39,43,47,53,59).
The macronutrient carbohydrate is
accepted as a key contributor to endur-
ance sports because of its crucial role in
aerobic energy production (39,47), while
also serving an influential part in anaero-
bic exercise (i.e., strength training)
(43,53). Furthermore, higher levels of die-
tary protein consumption are recommen-
ded for all athletes, because of the
increased need for amino acids in the
processes of maintenance, growth, and
remodeling of tissues (i.e., protein synthe-
sis and skeletal muscle hypertrophy) and
other metabolic processes, although this
may be even more relevant in strength or
power athletes (21,25,35,47,61).
Recently, Jeukendrup (26) defined nutri-
tional periodization as following: “The
planned, purposeful, and strategic use of
specific nutritional interventions to
enhance the adaptations targeted by indi-
vidual exercise sessions or periodic train-
ing plans, or to obtain other effects that
will enhance performance longer term.”
Encompassing this definition, Jeukendrup
(26) originally aimed to target this perio-
dized approach primarily for endurance
athletes. Although the effects of nutrient
timing (manipulating acute and chronic
intake of carbohydrate and protein
before, during, and after bouts of exercise)
often receive much attention in the liter-
ature (3,27), the outcome of chronically
modulating macronutrient intake syn-
chronously with training sessions remains
understudied. Furthermore, periodized
nutrition for strength and power athletes
has not been directly evaluated. There-
fore, in this review, we aim to synthesize
the available literature regarding nutri-
tional strategies that may aid the perfor-
mance of strength and power athletes
and discuss how these nutritional strate-
gies may be periodized and integrated
into the athlete’s preprogrammed training
plan. This review is not meant to serve as
a comprehensive or exhaustive literature
search; it is simply designed to bring
attention to the specific nutrition con-
cerns of strength-power athletes and
encourage practitioners to consider this
within their existing training programs.
Address correspondence to Dr. Abbie E.
Smith-Ryan, abbiesmith@unc.edu.
KEY WORDS :
macronutrients; anaerobic; supple-
ments; powerlifting; weightlifting
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mailto:abbiesmith@unc.edu
SURVEYING THE DEMANDS OF
THE SPORT
For purposes of this review, strength and
power athletes are those for whom per-
formance is strictly defined by measures
or proxies of strength and power. For
example, performance in powerlifting,
weightlifting, strongman, highland
games, shot put, discus, short-distance
sprints, and jumping events is clearly
defined by direct measures or proxies of
muscular strength and/or power. On the
other hand, although strength and power
are clearly required to optimize perfor-
mance in sports such as American foot-
ball, rugby, wrestling, and soccer, among
many others, scoring in these sports are
not direct measures for or proxies of
strength and power. As such, athletes in
these sports would not be defined as
strength or power athletes in this review.
BASIC NUTRITION FOR STRENGTH
AND POWER ATHLETES
Although the focus of this review is cen-
tered on periodization of nutrients, it is
necessary to develop a basic understand-
ing of nutritional needs for the strength
and power athlete. That nutrition plan
should meet 3 broad criteria: (a) accept-
able caloric intake to support general
health and energetic requirements
(9,31), (b) satisfactory carbohydrate con-
sumption to aid in replenishing substrates
that were used in high-intensity training
(47), and (c) adequate protein ingestion to
maximize muscular adaptations (21,35).
Calories. Maintaining adequate
energy availability (EA) is necessary
to optimize performance, health, and
support optimal muscle protein syn-
thesis in all athletes. The concept of
adequate caloric intake (i.e., EA) is
important to discuss and account for
with these athletes because many
strength and power athletes compete
in sports with weight classes and may
be tempted to drastically reduce calo-
ric intake to decrease mass. It is esti-
mated that 30–45 kcal$kg of fat-free
mass21 (FFM)$day21 is necessary to
maintain proper metabolic function
(assuming no change in activity level)
(9,31). Utilizing FFM in combination
with energy expenditure from exercise
can help establish adequate EA calcu-
lations (9). For example, if an athlete
has 70 kg of FFM, consumes 2,300
kcal, and expends 200 kcal during
a training session, their EA is 30
kcal$kg FFM21$day21.
Beyond this criterion, caloric intake
should reflect energy balance require-
ments to meet the athlete’s goals for
gaining, losing, or the maintenance of
body mass. Caloric restriction, as
a whole, is often believed of as a pri-
mary driver of chronic weight loss;
however, other strategies (i.e., water
manipulation) may be preferred when
acute weight loss is required in a short
(i.e., ,3 days) amount of time.
Carbohydrate. Often, much of the
training for strength and power ath-
letes revolves around strength or resis-
tance exercises. Although differences
exist between the bioenergetic de-
mands of various training styles (i.e.,
bodybuilding, powerlifting, and
weightlifting), a considerable amount
of fuel from anaerobic energypath-
ways is required during and after resis-
tance exercise sessions. Consequently,
strength training may deplete large
proportions of muscle glycogen,
although likely not to the same degree
as aerobic exercise (28,39,47,53). As
such, carbohydrate may be the prefer-
ential energy substrate used during
training for strength and power ath-
letes. The acceptable macronutrient
distribution range (AMDR) for carbo-
hydrates is 45–65% of daily calories
(24). Given that the previous literature
has demonstrated that a single bout of
resistance training can result in a signif-
icant drop in muscle glycogen (53) and
low glycogen levels have been associ-
ated with increased feelings of fatigue,
perceived exertion during exercise (43),
and decreased athletic performance ca-
pabilities; (28,30,38) athletes may wish
to avoid lower levels of carbohydrate
ingestion. As such, to maintain and/or
replenish muscle glycogen, 3–5 g of
carbohydrate$kg body mass21 may be
recommended for strength ath-
letes (47).
Protein. Dietary protein consump-
tion is of paramount importance for
strength and power athletes. Dietary
protein supports muscle growth and
repair after training (21,34,35), in addi-
tion to limiting or attenuating loss of
FFM (11) and maintaining satiety
when in a hypocaloric state (59). The
AMDR for protein intake has been set
at 10–35% of total energy (24). The
recent literature has reported that 1.6
g of protein$kg body mass21 was nec-
essary to maximize gains in lean body
mass (LBM) during resistance training
(25,35). Furthermore, up to 2.4 g of
protein$kg body mass21 has been rec-
ommended for athletes under hypo-
caloric conditions (22).
Fat. Although the energetic pathways
used by strength and power athletes
do not typically use fat metabolism,
dietary fat is still an important nutrient
to consider. Dietary fat intake is neces-
sary for hormone production and to
ensure the absorption of fat-soluble vi-
tamins (i.e., vitamins A, D, E, and K).
Furthermore, n-3 and n-6 fatty acids
are essential nutrients, and inadequate
dietary fat intake, without supplemen-
tation, may increase deficiency risk of
these fatty acids. Therefore, it is rec-
ommended that fat intake should not
fall below 20% of total caloric intake
for extended periods of time and
should likely stay within the AMDR
range of 20–35% of total caloric intake
(24). As long as fat intake is adequate
(i.e., ;20% daily calories), specifically
monitoring fat intake may be less
EA5
�
Energy Intake2Exercise Energy Expenditure
FFM
�
kg
�
�
Nutritional Periodization
VOLUME 00 | NUMBER 00 | MONTH 20192
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
important for strength and power ath-
letes than monitoring carbohydrate
and protein intake. Therefore, it is pro-
posed that these athletes should pri-
marily use fats to assist in meeting
daily caloric needs. Owing to dietary
fat’s ability to delay gastric emptying
(i.e., delaying absorption of carbohy-
drates or protein) (54), athletes may
wish to avoid consuming it with
a pre- exercise, peri- exercise, or
post-exercise meal.
DEVELOPING A PERIODIZED
NUTRITION PLAN
Periodizing nutritionmay be a beneficial
strategy to optimize training volume
and body composition (i.e., percent
body fat and LBM) outcomes. To
develop a periodized nutrition plan, an
understanding of the athlete’s training
program must be detailed, incorporat-
ing their goals and annual competitive
and off-season cycles. Because the topic
of designing training programs is out-
side of the scope of this review, the
reader is directed to other available re-
sources (6,19,62). However, it is possible
to make evidence-based recommenda-
tions concerning nutrition modifica-
tions to accommodate alterations in
training load and different body mass–
based goals of the athlete (Table).
Increases in training load. Train-
ing load is defined as the total amount
of mechanical work performed during
exercise training sessions (19,62).
Although training load can be calcu-
lated in a number of ways (i.e.,
volume-load and repetition-volume),
it is a key independent variable when
it comes to exercise program periodi-
zation schemes (6,19). Accordingly,
when training load increases (i.e.,
greater amounts of exercise intensity
or volume), often during the transition
from a competitive phase to a general
preparatory phase, calorie and carbo-
hydrate intake should be increased to
accommodate the additional energy
requirements. Not only is sufficient
energy intake (i.e., energy balance) nec-
essary to maximize adaptations to
training but also is insufficient energy
intake (which can result from an
increase in training volume without
a concomitant increase in energy
intake) a risk factor for overtraining
because of the body’s inability to prop-
erly recover (33). Overtraining is asso-
ciated with decreased training quality
and increased susceptibility to injuries
and/or illnesses (49). Increases in train-
ing load (particularly weekly volume
increases exceeding 50% of the previ-
ous month’s average weekly volume)
are a key predictor of injury in athletic
populations (13,15). As such, increases
in total calorie intake to match
increased training demands are neces-
sary to both maximize physiological
adaptations and minimize injury risk.
That is, changes in training volume will
dictate specifics for caloric intake, such
as that when training volume increases,
EA should be calculated to determine
appropriate caloric intake, which
match the specific goals for the individ-
ual athlete. For instance, using our pre-
vious example, an athlete with 70 kg
FFM who now expended 400 kcal
from exercise (up from 200 kcal), and
maintained energy intake of 2,300 kcal,
his/her EA would be 27.1 kcal$kg
FFM21$day21 (down from 30 kcal$kg
FFM21$day21, assuming no change in
their activity level). To achieve previ-
ous EA, while simultaneously achiev-
ing the minimum recommended EA
(9), the athlete would need to consume
2,500 kcal. Although an upper limit EA
may exist, achieving this may be
dependent on the individual athlete’s
body composition goals. Thus, EA
for this athlete may be increased to
45 kcal$kg FFM21$day21 by consum-
ing approximately 3,550 kcal (9,31), if
the athlete has the desire to increase
body mass. It is important to note that
the aforementioned examples are all
assuming no change in the activity
level; if a change occurs (i.e., increase
or decrease in activity), the athlete may
need to recalculate EA.
Decreases in training load.When
training loads decrease, as may be the
case during the transition between
a preparatory phase and a competitive
phase, caloric intake should decrease
as well, assuming caloric intake was
sufficient during the previous segment
of higher training volume. A failure to
decrease energy intake could result in
a positive caloric balance and the accu-
mulation of body fat. Training volume
is a key determinant of hypertrophy
(45), so an inadvertent positive energy
balance would most likely result in
increased rates of body fat accumula-
tion, rather than increased LBM, dur-
ing a phase of decreased training
volume. For most strength and power
athletes, the accumulation of body fat
will decrease chances of competitive
success, as it increases body mass with-
out increasing capacity for strength or
power (i.e., decrease relative strength
and power). However, when decreas-
ing energy intake, total EA should
remain above 30 kcal$kg FFM21 (31),
and carbohydrate intake should be at
least 3 g$kg body mass21 (47).
Increases in body mass. Some
strength and power athletes may
desire to gain fat-free or lean mass.
Fat-freemass$cm of height21 is a strong
predictor of performance in powerlift-
ing (8), and more successful sprinters
tend to be heavier (because of higher
levels of LBM) (46). Thus, increasing
LBM may improve the competitive-
ness of many strength and power ath-
letes. To increase LBM, the athlete
must achieve a positive caloric balance
by increasing total calorieintake
(assuming constant activity level). Fur-
thermore, because resistance training
volume is the key determinant of
hypertrophy (45), efforts to increase
LBM will generally be accompanied
by increases in training volume, requir-
ing further increases in calorie intake.
Accordingly, carbohydrate intake
should likely be near the top of the
3–5 g$kg body mass21 range to accom-
modate the type of training required to
maximize hypertrophy. Similarly,
dietary protein intake can be in-
creased beyond 1.6 g of protein$kg
body mass21, and up to 2.4 g of pro-
tein$kg body mass21 to stimulate mus-
cle protein synthesis (22,25,34,35). The
exact increase in the amount of dietary
carbohydrate or protein will be dic-
tated by the previous macronutrient
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breakdown of the athlete and can be
performed using supplementation (21).
However, the caloric surplus may only
need to be modest to maximize hyper-
trophy. In a study by Garthe et al. (17),
a group of athletes increasing their cal-
orie intake by an average of 741
kcal$day21 did not gain significantly
more LBM over 8–12 weeks than
a group that increased their calorie
intake by an average of 394 kcal$day21.
However, over the same time period,
fat mass significantly increased by 15–
20% in the group with the larger caloric
surplus and did not significantly
change in the group with the smaller
surplus (17). Thus, a 300–500 kcal sur-
plus may be an appropriate range to
support increases in body mass, while
maintaining desired body composition.
Decreases in body mass. As with
reductions in training load, periods
aimed at reducing body mass should
also be met with decreases in energy
intake to create a caloric deficit. Fur-
thermore, protein needs may be higher
when in a caloric deficit because mus-
cle protein synthesis may decrease (4);
recommendations are 1.3–1.8 g$kg
body mass21 with maintenance calorie
intake (40), but 1.6–2.4 g$kg body
mass21 during a deficit (22). Adequate
EA should be maintained during bouts
of training (at least 30 kcal$kg FFM21),
(9,31) to prevent compromised train-
ing. Finally, smaller deficits (e.g., losing
;0.5% of body mass$week21) have
been shown to be more beneficial for
maintaining LBM and performance
compared with larger deficits (losing
;1% of body mass$week21) (16). This
is in agreement with the recommenda-
tion that EA should be maintained
while training to reduce body
mass (9,31).
Competition. Strength and power
athletes may have specific nutritional
needs before and during competition,
depending on their sport. For exam-
ple, strength or power athletes who
compete in weight class–based
sports may engage in acute weight
cutting practices to compete in
a weight class lower than their normal
body mass (41). Other strength and
power athletes, specifically strongman
competitors, compete in multiple
events that may span an entire day, or
even multiple days, and may also cut
weight (discussed more below). As
such, a periodized nutrition plan
should account for specific nutrient
demands of competitions (i.e.,
increased EA demands) (29). Specifi-
cally, rehydration practices or peri-
competition supplementation of
carbohydrate should be built into the
athlete’s nutritional program in efforts
Table
Evidence-based recommendations for nutrition modifications geared to accommodate alterations in training load and
different body mass–based goals of the athlete
Decreasing body mass Maintaining body mass Increasing body mass
Decreased
training
volume
Decreased calorie intake sufficient to
lose ;0.25–0.75% of body mass
per week (larger caloric decrease to
reflect decreased training volume)
Minimum EA, 30 kcal$kg21 FFM
CHO, 4–5 g$kg body mass21
PRO, 1.6–2.4 g$kg body mass21
Slight decrease in caloric intake to
reflect decreased training volume
CHO, 4–7 g$kg body mass21
PRO, 1.2–1.8 g$kg body mass21
Not recommended (Not ideal for
skeletal muscle hypertrophy and/
or increased risk of fat
accumulation)
No change
in
training
volume
Decreased caloric intake sufficient
to lose ;0.25–0.75% of body mass
per week
Minimum EA, 30 kcal$kg21 FFM
CHO, 4–5 g$kg body mass21
PRO, 1.6–2.4 g$kg body mass21
No change in calorie intake
CHO, 4–7 g$kg body mass21
PRO, 1.2–1.8 g$kg body mass21
Increased calorie intake to increase
body mass 0.1–0.25% per week
CHO, 6–7 g$kg body mass21
PRO, 1.2–1.8 g$kg body mass21
Increased
training
volume
Not recommended (increased risk
of overtraining or injury)
Slight increase in caloric intake to
reflect increase in volume
CHO, 4–7 g$kg body mass21
PRO, 1.2–1.8 g$kg body mass21
Increased calorie intake to increase
body mass 0.1–0.25% per week
(larger caloric increase to reflect
increase in training volume)
CHO, 6–7 g$kg body mass21
PRO, 1.2–1.8 g$kg body mass21
Assumes neutral caloric balance at a current level of training volume.
CHO 5 carbohydrate; EA 5 energy availability; FFM 5 fat-free mass; PRO 5 protein.
Nutritional Periodization
VOLUME 00 | NUMBER 00 | MONTH 20194
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
to maintain desired levels of perfor-
mance and wellbeing.
Cutting weight. Three nutritional
strategies that may aid in acute weight
cutting are carbohydrate depletion,
cessation of creatine supplementation,
and water loading. When 1 g of carbo-
hydrate is stored, it is stored with 3–4 g
of water (37). Because the muscle and
liver can store 400–500 g of glycogen
(58), an athlete with full glycogen
stores could be up to 2.5 kg heavier
than they would be when glycogen is
fully depleted. Full depletion is unlikely
(and likely undesirable), but switching
to a very low carbohydrate diet (,20–
50 g$day21) during the last week of
a weight cut can potentially help an
athlete lose 1–2 kg of body mass
because of glycogen depletion.
Whether glycogen depletion is a desir-
able strategy for cutting weight de-
pends on the length of time between
weigh-ins and the competition, as well
as the nature of the competition. Gly-
cogen depletion is less likely to hinder
performance where weigh-ins take
place the day before competition, giv-
ing the athlete time to replenish glyco-
gen stores (39), with greater
consequences for weigh-ins that occur
the day of competition. Furthermore,
glycogen depletion is less likely to hin-
der performance in a sport such as
powerlifting, characterized by single,
short-duration efforts (i.e., greater reli-
ance on stores of creatine phosphate
and adenosine triphosphate), and more
likely to hinder performance in sports
where the duration exceeds 8 seconds,
such as strongman (time range, 10–240
seconds) or 200m sprints (20–40 sec-
onds). Creatine loading acutely in-
creases body mass by 1–1.5% (14,48)
because it draws water into muscle tis-
sue and is stored, much like glycogen
(7,23,57). Hence, cessation of supple-
mentation may acutely decrease body
mass as muscle total phosphocreatine
returns to baseline levels. It is estimated
that it takes roughly 1 month for phos-
phocreatine stores to return to presup-
plementation levels after cessation of
supplementation (55), so if an athlete
who supplements with creatine wishes
to cut weight by ceasing supplementa-
tion, they should terminate supplemen-
tation a month before their competition.
However, the athlete should carefully
consider the cost/benefit ratio of crea-
tine cessation because although this
practice may, in fact, provide a small
decrease in bodymass, removing supple-
mentation may negatively impact perfor-
mance. Finally, water loading is
a nutritional strategy that can be used
to acutely decrease bodymass. In a study
by Reale et al. (42), combat sport athletes
who consumed 100 mL fluids$kg body
mass21 for 3 days, followed by 1 day of
reducing fluid intake to 15 mL fluids$kg
body mass21, resulted in a 3.2% decrease
in body mass (mean 5 2.45 kg); how-
ever, agroup consuming 40mL$kg body
mass21 for the first 3 days (also consum-
ing 15 mL fluids$kg body mass21 on the
fourth day) only decreased bodymass by
2.4% (1.85 kg). The additional 0.8%
decrease in body mass was attributable
to higher urine output on the fourth day
when fluid intake was restricted in the
group that had been consuming 100 mL
fluids$kg body mass21 on the preceding
3 days. Therefore, water loading may
result in a meaningful loss in body mass
within a short period of time.
Multi-event competitions. In the
sport of strongman, a typical competi-
tion will have 5–7 events, with events
requiring very high levels of exertion
for 10–240 seconds. In addition, some
track and field athletes may perform
multiple events during a track meet.
Owing to the combination of high vol-
ume and intense anaerobic exertions,
multievent competitions may benefit
from periexercise carbohydrate intake
(1,5,47). On the day of competition,
elevated carbohydrate intake (;5 g$kg
body mass21) may also be recommen-
ded (29), with ;1 g$kg body mass21
between each event (29,47), to account
for the modified EA (i.e., potentially
increased energy expenditure) (9,31).
CONSIDERATIONS FOR FEMALE
ATHLETES
The hormonal changes that take place
throughout the menstrual cycle influ-
ence the metabolic rate and total daily
energy expenditure (TDEE) in
women. The sleeping metabolic rate
is 6.1–7.7% higher during the luteal
phase of the menstrual cycle than the
follicular phase, and TDEE is 2.5–
11.5% higher (12). Progesterone in-
creases during the luteal phase (10),
which elevates the body’s thermoreg-
ulatory set point. This is reflected by
increases in body temperature during
the luteal phase, which drives the
increase in energy expenditure (12).
As such, small increases in calorie
intake during the luteal phase of the
menstrual cycle, in addition to the
aforementioned recommendations,
may be advisable for female athletes.
In addition, inadequate caloric intake
has been directly associated with men-
strual cycle dysfunction (18); thus,
accounting for menstruation-
associated increased caloric needs, in
addition to exercise energy expendi-
ture, may be important. Other consid-
erations for female athletes and
nutritional periodization suggest fast-
ing before exercise for the female ath-
lete may blunt fat oxidation and
metabolic rate, more so than men
(60). Women may also be less respon-
sive to glycogen supercompensation
methods, requiring higher carbohy-
drate needs (8 g$kg body mass21)
when glycogen saturation is desired
(44,52). Periodization of acute feedings
may be particularly relevant for female
athletes.
EXAMPLE ATHLETES
Female powerlifter. To illustrate
how nutrition may be periodized for
strength and power athletes, an exam-
ple is provided of a 170-cm,
25-year-old, eumenorrheic female
powerlifter with a body mass of
80 kg who aims to compete in the
72-kg class in 6 months. After that
competition, she aims to gradually
move up to the 84-kg weight class.
All calculations in the following para-
graphs are based on the equations of
Hall’s model of dynamic weight
change with energy imbalance (20).
Using these equations, this lifter’s rest-
ing metabolic rate (RMR) would be
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estimated at approximately 1,580
kcal$day21. She trains 4 days per week
with light activity for her job, so her
TDEE would be roughly 1.8 3 her
RMR, or approximately 2,840
kcal$day21. Because this athlete aims
to compete at 72 kg in 6 months, she
would likely aim to get down to ;74
kg in the week before the competition
because;3% (2.2 kg) of body mass can
be lost acutely through water manipu-
lation without negatively affecting per-
formance (42). Hence, she would be
aiming to lose approximately ;0.45%
(0.33 kg) of her body mass per week,
which is in line with the recommenda-
tions explained previously. To do this,
it is estimated she would need to
decrease her calorie intake to approx-
imately 2,460 kcal$day21. Assuming
this athlete has 25% body fat (60 kg
FFM), her EA at this calorie intake
would be 41 g$kg FFM21 on nonexer-
cise days.
Given an intake of 2,460 kcal$day21,
we can calculate daily macronutrient
ranges. Because this athlete would be
in a caloric deficit, she would aim for
1.6–2.4 g of protein$kg body mass21, or
128–192 g$day21. To maximize carbo-
hydrate intake given her restricted
caloric intake, fat intake would be set
at 20–25% of total energy intake, or 55–
68 g$day21. This leaves 1,080–1,453
kcal$day21 for carbohydrate intake,
amounting to 270–363 g$day21 (3.4–
4.5 g$kg21 body mass). To conform
to all of the macronutrient recommen-
dations described previously, this ath-
lete could consume 160 g of
protein$day21 (2 g$kg body mass21),
320 g of carbohydrate$day21 (4 g$kg
body mass21), and 60 g of fat$day21
(22% of daily calories). Finally, to
account for the increase in energy
expenditure that occurs during the
luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, this
athlete could increase total calorie
intake by 5% during the last 2 weeks
of her cycle, bringing total calorie
intake to 2,583 kcal$day21, with the
increase in energy coming from aug-
mented carbohydrate intake, bringing
her daily carbohydrate intake up to 360
g$day21 (4.5 g$kg body mass21). An
illustrative example can be seen in
the Figure.
Throughout this process, the athlete
would monitor her body mass and
adjust calorie intake to maintain the
necessary rate of body mass loss (i.e.,
;0.45% of her body mass per week). If
she is losing mass too quickly, she
should prioritize adding calories
through increased carbohydrates. On
the other hand, if she is losing body
mass too slowly, she should first try
to decrease carbohydrate intake and
monitor the effects on her training.
Because the primary purpose of carbo-
hydrate is to fuel intense training, if she
does not notice decreased training
quality and increased fatigue with
decreased carbohydrate intake, it
should not be problematic for her car-
bohydrate intake to fall below 4 g$kg
body mass21. However, if her ability to
maintain her training quality decreases
as carbohydrate intake is lowered, she
would need to revert her carbohydrate
consumption back to 4 g$kg bodymass21
(i.e., 320 g of carbohydrate$day21) and
then decrease protein intake because fat
intake is already very close to the bottom
of the ADMR. If her training quality is
still relatively low, an additional increase
beyond 4 g carbohydrate$kg body
mass21 is warranted but should be per-
formed with careful monitoring of her
bodymass and adjusted accordingly. This
approach should minimize any training
quality impairments while still allowing
the athlete to be in a caloric deficit and
reduce body mass.
The week before her competition, this
athlete should be approximately 74 kg.
To lose the last 2 kg, she could follow
the water manipulation protocol laid
out by Reale et al. (42). Specifically, 4
days before weigh-ins, she would
switch to a low-residue (i.e., low-
fiber) diet, maintain her modest calorie
deficit, and begin consuming 100 mL
of fluids$kg body mass21 (7.4 L$day21).
She would maintain this level of water
intake for 3 days. The day before
weigh-ins, she would decrease her fluid
intake to 15 mL$kg body mass21 (1.1
L). The next day, she should weigh in
below 72 kg because the mean body
mass loss using this protocol was
3.2% of initial body mass, and she only
needed to lose 2.7%. After weigh-ins,
she would begin a rehydration proto-
col, consuming isotonic fluid until
reaching a body mass of at least 74 kg.
After the competition, at a new body
mass of 74 kg, this athlete’s TDEE
would be approximately 2,732
kcal$day21. As discussed previously
(17), she can likely increase calorie
intake by approximately 300 kcal$day21
to gain LBM with minimal fat gain,
bringing her daily calorie target to
approximately 3,030 kcal$day21 as she
attempts to fill out the 84-kg weight
class. The increasedcalorie intake
means that macronutrient targets
change. She should aim for 1.6–2.4 g
of protein$kg body mass21 (118–177
g$day21) and 4–5 g of carbohydrate$kg
body mass21 (296–370 g$day21). This
leaves 58–101 g of fat, of which 70 g
of fat is required for dietary fat to remain
at 20% of total calorie intake. Thus, this
athlete could havemacronutrient targets
of 163 g of protein$day21 (2.2 g$kg body
mass21), 370 g of carbohydrate$day21
(5 g$kg body mass21), and 100 g of
fat$day21 (30% of total calorie intake)
to fall within the range of recommended
intakes for all macronutrients and meet
recommended caloric goals. As before,
she could increase calorie intake by 5%
during the luteal phase of her menstrual
cycle, bringing total caloric intake up to
3,184 kcal$day21.
As this athlete gains body mass, she
should monitor her body mass and
composition and adjust her calorie
intake accordingly. If she is not gaining
body mass, she should increase calorie
intake. This increase in calories could
come from either fat or protein
because both are set below the top of
their respective ranges. If her body
composition begins to worsen (i.e.,
unplanned increase in fat mass), she
should decrease the magnitude of her
caloric surplus, by either decreasing
carbohydrate or fat intake, because
higher protein intakes are generally
associated with more desirable body
composition outcomes in caloric sur-
pluses (2).
Nutritional Periodization
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Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Male strongman competitor. To
provide an additional example of
periodized nutrition, we present
a 181-cm, 32-year-old male strong-
man competitor who has a body mass
of 120 kg. Using the aforementioned
equations, estimated RMR was calcu-
lated to be 2,140 kcal$day21. Assum-
ing the athlete trains 5 days per week
with light activity for his job, TDEE is
estimated to be 2.0 3 his RMR, or
approximately 4,280 kcal$day21. In
this example, the athlete wishes to
compete as a heavyweight (.105
kg) in 2, multiday strongman compet-
itions over the next 6 months. As such,
a primary goal for this athlete is to
simply maintain his existing mass, par-
ticularly fat-free mass, while simulta-
neously avoiding overtraining.
To maintain this athlete’s body mass,
provided a TDEE of 4,280
kcal$day21, we can calculate daily
macronutrient ranges. To begin, the
protein recommendations should be
1.6–2.4 g$kg body mass21$day21, or
192–288 g$day21. Fat intake could be
set at 20–25% of total energy intake,
95–119 g$day21. Finally, with 2058–
2,656 kcal$day21 of TDEE remain-
ing, carbohydrate intake is suggested
to be 480–600 g$day21 (4.0–5.0 g$kg
body mass21). As such, the athlete
could consume 266 g of protein (2.2
g$kg body mass21), 576 g of carbohy-
drate (4.8 g$kg body mass21), and 100
g of fat$day21 (21% of daily calories).
As discussed in the previous exam-
ple, the athlete will be advised to
closely monitor their body mass and
adjust caloric intake accordingly.
Specifically, if the body mass of the
athlete begins to decrease, he should
first attempt to increase carbohy-
drate intake up to 5 g$kg body
mass21. If further calories are
required, the athlete can begin to
increase protein or fat intake. Con-
versely, if the body mass of the ath-
lete begins to increase, assuming
training volume and intensity remain
constant, the athlete should consider
reducing carbohydrate intake. On
competition days, the athlete should
increase carbohydrate intake to 5
g$kg body mass21 (600 g) to ensure
proper glycogen replenishment dur-
ing these periods of high stress. Fur-
thermore, if the athlete begins to
experience an inappropriate amount
of training-induced fatigue, the
Figure. Illustrative example of periodized nutrition for a strength athlete wishing to lose and then gain body mass over the course
of a competitive season.
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athlete may wish to increase his car-
bohydrate intake to promote proper
recovery (and avoid overtraining)
throughout training by ensuring ade-
quate energy (i.e., calories) is
available.
During the multiday strongman
competition, it will be exceptionally
important for the athlete to consume
additional carbohydrate (;1–2 g$kg
body mass21) to replenish glycogen
that was used during the strongman
events. In addition, because strong-
man competitions are frequently
performed outdoors, the athlete
should aim to combat dehydration by
consuming water, or a carbohydrate-
electrolyte beverage; the amount
required may be dependent on envi-
ronmental conditions or sweat rates,
and carbohydrates consumed
through beverage should be included
in daily macronutrient considera-
tions. Furthermore, hydration can
be monitored with acute changes in
body mass, urine color, or urine-
specific gravity (19). Dietary fats
may be avoided during competitions
because they will not be a primary
energy source during competition
and may delay absorption of other
nutrients. However, dietary fat
should be added into the diet when
possible (i.e., on conclusion of the
day’s events) in efforts to meet caloric
needs. Meeting aforementioned mac-
ronutrient and caloric goals will
remain important during the multi-
day competition to optimize recov-
ery from the events and replenish
fuel reserves for the remainder of
the competition.
LIMITATIONS
There are a number of limitations
regarding the current body of litera-
ture that the reader should be aware
of. For instance, the use of RMR
equations to estimate caloric needs
may not be accurate for many indi-
viduals, particularly strength and/or
power athletes. Thus, this may bias
the calculation of macronutrient
needs. However, we believe this
can be overcome by closely
monitoring any changes in body
mass (i.e., increase, decrease) over
time to ensure proper macronutrient
ratios are achieved. Furthermore,
when calculating EA, an accurate
estimation of energy expenditure is
crucial. It is important for the reader
to note that the energy expenditures
used in the above examples are for
illustrative purposes only. Individual
energy expenditures should be care-
fully considered on a case-by-
case basis.
CONCLUSIONS AND PRACTICAL
APPLICATIONS
Although the practice of periodizing
training programs is widely used, the
concept of periodizing nutrition is
rarely discussed in the scientific lit-
erature, especially for strength and
power athletes. Nutrition plans for
strength and power athletes should
be periodized to match the athlete’s
training load, body composition
goals, and competition goals. In
addition to obvious considerations
such as total energy intake and mac-
ronutrient intake, further consider-
ation may be given to
supplementation, water intake, and
the menstrual cycle phase to opti-
mize body mass and performance
goals. Although many sports that
depend on strength and/or power
production capability (i.e., American
football, rugby, wrestling, etc.) have
been excluded from our specific dis-
cussion, we believe periodized nutri-
tion, as described previously, may
also be applied to some specific po-
sitions within those sports. How-
ever, sport-specific nutritional
considerations may be multifaceted
and position specific, making the dis-
cussion outside of the scope of this
review. Future research evaluating
strategies for implementing perio-
dized nutrition plans in strength
and power athletes, in addition to
other sports, is warranted.
Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding:
The authors report no conflicts of interest
and no source of funding.
Jacob A. Mota
is a PhD candi-
date at the Uni-
versity of North
Carolina at
Chapel Hill.
Greg Nuckols is
a MA student at
the University of
North Carolina
at Chapel Hill.
Abbie E.
Smith-Ryan is
an associate pro-
fessor at the
University of
North Carolina
at Chapel Hill.
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