(Geography of the Physical Environment) André Augusto Rodrigues Salgado, Leonardo José Cordeiro Santos, Julio César Paisani - The Physical Geography of Brazil- Environment, Vegetation and Landscape

Prévia do material em texto

Geography of the Physical Environment
André Augusto Rodrigues Salgado
Leonardo José Cordeiro Santos
Julio César Paisani    Editors 
The Physical 
Geography of 
Brazil 
Environment, Vegetation and Landscape 
Geography of the Physical
Environment
The Geography of the Physical Environment book series provides a platform
for scientific contributions in the field of Physical Geography and its sub-
disciplines. It publishes a broad portfolio of scientific books covering case
studies, theoretical and applied approaches as well as novel developments
and techniques in the field. The scope is not limited to a certain spatial scale
and can cover local and regional to continental and global facets. Books with
strong regional focus should be well illustrated including significant maps
and meaningful figures to be potentially used as field guides and standard
references for the respective area.
The series appeals to scientists and students in the field of geography as
well as regional scientists, landscape planners, policy makers, and everyone
interested in wide-ranging aspects of modern Physical Geography.
Peer-reviewed research monographs, edited volumes, advance and under-
graduate level textbooks, and conference proceedings covering the major
topics in Physical Geography are included in the series. Submissions to the
Book Series are also invited on the theme ‘The Physical Geography of…’,
with a relevant subtitle of the author’s/editor’s choice.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15117
http://www.springer.com/series/15117
André Augusto Rodrigues Salgado
Leonardo José Cordeiro Santos
Julio César Paisani
Editors
The Physical Geography
of Brazil
Environment, Vegetation
and Landscape
123
Editors
André Augusto Rodrigues Salgado
Brazilian National Council for Scientific
and Technological Development (CNPq)
Federal University of Minas Gerais
Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais
Brazil
Leonardo José Cordeiro Santos
Brazilian National Council for Scientific
and Technological Development (CNPq)
Federal University of Paraná
Curitiba, Paraná
Brazil
Julio César Paisani
Brazilian National Council for Scientific
and Technological Development (CNPq)
State University of Western Paraná
Francisco Beltrão, Paraná
Brazil
ISSN 2366-8865 ISSN 2366-8873 (electronic)
Geography of the Physical Environment
ISBN 978-3-030-04332-2 ISBN 978-3-030-04333-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018962377
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,
and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor
the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains
neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Cover image by Sonja Weber, München
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
André Augusto Rodrigues Salgado,
Leonardo José Cordeiro Santos and Julio César Paisani
2 Pampa: The South Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Roberto Verdum, Lucimar de Fátima dos Santos Vieira,
Jean Carlo Gessi Caneppele and Sidnei Luís Bohn Gass
3 Subtropical Araucaria Plateaus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Julio César Paisani, Leonardo José Cordeiro Santos,
Gabriela Goudard, Adriano Ávila Goulart
and Vitor Hugo Rosa Biffi
4 Atlantic Tropical Brazil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Luciana Hiromi Yoshino Kamino, Éric Andrade Rezende,
Leonardo José Cordeiro Santos, Miguel Fernandes Felippe
and Wellington Lopes Assis
5 Pantanal: The Brazilian Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Marcos Norberto Boin, Patrícia Cristina Statella Martins,
Charlei Aparecido da Silva
and André Augusto Rodrigues Salgado
6 Semi-humid: The Landscape of Central Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
André Augusto Rodrigues Salgado, Wellington Lopes Assis,
Antônio Pereira Magalhães Júnior, Flávio Fonseca do Carmo,
Michael Vinícius de Sordi and Fábio Soares de Oliveira
7 The Semi-arid Domain of the Northeast of Brazil. . . . . . . . . . 119
Antonio Carlos de Barros Corrêa,
Bruno de Azevêdo Cavalcanti Tavares,
Daniel Rodrigues de Lira, Demétrio da Silva Mutzenberg
and Lucas Costa de Souza Cavalcanti
8 The Cocais Forest Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Helen Nébias Barreto, Claudia Klose Parise
and Eduardo Bezerra de Almeida Jr.
9 Amazonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Guilherme Taitson Bueno, Luís Felipe Soares Cherem,
Fabiano Toni, Felipe Silva Guimarães and Maximiliano Bayer
v
10 Natural Landscapes Along Brazilian Coastline . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Guilherme Borges Fernandez, Thais Baptista da Rocha,
Eduardo Guimarães Barboza, Sergio Rebello Dillenburg,
Maria Luiza Correa da Camara Rosa, Rodolfo José Angulo,
Maria Cristina de Souza, Luiz Henrique Sielski de Oliveira
and Jose Maria Landim Dominguez
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
vi Contents
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
André Augusto Rodrigues Salgado received his Ph.D. in Geology from the
Federal University of Ouro Preto and in Geosciences from Université d´
Aix-Marseille, France. He is Researcher at Brazilian National Council for
Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) and Professor in the
Department of Geography at the Federal University of Minas Gerais where
he teaches geomorphology. He was, between 2013 and 2016, President of the
UGB (Brazilian Geomorphological Union).
Leonardo José Cordeiro Santos is Professor of Pedology and
Geomorphology at the Federal University of Paraná, Brazil, and Researcher
at CNPq. He is Geographer, with a master’s and Ph.D. in Physical Geog-
raphy from University de São Paulo (USP) with stage sandwich at the Institut
de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Rennes, France. He has experience in
the study of relationships between soils and reliefs in tropical landscapes.
During the period 2006–2010, he served as President of UGB (Brazilian
Geomorphological Union).
Julio César Paisani is Professor of Geomorphology at the State University
of Western Paraná, Brazil. He is a researcher at Brazilian National Council
for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq). His main lines of
research are the micromorphology of sediments and paleosols, erosive pro-
cesses, superficial formations, planed surfaces, and geomorphology of the
Quaternary.
Contributors
Rodolfo José Angulo Department of Geology, Federal University of
Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
Wellington Lopes Assis Department of Geography, Federal University of
Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
vii
Eduardo Guimarães Barboza Institute of Geosciences,Federal University
of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
Helen Nébias Barreto Department of Geosciences, Federal University of
Maranhão, São Luís, Brazil
Maximiliano Bayer Institute of Socio-Environmental Studies, Federal
University of Goiás, Goiania, Brazil
Vitor Hugo Rosa Biffi Center of Palaeoenvironmental Studies, State
University of Western Paraná, Cascavel, Brazil
Marcos Norberto Boin Geography Department, Federal University of
Grande Dourados, Dourados, Brazil
Guilherme Taitson Bueno Institute of Socio-Environmental Studies, Fed-
eral University of Goiás, Goiania, Brazil
Jean Carlo Gessi Caneppele Post-Graduation Program of Geography,
Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
Luís Felipe Soares Cherem Institute of Socio-Environmental Studies,
Federal University of Goiás, Goiania, Brazil
Maria Luiza Correa da Camara Rosa Institute of Geosciences, Federal
University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
Thais Baptista da Rocha Department of Geography, Fluminense Federal
University, Niterói, Brazil
Charlei Aparecido da Silva Geography Department, Federal University of
Grande Dourados, Dourados, Brazil
Demétrio da Silva Mutzenberg Department of Archeology, Federal
University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
Eduardo Bezerra de Almeida Jr. Department of Biology, Federal
University of Maranhão, São Luís, Brazil
Bruno de Azevêdo Cavalcanti Tavares Department of Archeology, Fed-
eral University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
Antonio Carlos de Barros Corrêa Department of Geographical Sciences,
Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
Daniel Rodrigues de Lira Department of Geography/Itabaiana, Federal
University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Brazil
Fábio Soares de Oliveira Department of Geography, Federal University of
Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Luiz Henrique Sielski de Oliveira Department of Geology, Federal
University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
Michael Vinícius de Sordi Department of Geography, Federal University
of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
viii Editors and Contributors
Maria Cristina de Souza Department of Geology, Federal University of
Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
Lucas Costa de Souza Cavalcanti Department of Geographical Sciences,
Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
Sergio Rebello Dillenburg Institute of Geosciences, Federal University of
Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
Flávio Fonseca do Carmo Instituto Prístino, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Jose Maria Landim Dominguez Department of Sedimentology, Federal
University of Bahia, Salvador, Brazil
Leonardo José Cordeiro Santos Department of Geography, Federal
University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
Miguel Fernandes Felippe Department of Geosciences, Federal University
of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Brazil
Guilherme Borges Fernandez Department of Geography, Fluminense
Federal University, Niterói, Brazil
Sidnei Luís Bohn Gass Department of Cartography, Federal University of
Pampa, Itaqui, Brazil
Gabriela Goudard Department of Geography, Federal University of
Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
Adriano Ávila Goulart Department of Geography, Federal University of
Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
Felipe Silva Guimarães Department of Geography, Pontifical Catholic,
University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Luciana Hiromi Yoshino Kamino Prístino Institute, Belo Horizonte,
Brazil
Antônio Pereira Magalhães Júnior Department of Geography, Federal
University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Patrícia Cristina Statella Martins Tourism Department, State University
of Mato Grosso Do Sul, Sinop, Brazil
Julio César Paisani Department of Geography, Center of Palaeoenviron-
mental Studies, State University of Western Paraná, Cascavel, Brazil
Claudia Klose Parise Department of Oceanography, Federal University of
Maranhão, São Luís, Brazil
Éric Andrade Rezende Prístino Institute, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
André Augusto Rodrigues Salgado Department of Geography, Federal
University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Editors and Contributors ix
Fabiano Toni Center for Sustainable Development, Brasília University,
Brasília, Brazil
Roberto Verdum Department of Geography, Federal University of Rio
Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
Lucimar de Fátima dos Santos Vieira Interdisciplinary Department,
Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
x Editors and Contributors
1Introduction
André Augusto Rodrigues Salgado,
Leonardo José Cordeiro Santos and Julio César Paisani
Abstract
Brazil is a country with continental dimen-
sions having a wide variety of landscapes.
These landscapes were divided into nine (from
south to north): (1) the Pampas that constitute
a low-range plateau relief with sub-tropical
climate and the grasslands vegetation; (2) the
Subtropical Araucaria Plateaus, characterized
by volcanic and sedimentary plateaus with
sub-tropical climate, grasslands, and ombro-
philous forests; (3) the Tropical Atlantic
which encompasses ranges and coastal plains
that receive the direct humidity of the Atlantic
Ocean and therefore has a humid tropical
climate and tropical humid forest vegetation;
(4) the Pantanal, which is a relief depression
with Semi-humid climate which in the rainfall
season becomes a great wetlands; (5) the
Semi-humid landscape characterized by many
plateaus and depressions with Semi-humid
climate and savannah vegetation; (6) the
Semi-arid landscape that constitutes ranges,
plateaus and depressions with dry climate and
steppe vegetation; (7) the Cocais, that is, a
transitional landscape between the Semi-
humid, Semi-arid, and the Amazon domains,
that developed on lowlands; (8) The Amazon,
an immense super-humid green area occupy-
ing the entire northern/northwestern of Brazil,
with a complex relief and the largest rivers
and rain forests of the world; (9) the Coastal
Brazil which is not a typical landscape unit
since it has characteristics changing accord-
ingly to the neighboring units, but it is a
synthesis of the Brazilian coast which has
more than 9.200 km of extension and high
variable environments. Because of its history
involving a series of peoples—indigenous,
Latin American, Germanic and Slavic, Afri-
can, Japanese, Arab—Brazil is today a com-
plex society with two hundred million
inhabitants, reasonably industrialized and a
great producer of food and minerals. Nowa-
days, it is one of the ten biggest economies in
the world and has many cities with more than
one million people.
The Brazilian territory has more than eight mil-
lion five hundred and fifteen thousand square
kilometers and extends from the Northern
Hemisphere—Northern Amazon—to the Prata
Estuary neighborhood, between Uruguay and
Argentina—for a 4.394 km straight line distance
A. A. R. Salgado (&)
Department of Geography, Federal University
of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
e-mail: aarsalgadoufmg@gmail.com
L. J. C. Santos
Department of Geography, Federal University
of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
e-mail: santos.ufpr@gmail.com
J. C. Paisani
Department of Geography, State University
of Western Paraná, Cascavel, Brazil
e-mail: juliopaisani@hotmail.com
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
A. A. R. Salgado et al. (eds.), The Physical Geography of Brazil,
Geography of the Physical Environment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_1
1
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_1&domain=pdf
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_1&domain=pdf
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_1&domain=pdf
mailto:aarsalgadoufmg@gmail.com
mailto:santos.ufpr@gmail.com
mailto:juliopaisani@hotmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_1
from the northernmost point to its southernmost
area. Such distance is close to its East-Western
section distance, which has 4.319 km, from
Atlantic Ocean to Peru. It consists, therefore, in a
continental dimension country, the largest in
South America, with high diversity of natural
landscapes.
During the twentieth century, a series of
pioneeringstudies tried to present and describe
the elements of the physical geography of the
entire Brazilian territory. These authors studied
the Brazilian natural environment through the-
matic approaches of the landscape elements,
either studying them separately or using an
integrated environmental perspective. From this
second type of studies, the natural landscape
classification by the geographer Aziz Ab’Saber,
during the 1960’, highlights. Such classification
is based in landscape domains which, syntheti-
cally, can be defined as the combination of nat-
ural elements groups—basically relief, climate,
and vegetation—titled morpho-climatic domains
and phytogeography provinces of Brazil
‘Domínios Morfoclimáticos e Províncias
Fitogeográficas do Brasil’ (Ab’Saber 1967)
(Fig. 1.1). It presents homogeneous central areas
(core areas) and extensive transition zones
between them.
In this sense, the book we are presenting has
as base this classification model proposed by the
geographer Aziz Ab’Saber and includes some
conceptual adaptation; for instance, the substi-
tution of the category analyzes morpho-climate
and phytogeography domains for landscape
units. Besides, the number of units is extended,
since it individualizes units previously classified
as transitional zones (Fig. 1.2). The book also
presents some cartographic reinterpretations in
the representation and the limits of this unit, and
the complete substitution of the transition zones,
considered, until then, as a single unit, and
essentially, in the updates of the natural envi-
ronment information in the light of the studies
developed by researchers from different knowl-
edge areas in the last 50 years.
Aiming to present the physical geography
characterization of the entire territory, in this
book we divided Brazilian territory into nine
Fig. 1.1 Brazilian morpho-climatic domains as in Ab’Saber (1967)—drawn by Michael Vinícius de Sordi
2 A. A. R. Salgado et al.
landscape units: Pampas, Subtropical Arau-
caria Plateaus Araucárias, Tropical Atlantic,
Pantanal, Semi-humid, Semi-arid, Cocais, Ama-
zon, and Costal Brazil. Such units can be con-
sidered as great landscape units and constitute
regions which exhibit a group of natural
environment attributes that define them and dif-
ferentiate them from the surrounding areas. The
last one, although, is not a typical landscape unit
since it has characteristics changing accordingly
to the neighboring units (Fig. 1.2). Therefore, it
is a synthesis effort for Brazilian coast which has
Fig. 1.2 Brazilian landscape units—drawn by Adriano Ávila Goulart
1 Introduction 3
more than 9.200 km of extension and high
variable environments: beaches, estuaries, man-
groves, etc. Obviously, the limit between the
different landscape units is not always easily
understood. There is an extensive transition zone
between the core areas where the elements of
different landscapes mix and confuse. Therefore,
such limits are not stationary, although they
reasonably perceptible during fieldworks.
The Pampas constitute a typical landscape of
Argentina and Uruguay. Notwithstanding, they
extend to the far southern Brazil and occupy
considerable areas of the most meridional Brazil-
ian state: Rio Grande do Sul. Its main character-
istics are the low-range plateau relief (coxilhas),
the subtropical climate, and the grasslands vege-
tation (cold South American steppe).
The Subtropical Araucaria Plateaus encom-
pass the central areas of southern Brazil: Rio
Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, and Paraná states.
The relief morphology results from the erosion of
the volcanic and sedimentary rocks from the
Paraná sedimentary basin, its subtropical climate
and the vegetation, mainly composed by grass-
lands and ombrophilous forests where the dom-
inant species are the coniferous Araucarias
angustifolia.
The Tropical Atlantic landscape unit occupies
the major part of the Brazilian eastern coast and
only has significant areas westward in the
central-southern area of the Brazilian territory.
The basic element is the tropical humid climate
which is regionally controlled by air masses from
the South Atlantic. Equally important is the
highly biodiverse tropical forest which extends
over ranges, lowlands, and plateaus of this rich
landscape unit that, within Brazil, is known as
Mata Atlântica.
The Pantanal is, considering total area, the
smallest and also the picturesque of the land-
scapes presented in our book. It is located
between the Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do
Sul states. It has by singularity the seasonal
flooding of the lands, since it is a depression
located within a Semi-humid area which is the
base level of some great rivers. During rainfall
period—summer—it becomes a great wetland. In
the dry season—winter—it turns into dry lands.
Vegetation is adapted to the seasonal climate
change.
The Semi-humid is the landscape domain of
central Brazil. It is characterized by a tropical
Semi-humid climate with dry winters—from
April to October—–and moist summers—from
October to April—and by the savannah vegeta-
tion, known as Cerrado in Brazil. Plateaus
dominate the low-dissected relief alongside with
long and smooth hillslopes. Although, given its
great dimensions, it also encompasses ranges and
lowlands.
Semi-arid is the typical landscape of the
northeastern Brazilian interior. Yet not desert, the
hot and dry climate, defines a typical hot steppe
vegetation with phytophysiognomies such as
those found in the arid areas of the globe. Given
its great extension, it encompasses ranges and
plateaus, although it is characterized by concen-
trating the most typical plain surfaces of the
country.
The Cocais is a transitional landscape between
the Semi-humid, Semi-arid, and the Amazon
domains and locates mainly in the Maranhão
State. Developed, particularly, over lowlands, its
transitional climate and vegetation result from
the interaction between the landscape units
above-mentioned. The high density of the palm
trees—Cocais—is its main characteristic, rich in
species like the Carnaúbas (Copernicia pruni-
fera), the Buritis (Mauritia vinifera Mart), and
the Babaçus (Attalea speciosa).
Finally, the Amazon domain is, perhaps, the
most spoken worldwide although it is the less
known. It is a superlatives land, which consti-
tutes an immense green area occupying the entire
northern/northwestern area of Brazil and some
part of the neighboring countries. It is widely
known by its forest, biodiversity, and great rivers
resultant from the super-humid equatorial cli-
mate. Notwithstanding, more than a forest,
Amazon domain encompasses, in its hinterland,
savanna and other types of climates and vegeta-
tion. In parallel, although recognized as a great
plain land, Amazon has a complex relief
including ranges and the highest point of
Brazilian territory: the Pico da Neblina, standing
3.000 m above sea level.
4 A. A. R. Salgado et al.
These landscapes extend within a country
divided into twenty-six states and a federal dis-
trict. The first contact with the European colo-
nizers took place on April 22, 1500, when the
Grand Master of the Christ Order (the name
given for the religious order which the Knights
Templar subsisted in Portugal) Pedro Álvares
Cabral landed in Porto Seguro, southern coast of
Bahia State. From 1500 to 1530, Portuguese
colonizers had shown little interest in Brazilian
territory, but with the chance of losing such ter-
ritory, colonization began, and in 1549 the first
Brazilian capital was funded: Salvador, Bahia.
From then on, Portuguese occupation was con-
centrated along Brazilian eastern coast and was
economically based on great plantation cultiva-
tions, mainly sugarcane, which used Africans’
slave labor. The only exception was within São
Paulo State, formerly far southern Brazil. There,
miscegenation of native indigenous and Euro-
peans constituted the ‘entradas e bandeiras’
‘entries and flags’, which were military and
exploratory movements aiming to penetrate
Brazilian hinterlands in search of gold, precious
minerals, andindigenous slaves.
Despite a series of invasions, especially by the
Dutch in the seventeenth century, which had
Pernambuco State as its center—the richest
Brazilian region at the time—Portuguese were
able, not only to maintain Brazil as a colony, as
also expand its territory southward, northward,
and westward, increasing substantially Brazilian
territory area. Although, discovering of enor-
mous gold mines within the central-southern
Minas Gerais by the end of the seventeenth
century was the main landmark of Brazilian ter-
ritory occupation. From this moment on, Por-
tuguese colonization was intensified, occupying
hinterland areas and creating urban centers.
Portuguese immigration was so intense that, in
30 years, Brazilian population tripled (here
Brazilian population is understood as the popu-
lation related to Portuguese colonization: Por-
tuguese and their descendants, black, mulatto,
indigenous, and caboclos (indigenous and Por-
tuguese miscegenation)). As a consequence of
this intense migration, Portugal suffered a great
demographic crisis.
In the early nineteenth century, gold was
already decadent and the colony capital had
moved to the central-southern region of the
country, to Rio de Janeiro city. Notwithstanding,
coffee cultivated in great farms using slave labor
has arisen, maintaining central-southern region as
the economy, population, and politics center of
Brazil, especially the areas which today corre-
spond to the São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and
Minas Gerais states. Portuguese royal family
arrival in 1808 (running from Napoleon’s inva-
sion) was the missing increment to the country’s
independence, which was accomplished in 1822
when former Portugal prince Pedro of Alcântara
declared, himself, Brazilian independence. After
a short battle, decided, mostly by Brazilian’s
Navy win over Portuguese’s, Brazil became an
empire in the Americas ruled by the former
prince Pedro of Alcântara, who became Brazil-
ian’s Emperor Dom Pedro I. During most part of
the nineteenth century, Brazil was ruled by Dom
Pedro I’s son, Emperor Pedro II. This period was
marked, although slavery continuity, by country
unification, political stability, and economic
growth. Indeed, this was the largest period of
political stability and economic growth in
Brazilian history. Also remarkable in this period
was the governmental encouragement for Euro-
pean and Cristian Arabs immigration to Brazil.
This policy populated southern Brazil (Rio
Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, and Paraná states)
and the state of São Paulo with millions of Ital-
ian, German, Polish, and other European
descendants making this region the most ‘Euro-
pean’ of the country.
Brazilian empire lasts until 1889 (shortly after
the slavery ending) when on November 15, a
military coup inaugurated the republic. That is
when an oligarchy took the power, economically
protected by coffee exportation and captained by
the ruling elites from Minas Gerais and São
Paulo states, the most richest and populous of the
country. This period was also marked by intense
Japanese migration (apart of Japan, Brazil is the
country with the larger population of Japanese
and descendants). This oligarchy falls after a
civil war and then industrialization of the country
begins. Such industrialization is concentrated in
1 Introduction 5
the southern and southeastern states of Brazil,
especially São Paulo, which disposed great
number of European labor, more skilled.
Government efforts to colonize the central,
western, and northern regions of Brazil date from
this decades due to the lack of integration of
these regions with the Brazilian reality. One of
the main landmarks of this policy was the con-
struction of Brasília (new Federal District),
which became Brazil’s capital in detriment of
Rio de Janeiro, in 1960.
From this moment on, Brazil has lived a
period of democracy and dictatorships and
nowadays is an industrialized country, with a
reasonably well-integrated territory (to the
exception of some Amazon areas), where more
than 200 million people live. Its economy,
besides industry—which lost importance in the
last years—is assisted by aliment production—
meat (world’s larger cattle herd), grains, fruits,
etc.—and for the exportation of mineral goods.
In the last forty years, Brazilian gross domestic
product (GDP) was between seventh and tenth
world’s largest, being, nowadays, accordingly to
the United Nations and World Bank, the seventh
world’s economy (between France (sixth) and
Italy (eighth). Highly urban, Brazilian territory
encompasses some of the biggest cities world-
wide, as for example, São Paulo (São Paulo
state’s capital in which more than 20 million
people live in the metropolitan area) and Rio de
Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro state’s capital with more
than 12 million people in the metropolitan area).
Besides the two main cities, several others have
more than three million habitants in the
metropolitan area, as for example, Belo Hori-
zonte (Minas Gerais state), Brasília (Federal
District), Porto Alegre (Rio Grande do Sul state),
Fortaleza (Ceará state), Salvador (Bahia state),
Recife (Pernambuco state), Curitiba (Paraná
state), and Campinas (São Paulo state).
It is the physical geography of this country
and its landscapes that our reader will discover in
the following pages.
References
Ab’Sáber AN (1967) Domínios morfolclimáticos e
províncias fitogeográficas do Brasil. Orientação
3:45–48
André Augusto Rodrigues Salgado received his Ph.D. in
Geology from the Federal University of Ouro Preto and in
Geosciences from Université d´ Aix-Marseille, France. He is
Researcher at Brazilian National Council for Scientific and
Technological Development (CNPq) and Professor in the
Department of Geography at the Federal University of Minas
Gerais where he teaches geomorphology. He was, between
2013 and 2016, President of the UGB (Brazilian Geomor-
phological Union).
Leonardo José Cordeiro Santos is Professor of Pedology
and Geomorphology at the Federal University of Paraná,
Brazil, and Researcher at CNPq. He is Geographer, with a
master’s and Ph.D. in Physical Geography from University de
São Paulo (USP) with stage sandwich at the Institut de la
Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Rennes, France. He has
experience in the study of relationships between soils and
reliefs in tropical landscapes. During the period 2006–2010,
he served as President of UGB (Brazilian Geomorphological
Union).
Julio César Paisani is Professor of Geomorphology at the
State University of Western Paraná, Brazil. He is Researcher
at Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological
Development (CNPq). His main lines of research are the
micromorphology of sediments and paleosols, erosive pro-
cesses, superficial formations, planed surfaces, and geomor-
phology of the Quaternary.
6 A. A. R. Salgado et al.
2Pampa: The South Brazil
Roberto Verdum, Lucimar de Fátima dos Santos Vieira,
Jean Carlo Gessi Caneppele and Sidnei Luís Bohn Gass
Abstract
The Pampa is a geographical area of approx-
imately 700,000 km2, located throughout the
territory of the Eastern Republic of Uruguay,
the central-eastern part of the Republic of
Argentina and part of the Federative Republic
of Brazil, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul.
Its morpho-structure is constituted by
pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks (Sul-Rio-
Grandense Plateau), by sedimentary forma-
tions deposited from the Permian to the
Jurassic (Peripheral Depression) and by Ceno-
zoic fluvial-marine sediments (Coastal Plain).
The landscape is characterized by grassland
formations of herbaceous and shrub associa-
tions, with different floristic compositions,
mainly influenced by climatic, lithological,
pedological, and geomorphological aspects, as
well as those linked with appropriations and
uses in the succession of human societies that
settled there. Concerning the biodiversity of
the fields, which typifies the Pampa, it is
characterized by the importance of the rural
formations as habitat of endemic species of
flora and fauna which faces the threat of
extinction.Besides, regarding the set of land-
scape and the identity of its inhabitants, it is
possible to state that Pampa is associated
primarily to the countryside biome. This is
to say that its replacement or gradual degra-
dation by crops, mainly grains and trees
monocultures, has also transformed their
socio-territorial identity.
2.1 Introduction
The Pampa is in the Pampean Province, with
altitudes varying from sea level to 1243 m, from
the Chaqueña subregion, which belongs to
the Neotropical region, corresponding to the
Latin American and Caribbean biogeographic
distribution.
This province, also traditionally named
Pampa Province (Pampa, Pampas, Campos
R. Verdum (&)
Department of Geography, Federal University
of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
e-mail: verdum@ufrgs.br
L. de F. dos S. Vieira (&)
Interdisciplinary Department, Federal University
of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
e-mail: lucymarvieira@gmail.com
J. C. G. Caneppele (&)
Post-Graduation Program of Geography,
Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul,
Porto Alegre, Brazil
e-mail: jeancaneppele2.0@gmail.com
S. L. B. Gass (&)
Department of Cartography, Federal University
of Pampa, Itaqui, Brazil
e-mail: sidneibohngass@gmail.com
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
A. A. R. Salgado et al. (eds.), The Physical Geography of Brazil,
Geography of the Physical Environment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_2
7
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_2&domain=pdf
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_2&domain=pdf
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_2&domain=pdf
mailto:verdum@ufrgs.br
mailto:lucymarvieira@gmail.com
mailto:jeancaneppele2.0@gmail.com
mailto:sidneibohngass@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_2
Pampeanos, Província dos Campos do Sul,
Pastizales Pampeanos, Pastizales del Río de la
Plata, Província Bonariense, Pradera Pam-
peana, Ecorregión de las Pampas), is a geo-
graphical area of approximately 700,000 km2,
located throughout the territory of the Republic
of Uruguay, the central-eastern part of the
Republic of Argentina and part of the Federative
Republic of Brazil (Fig. 2.1).
In Brazil, this is a landscape located exclu-
sively in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, with an
area of 178,243 km2, according to the biomes
map of Brazil, from Brazilian Institute for
Geography and Statistics (IBGE) (IBGE 2004),
which corresponds to 63% of the state territory
(166 municipalities from state’s 496 cities) and to
2.07% of the Brazilian territory.
In terms of landscape, the Pampa was often
described as “an equal relief, a geographical
monotony, a horizontality in which the immen-
sity of the junction that unites the surface of the
Earth and the sky is blended, a silent monot-
ony…” (Fig. 2.2). Considering these marks,
which reveals certain circumstances that human
beings have captured, appropriated, and forged
throughout their history, living and passing
through the Pampa, one may consider that these
are necessary generalizations to situate this space
on its geo-bio-historical amplitude. This ampli-
tude will be explored in this chapter.
2.2 Elements and Dynamics
of the Pampa Landscape
The landscape of the Pampa Province is charac-
terized by the minor presence of forest forma-
tions compared to countryside formations. The
grassland formations of herbaceous and shrubby
compositions are diverse and are eventually
crossed by riparian forests. The fields present
physiognomies with different floristic composi-
tions, mainly influenced by lithological, geo-
morphological, and climatic characteristics, as
well as historical features, given by the land uses
(Boldrini 1997; Vieira 2014).
There are several families, genera, and species
of plants that associate themselves and reveal the
silent walk of plants, according to the climatic
variations registered in the occupation of the
most diverse spaces. They advance and retreat
from their both tropical and semiarid climax
refuges of the cerrado (Brazilian savannah) on
the central-western region of Brazil or from the
steppes of the Monte region, in Argentina,
adapting and resisting to the new wet climate
conditions and to the sandy or stony soils of
Pampa (Boldrini 1997, 2009; Freitas et al. 2009).
In the country formations, there are many
vegetables that are relicts of past-time climates,
as well as biological adaptation records. All these
dynamics, forms, and plant structures expand
throughout the Pampa, revealed by both recent
past and present climates (Cfa type: hot summer
and humid subtropical climate), as well as by the
relief and soils in many scales, which generate
adaptations and socialization between plants and
animals that flee to the monotony in the eyes of
the observer which is interested in recognizing
the diversity of the Pampa (Verdum 2016).
The geological context in this Pampa land-
scape is made up of three provinces: Man-
tiqueira, Paraná, and Costeira. The Mantiqueira
province consists of crystalline rocks, repre-
sented by a set of lithotype granite, gneiss,
metamorphic rocks and sediments associations,
and ancient volcanic rocks (Wildner and Lopes
2010), which comprises the geomorphological
unit of Sul-Rio-Grandense Plateau (Fig. 2.3).
The province of Paraná comprises sedimen-
tary formations deposited from the Permian to
the Jurassic, which cover the lithologies of the
Mantiqueira province, overlapping and/or intru-
ded by rocks related to Serra Geral Magmatism
of Cretaceous age (Wildner and Lopes 2010),
which composes the geomorphological units of
the Peripheral Depression, the Meridional Pla-
teau, and the Cuesta de Haedo (Fig. 2.3).
The Coastal province is represented by
Cenozoic thin sediments, whose sedimentation
began during the breakup and expansion of
Gondwana continent and the consequent opening
of the Atlantic Ocean, conditioning the evolution
of this vast sand plain to the sequence of fluvial–
marine sedimentation events, culminating with
transgressive–regressive events related to the
8 R. Verdum et al.
Fig. 2.1 Geographical location of the province of Pampa. Source The authors
Fig. 2.2 Typical Pampa landscape. Source Photo by René Cabrales, 2010
2 Pampa: The South Brazil 9
processes at the end of the tertiary. In the
Quaternary occurs the development of extensive
alluvial deposits, distributed along the main riv-
ers, such as Camaquã and Santa Maria, or along
the Jacuí delta and its tributaries, followed by
residual settlements such as Santa Tecla and
Tupanciretã formations (Wildner and Lopes
2010). This province composes the Coastal or
lowland plains (Fig. 2.3).
In geotectonic terms, the origin of the
structure of Pampa landscape derives from the
fragmentation of the ancient Gondwana super-
continent and from the South Atlantic opening,
during the Cretaceous. This episode, together
with the failures that resulted in the uplift of both
Sul-Rio-Grandense Plateau and Meridional
Plateau, structured the regional landscape
(Suertegaray and Fujimoto 2004; Dantas et al.
2010; Vieira 2014). Thus, the geomorphological
perspective of Pampa presents, in synthesis, a
post-Cretaceous temporality. In this sense, one of
the most relevant facts is the uplift of the
Meridional Plateau, and this tectonic is associ-
ated with the epirogenetic survey of the South
American platform itself. In addition to the ele-
vation of the Meridional Plateau, there was a
progressive shrinkage from the escarpment of
this plateau, which led to the establishment of an
extensive coastal shoreline, the Coastal province
(Dantas et al. 2010).
This regressive erosion of volcanic escarps
has generated an extensive Peripheral Depres-
sion, which promoted the removal of volcanic
spills, made the exhumation in part of the base-
ment of Sul-Rio-Grandense Shield and, in lower
heights, the outcrops of Mesozoic sedimentary
rocks of Paraná basin (Ab’Saber 1969P). This
vast Peripheral Depression represents the lowest
Fig. 2.3 Geological provinces constituentof Rio Grande do Sul state. Source Porcher and Lopes (2000), adapted by
the authors
10 R. Verdum et al.
topographic portions of Pampa and settles the
two major draining basins of both Jacuí and
Ibicuí rivers (Fig. 2.3).
These two water systems practically divide
the water flow in the Pampa: the Ibicuí river
system goes to west, towards Uruguay River, and
the Jacuí river system goes to east, towards the
Guaíba Lake.
Finally, during the Neogene and the Quater-
nary, the evolution of the geomorphological
landscape occurred with the predominance of
dissection processes in the Pampa, as well as the
preponderance of depositional processes, with
the formation of a vast coastal plain on the coast
(Dantas et al. 2010).
Thus, currently, besides the coastal plain
(Fig. 2.4), which, in this book, is mentioned in
another chapter—Coastal Brazil—the Pampa
landscape includes the following geomorpho-
logical units: Sul-Rio-Grandense Plateau or
Uruguayan Sul-Rio-Grandense Plateau, Central
Depression or Peripheral Depression, Meridional
Plateau, and Cuesta do Haedo (Fig. 2.4).
2.2.1 Sul-Rio-Grandense Plateau
The Sul-Rio-Grandense Plateau geomorphologi-
cal unit (Fig. 2.4) consists of igneous, meta-
morphic, and sedimentary rocks of pre-Cambrian
age, from Mantiqueira geological province, with
altitudes varying from 100 to 400 m, alternating
areas with an intense dissection process and a
heterogeneity of marked reliefs with rocky out-
crops. In these extensive old eroded terrains
stand out the patterns of relief modeled by very
broad hills known regionally as coxilhas. In the
deposition areas, more recessed, there is a more
flattened relief. In turn, in the portions where the
relief is more dissected, it is possible to identify
Fig. 2.4 Geomorphological units of Rio Grande do Sul State. Source CPRM—Serviço Geológico do Brasil (2010),
adapted by the authors
2 Pampa: The South Brazil 11
well-defined sectors of aligned crests and/or
notched valleys. (Suertegaray and Guasselli
2004; Dantas et al. 2010).
This geomorphological unit is drained, at its
south portion, by Camaquã river basin, which
flows into the Laguna dos Patos, by Piratini and
Jaguarão rivers, which both flow into São Gon-
çalo and Mirim lagoons, respectively. In the
northern portion, the plateau is drained by
streams of the right bank of the Jacuí river and, in
its west portion, by streams of the right bank of
Santa Maria river (Fig. 2.4).
The climate can be defined as subtropical,
which is characterized by little humidity with
cold winter and cool summer, with an annual
rainfall average ranging between 1200 and 1500
mm, which is distributed between 80 and 100
days of the year. The annual temperature average
varies between 17 and 20 °C. The predominant
atmospheric systems are polar, with low partici-
pation of the tropical systems, as defined by
Rossato (2011).
The soils are stony (Fig. 2.5), shallow
(Leptosols), humic in different hues, with good
natural fertility, supported by crystalline rocks
(acrisols and luvisols), also occurring planosols
associated to the springs of alluvial plains that
surround this relief unit (Streck 2002). On these
soils, the biological diversity reveals the pre-
dominance of herbaceous and shrub fields, small
forests, and riparian forest, that follows the
drainage (Verdum 2016).
In drought periods, at certain times of year,
especially in the summer months (December,
January, and February) and late winter (August),
(Verdum 2004; Rossato 2011), there are conflicts
between land use and water, because of the
intensive demand in irrigated agriculture, the
introduction of tree monocultures, the expansion
of disordered tourism, and the mining activity.
Fig. 2.5 Rock outcrops in Pedras Altas, on the edges of Sul-Rio-Grandense Plateau. Source Photo by Roberto Verdum
2005
12 R. Verdum et al.
2.2.2 Central Depression
The geomorphological unit of Central Depres-
sion (Fig. 2.4), also known as Peripheral
Depression, consists of a vast depression sup-
ported by rocks from the Paraná basin sequence,
showing characteristics of an interplanaltic
depression. It is surrounded, to the south and
east, by the Sul-Rio-Grandense Plateau and, to
the north and west, by planar compartments
capped by volcanic spills of the Paraná basin
(Dantas et al. 2010).
This unit has a buried and petrified marshes
vegetation, which is originated from rocks sedi-
mentation of Paraná basin (Mata Formation)
during millions of years, as well as the fossils
that represent the ancestors of today’s reptiles,
amphibians, birds, and mammals (Sommer and
Scherer 2002). It is on these landscapes of the
past that the processes of erosion and deposition
conform the present hills (coxilhas) and valleys
(Fig. 2.6). The rounding of the forms of the
coxilhas and hills, together with the carving of
the valleys by erosion, generates and transports,
above all, the sands that consolidate the broad
alluvial plains. So, like rings that surround the
Uruguayan Sul-Rio-Grandense Plateau, this sand
goes east to the plain of Jacuí river and toward
Lake Guaíba and to west, to Ibicuí river and
finally to Uruguay River (Fig. 2.7).
These two hydrographic systems present a
drainage network of dendritic and subdendritic
patterns and are the most representative of
Brazilian Pampa. The valley bottoms of the main
channels and its surroundings, through the Cen-
tral Depression, are especially influenced in their
water dynamics by the moderately humid with
average temperature longitudinal variation cli-
mate type. This climatic type is known as sub-
tropical II, and it is characterized in this area by
annual average rainfall ranging between 1500
and 1700 mm, distributed between 90 and 110
days, with an average annual variation of tem-
peratures between 17 and 20 °C (Rossato 2011).
In the areas of occurrence of subtropical II cli-
mate, it is necessary to consider the influence
of both Meridional and Sul-Rio-Grandense
Plateaus, which, associated with the Cuesta do
Haedo (Fig. 2.4), conditionate the atmospheric
circulation of “continental and polar systems,
with the increment by the interference of tropical
marine systems” (Rossato 2011), as it approaches
the eastern coast.
The main soils in the floodplains of major
rivers of that unit are alisols, acrisols, and pla-
nosols (Streck 2002) in which the economic
activities are historically rice growing and live-
stock, but the most well-drained areas were
converted into pasture. In the coxilhas (hills),
which sometimes has plain and convex tops,
diversified agriculture (wheat, soy, corn, cassava,
potato, etc.) and forestry (eucalyptus and wattle)
are developed, in association with livestock
(Dantas et al. 2010; Vieira 2014). The human
interference by the cultivation of soybeans and
wheat caused the reducing of many native high
forage value herbaceous species while the drai-
nage of wetlands for the planting of rice made
many other species disappear.
According to Boldrini (1997), in large plain
alluvial areas and in wavy sedimentary coxilhas
(hills), there are the mixed fields, with a typical
transitional vegetation between the Plateau and
the Campanha fields, in the southwest region of
the Pampa. The vegetation is composed of cae-
spitosus, herbaceous, and shrub-shape plants.
There are also important areas of pioneer for-
mations, with the presence of humid areas
(marshlands), wetlands, and secondary lagoons.
Despite its own beauty, this landscape pre-
sents limits of use and some fragilities, especially
in relation to the management of the pedological
cover. The knowledge about the limits and the
fragility of the soils under the pastoral fields
refers to the way in which the society installed,
organized, and exploited the territory during
occupation, as well as interpreting soil degrada-
tions, at present. In this sense, there is the
recognition of phenomena that underlines the
progressive destruction of pastures by erosive
processes and the lack of enthusiasm and means
of the owners to propose solutions to control
these problems.The erosive processes in the form of ravines
and gullies as well as the accumulation of sand in
the form of sand deposits can greatly influence
2 Pampa: The South Brazil 13
the farming conditions (Fig. 2.8). In relation to
the origin of these soil degradation phenomena,
in the 1970s and 1980s, a relationship was
established between the two main economic
activities practiced until then: extensive breeding
and wheat and soybean cultivation (Verdum
2016). However, today the sand deposit forma-
tion process (sandstone) is recognized as natural,
associated with Quaternary landscapes, in colder
and drier climate conditions than the current one.
It is also recognized that some of the sand
deposits are related to the agricultural pressure of
the exploitation models applied to the cover of
native grasslands, still largely dominant, and the
sandy soils (Fig. 2.8) (Suertegaray et al. 2001;
Verdum 2004).
Fig. 2.6 Typical landscape of Peripheral Depression. Source Photo by Roberto Verdum, 2014
Fig. 2.7 Alluvial plain from Ibicuí river, in Peripheral Depression. Source Photo by Roberto Verdum, 2014
14 R. Verdum et al.
While on the coxilhas and hills, it is possible
to recognizes the historical ruptures that elabo-
rates a heterogeneous mosaic under strong
influence of the mechanization, in the broad
alluvial plains the landscape associated to the
extensive productions of irrigated rice reaffirms,
since the years of 1920, this crop like “natural” to
the sight of the gaucho and to the traveler who
lives and traverses the Campanha (Verdum
2016).
It is noteworthy that the sandy soil fields have
a typical and endemic herbaceous vegetation,
with riparian forests, butiá-anão palm trees
fragments (Butia lallemantii, Deble & Mar-
chiori), and ironwood capons (Myrachodruon
balansae [Engl.] Santin) (Carneiro et al. 2016).
However, more recently eucalyptus crops have
been increased, since it has broken the horizontal
landscape and typical socioeconomic structures
established until then, which generate intense
debates about its validity as a socioeconomic
option, creating new brands in the landscape of
the Pampa.
2.2.3 Meridional Plateau
The geomorphological unit Meridional Plateau
(Fig. 2.4) is in the north-northwest of Rio Grande
do Sul state, extends itself both to Santa Catarina
and Paraná state in the southern region and in the
Midwest and southeast regions of Brazil, con-
sisting of volcanic flows originated from Serra
Geral formation, composed predominantly by
basalt, andesites, rhyolites, and dacites (Dantas
et al. 2010).
In the Pampa areas which are associated with
this geomorphological unit, the Type III sub-
tropical climate occurs, which can be recognized
by its temperature average longitudinal variation
and lower influence of the polar circulation sys-
tems, with greater interference of tropical sys-
tems, considering the differences of relief,
continentality, and urban areas. The annual
temperature average varies between 17 and
20 °C, with a temperature increment in the
western direction of the region, especially in
terms of continentality. The precipitations are
Fig. 2.8 Caraguataí’s sand deposit, in Manoel Viana, Peripheral Depression. Source Photo by Roberto Verdum, 2014
2 Pampa: The South Brazil 15
better distributed, reaching 120 rainy days during
the year, totalizing 1700–1800 mm annually
(Rossato 2011).
The greatest extent of this geomorphology unit
is located outside of the Pampa landscape. How-
ever, the predominant vegetation in Pampa is the
field, denominated Campos das Missões or
Campos de Barba-de-Bode (Aristida jubata
[Arechav.] Herter), which is considered a relictual
vegetation, from a drier period, with representa-
tives offlora from Brasil Central, that settled in the
Pampa and remained. This flora is undemanding
relatively to humidity, as well as in relation to the
soils’ fertility, which are, in the region, Ferralsols,
Leptosols, and Vertisols. Nevertheless, in the
valleys, near the water courses and on typically
clayey soils (acrisols, chernozems, and gleysols),
forest species occurs (Boldrini 1997, 2009;
Streck 2002, Vieira 2014). However, the Pampa
located in the Meridional Plateau area character-
izes itself by the incorporation of vast areas
for agricultural and agro-industrial activities,
especially for the cultivation and processing of
crops such as soybeans, corn, and wheat. This fact
has greatly altered its natural vegetation (Fig. 2.9).
2.2.4 Cuesta do Haedo
The Cuesta do Haedo morphological unit
(Fig. 2.4) represents a transitional relief between
the Ibicuí river depression and the Uruguayan
Sul-Rio-Grandense Plateau. It is supported by
volcanic spill cornices from the Serra Geral for-
mation, with the steep front facing to east, toward
the Central Depression. This unit has an
approximate north–south direction and enters the
territory of the Republic of Uruguay. On the
sloping declivities emerges the Jurassic sand-
stones of Guará and Botucatu formations, which
are characterized by a steep ridge in a regressive
erosion process, which appears on the countless
inselbergs which are in front of the Cuesta line
(Fig. 2.10). These erosive ridges represent an
Fig. 2.9 Pampa is in the Meridional Plateau and it is characterized by the cultivation of grains. Source Photo by
Roberto Verdum 2009
16 R. Verdum et al.
unevenness of 70–150 m, reaching levels ranging
from 250 to 300 m (Dantas et al. 2010).
In this geomorphological unit, on the water-
shed between the hydrographic basins of Ibicuí
and Quaraí rivers, the climatic type can be
defined as subtropical Ib, which is characterized
by little humidity, with cold winter and hot
summer. In this area, there is a great interference
of continentality, defined by the performance of
the polar circulation systems, with significant
participation of continental tropical systems.
Thus, the annual precipitations occur between
1400 and 1700 mm average, with a concentration
between 70 and 90 days (Rossato 2011), and the
temperature average ranges from 20 to 23 °C in
the year.
In terms of relief, in the eastern portion stand
out choline and hill forms. On the other hand, the
western side is characterized by extensive flat
terrain or shaped by very wide and smooth hills,
the coxilhas, covered by a vegetation of fields
with shallow soils (Leptosols), propitiating the
development of the cattle ranching. The rice
cultivation and forestry also occur (Streck 2002;
Vieira 2014).
In terms of vegetation, almost all of it was
replaced by pastures. However, as biogeographic
evidence, there is the Espinilho Park, which is in
the city of Barra do Quaraí. It was created to
preserve the last conserved fragment of vegeta-
tion with two distinct strata: (i) arboreal (with
specimens of algarrobo (Prosopis nigra Hieron),
spiny (Vachellia caven (Molina) Seigler and
Ebinger), and inhanduvá (Prosopis affinis
Spreng); (ii) another stratum, herbaceous-shrub.
2.3 Conservational Aspects
in the Pampa Landscape Unit
The landscape and the identity that gave origin to
the inhabitants of the Pampa are basically coun-
tryside. In this way, the disappearance of the
native field replaced by crops, mainly by grains
and trees monocultures, also acts in the trans-
formation of identity. While on the coxilhas and
the hills, the gaze recognizes these historical
ruptures that elaborate a heterogeneous mosaic
under strong influence of the mechanization; in
the broad alluvial plains, the landscape associ-
ated to the extensive productions of irrigated rice
is reaffirmed. Since the 1920 s, this crop is seen
as “natural” to the gaucho and to the traveler who
lives and travels in the Pampa (Verdum 2016).
In the mapping of the remnants of the original
coverage of the Brazilian biomes, coordinated by
Brazilian Ministry of Environment (MMA 2007),
the fields with extensive livestock were consid-
ered remnants of the original Pampa vegetation,
because they maintained characteristics like the
condition of the original. This is because, com-
paratively to agriculture,livestock on native
pasture, when managed correctly, is an eco-
nomically viable and a sustainable activity con-
cerning the conservation of biological diversity.
This fact demonstrates that one can ally eco-
nomic development with ecological conservation
in the Pampa and thus, to live with the agricul-
tural activity, once it is managed in an appro-
priate way. It occurs because, unlike forests, the
rural ecosystems need management to remain
Fig. 2.10 Inselbergs positioned in front of the Cuesta line. Source Photo by Lucimar FS Vieira, 2012
2 Pampa: The South Brazil 17
protected. In other words, management in a
sustainable way protects country’s biodiversity.
The fauna biodiversity in the fields has been
the focus of recent studies and the importance of
countryside formations as habitats for endan-
gered species become an effective indicator of
their value for conservation. In this sense,
according to the biodiversity fields of ecoregions
of the Pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, part of
the provinces of northeastern Argentina and
southern Rio Grande do Sul state, there are rep-
resented more than 550 species of grass, 450–
500 species of birds, and at least 60 of them are
endemic, as well as a hundred species of terres-
trial mammals, as the “pampeiro deer” (Ozoto-
ceros Bezoarticu) (Bilenca and Miñarro 2004).
It had been cataloged 50 species of amphib-
ians, 97 reptiles, 120 species of birds, 25 species
of mammals, and at least 21 vertebrate species
can be considered endemic at the countryside
formations of southern Brazil. In addition, nine
species of migratory birds that use the fields as a
wintering area during the nonreproductive period
as well as 21 endangered species that “are
mandatory users of the fields and depend directly
on these ecosystems for their survival” were also
recognized. Another 11 species use countryside
formations optionally or in combination with
other environments, and 19 species of bivalve
molluscs “depend on the physiognomic pre-
dominance of the fields in the landscape”
(Bencke 2009, p 105).
The fields have their own animals with great
diversity of species and lifestyle. It is necessary
to recognize the connection between biological
diversity and the functioning of rural ecosystems
to preserve both ecological and evolutionary
processes, since many species are still unknown.
Therefore, the fields must be managed for the
benefit of the fauna without compromising the
productivity of compatible socioeconomic activ-
ities. However, according to the Ministry of
Environment of Brazil, the Pampa biome has a
smaller role in the National System of Nature
Conservation Units [Sistema Nacional de Uni-
dades de Conservação da Natureza (SNUC)],
representing only 0.4% of Brazilian continental
protected area (MMA 2007). In this sense, the
“Priority Areas for Conservation, Sustainable
Use and Benefit Sharing of Brazilian Biodiver-
sity”, updated in 2007, resulted in the identifi-
cation of 105 areas of the Pampa biome. Among
them, 41 (a total of 34,292 km2) were considered
important and 41 were considered by researchers
only scenic beauty landscapes (Vieira 2014).
These numbers contrast with the protection in
conservation units (only 3.3%: 2.4% of sustain-
able use and 0.9% of integral protection) and
with the gap of representation of the main
physiognomies of the native vegetation and the
fauna and flora extinction threatened species,
according to the Ministry of the Environment of
Brazil (MMA 2007).
2.4 Final Considerations
Although, in a first sight, seems to be the oppo-
site, the Pampa landscape unit does not present a
geographical monotony. Its horizontality, from
the geomorphological point of view, masks its
geodiversity. This geodiversity is reflected in
hydrogeological and climatic terms, and also in
the pedological variety in which it sustains the
biodiversity of herbaceous fields, which are
predominant in the landscape. Among the most
extensive herbaceous vegetation, in addition to
shrubs and trees, the monotony is broken by the
identification of relict vegetables of past climates.
They are symbolic of biological geodiversity and
climatic adaptations over time.
Thus, all the structures that characterize the
geodiversity and biodiversity, as well as its
dynamics along the geological time scale, can be
recognized by specific features of the scenic
beauty of the Pampa landscape, by its inhabitants
and researchers. As marks that characterize the
dynamics of time, their functions, forms, and
structures are valued as belonging to an identity
of those who live and circulate there, avoiding
any monotony to the eye of the observer inter-
ested in knowing the diversity of this landscape.
This diversity has been transformed by the sys-
tems of appropriation and use of human society
(s) throughout historical time. Above all, from
the last 40 years, there is an important
18 R. Verdum et al.
breakthrough by the changing of traditional
agricultural production system, essentially based
on extensive cattle in medium and large rural
properties, to grains and cellulose production
systems, with intensive monocultures. In this
case, the good qualities associated with biodi-
versity are being impacted during this period, and
the soil and hydrological structures are being
adversely affected in terms of quantitative and
qualitative losses.
References
Ab’Saber AN (1969) Participação das superfícies aplai-
nadas nas paisagens do Rio Grande do SulGeomor-
fologia, São Paulo, n. 11117
Benke GA (2009) Diversidade e conservação da fauna
dos Campos do Sul do Brasil. Pillar VP, Muller SC,
Castilhos ZMS, Jacques AVA Campos Sulinos:
Conservação e Uso Sustentável da Biodiversidade.
Brasília, MMA, pp 102–121
Bilenca DN and Miñarro FO (2004) Identificación de
áreas valiosas de pastizal em las pampas y campos de
Argentina, Uruguay y sur de Brasil. Fundación Vida
Silvestre Argentina, Buenos Aires
Birdlife International. Áreas importantes para conservação
das aves no Brasil: parte 1 - estados do domínio da
Mata Atlântica. Bencke AG, Maurício GN, Deve-
ley PF, Goerck JM (2006) São Paulo: SAVE Brasil.
Available in http://www.biodiversidade.rs.gov.br/
portal/index.php?acao=secoes_portal&id=
43&submenu=23. Acesso em 22 de junho de 2017
Boldrini II (1997) Campos do Rio Grande do Sul:
Caracterização Fisionômica e Problemática Ocupa-
cional. Boletim do Instituto de Biociências. Universi-
dade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, n. 56. Porto
Alegre
Boldrini II (2009). A flora dos Campos do Rio Grande do
Sul. In: Pillar VD, Muller SC, Castilhos ZMS,
Jacques AVA Campos Sulinos: Conservação e Uso
Sustentável da Biodiversidade. MMA, Brasília,
pp 63–77
Carneiro AM, Farias-Singer R, Ramos RA, Nilson AD
(2016) Cactos do Rio Grande do Sul. Fundação
Zoobotânica do RS, Porto Alegre
Dantas ME, Viero AC, Silva DRA (2010) Origem das
Paisagens. In: Viero AC, Silva DRA Geodiversidade
do estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Porto Alegre: CPRM,
pp 35–50
Freitas EM, Boldrini II, Müller SC, Verdum R (2009)
Florística e fitossociologia da vegetação de um campo
sujeito à arenização no sudoeste do Estado do Rio
Grande do Sul, Brasil. Acta Botanica Brasilica
23:414–426
IBGE Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (2004)
Mapa de Biomas do Brasil. Brasília
MMA Ministério do Meio Ambiente (2007) Áreas
Prioritárias para Conservação, Uso Sustentável e
Repartição de Benefícios da Biodiversidade Brasileira.
Ministério do Meio Ambiente, Secretaria de Biodi-
versidade e Florestas. Brasília
Porcher CA, Lopes RC. Folha SH.22-Y-A Cachoeira do
Sul, estado do Rio de Grande do Sul. Escala
1:250.000. Rio de Janeiro: CPRM, 2000. Programa
Levantamentos Geológicos Básicos do Brasil.
CD-ROM
Rossato MS (2011) Os climas do Rio Grande do Sul:
variabilidade,tendências e tipologia. Tese de Doutor-
ado. Porto Alegre: PPG em Geografia, Instituto de
Geociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do
Sul
Streck EV, Kampf N, Dalmolin RSD, Klamt N, Nasci-
mento PC, Schneider P (2002) Solos do Rio Grande
do Sul. Porto Alegre: Editora da UFRGS. 126p
Sommer MG, Scherer CMS (2002) Sítios Paleobotânicos
do Arenito Mata (Mata e São Pedro do Sul), RS—
Uma das mais importantes “florestas petrificadas” do
planeta. In: Schobbenhaus C, Campos DA,
Queiroz ET, Winge M, Berbert-Born MLC (Edits).
Sitios Geológicos e Paleontológicos do Brasil. Brasí-
lia: DNPM/CPRM – Comissão Brasileira de Sítios
Geológicos e Paleobiológicos (SIGEP). v. 01:03.1
Suertegaray DMA, Fujimoto NSVM (2004) Morfogênese
do relevo do estado do Rio Grande do Sul. In:
Verdum R, Basso, LA, Suertgaray DMA. Rio Grande
do Sul: paisagens e territórios em transformação.
Editora da UFRGS, Porto Alegre, pp 11–26
Suertegaray DMA, Guasselli LA (2004) Paisagens (im-
agens e representações) do Rio Grande do Sul. In:
Verdum R, Basso, LA, Suertegaray DMA. Rio Grande
do Sul: paisagens e territórios em transformação.
Editora da UFRGS, Porto Alegre, pp 27–38
Suertegaray DMA, Guasseli LA, Verdum R (2001) Atlas
da Arenização - sudoeste do Rio Grande do Sul. Porto
Alegre: Centro Estadual de Pesquisas em Sensoria-
mento Remoto e Meteorologia e Governo do Rio
Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre
Verdum R (2016) Paisagens do pampa: monotonia que se
rompe no espaço e no tempo. In: Chomenko L,
Bencke GA Nosso Pampa desconhecido. Fundação
Zoobotânica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre,
pp 44–59
Verdum R (2004) Depressão Periférica e Planalto.
Potencial ecológico e utilização social da natureza.
In: Verdum R, Basso, LA, Suertegaray DMA. Rio
Grande do Sul: paisagens e territórios em trans-
formação. Editora da UFRGS, Porto Alegre, pp 39–57
Vieira LFS (2014) A valoração da beleza cênica da
paisagem do Pampa do Rio Grande do Sul: proposição
2 Pampa: The South Brazil 19
http://www.biodiversidade.rs.gov.br/portal/index.php%3facao%3dsecoes_portal%26id%3d43%26submenu%3d23
http://www.biodiversidade.rs.gov.br/portal/index.php%3facao%3dsecoes_portal%26id%3d43%26submenu%3d23
http://www.biodiversidade.rs.gov.br/portal/index.php%3facao%3dsecoes_portal%26id%3d43%26submenu%3d23
conceitual e metodológica. Tese de doutorado. Insti-
tuto de Geociências. Programa de Pós-Graduação em
Geografia. Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do
Sul. Porto Alegre
Viero AC, Silva DRA (2010) Geodiversidade do estado
do Rio Grande do Sul. CPRM, Porto Alegre, pp 15–34
Wildner W, Lopes RC (2010) Evolução geológica: do
Paleoproterozóico ao recente. Viero AC. Silva DRA
Geodiversidade do estado do Rio Grande do Sul.
CPRM, Porto Alegre, pp 15–34
Roberto Verdum is graduate in geography at Federal
University of Rio Grande do Sul (Universidade Federal do
Rio Grande do Sul—UFRGS). He obtained master’s and
doctorate in geography and territory management from
Université de Toulouse Le Mirail, France. He is a Professor in
Departament of Geography at UFRGS, with experience in
geomorphology, being a member of both PAGUS (Landscape
Laboratory) and Sandization/Desertification: Environmental
Issue research groups, as well as a Brazilian National Council
for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq)
researcher.
Lucimar de Fátima dos Santos Vieira is Biologist and
Geographer. He obtained postdoctorate in geography. He is a
professor in the Interdisciplinary Department; She is a
member of both PAGUS (Landscape Laboratory) and
Sandization/Desertification: Environmental Issue research
groups at Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (Univer-
sidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul—UFRGS).
Jean Carlo Gessi Caneppele has master’s degree in geog-
raphy, and actually he is a doctorate in geography from
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (Universidade
Federal do Rio Grande do Sul—UFRGS) with emphasis in
environmental analysis. He is a member of both PAGUS
(Landscape Laboratory) and Sandization/Desertification:
Environmental Issue research groups.
Sidnei Luís Bohn Gass is graduate in geography at UNIJUÍ
(Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio
Grande do Sul). He obtained master’s and doctorate in
geography from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul
(Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul). He is a Pro-
fessor in the Department of Cartography at Federal University
of Pampa (UNIPAMPA), with experience in Planning and
Territorial Management processes, with emphasis on The-
matic Cartography and Remote Sensing.
20 R. Verdum et al.
3Subtropical Araucaria Plateaus
Julio César Paisani, Leonardo José Cordeiro Santos,
Gabriela Goudard, Adriano Ávila Goulart
and Vitor Hugo Rosa Biffi
Abstract
The geographic landscape of the Subtropical
Araucaria Plateaus was treated by describing
the components of the physical environment,
systematizing geological, geomorphological,
climatological, phytogeographic and surface
information. In summary, these components
can be summarized in the following terms:
(a) the geological lithostructure is of sedimen-
tary and volcanic nature (Paraná Basin) and
was formed during the Phanerozoic; (b) they
are common morphologies of inclined concor-
dant structures and slopes of the cuesta type,
whose reversals are designated as plateaus;
(c) the modern climate was established during
the Upper Holocene and is eminently subtrop-
ical humid, and the four seasons of the year are
well marked by variations in temperature and a
reduction in humidity during autumn and
winter; (d) alternating climatic regimes
between wet and dry were dominant from the
Paleogene to the Middle Pleistocene, whereas
from the late Pleistocene to the Middle
Holocene, dry conditions prevailed; (e) the
vegetation that gives its name to this landscape
is a Mixed Ombrophilous Forest with Arau-
caria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze (MOF),
where there are coexisting specimens of trop-
ical (Afro-Brazilian) floras such as Podocar-
pus and temperate (Australasian) Araucaria,
whose high slope sectors of MOF transition to
Plains (Steppe) vegetation; and (f) the surface
formations of this landscape include profiles of
weathering, paleosols and colluvial and allu-
vial sediments. Finally, the landscape of the
Subtropical Araucaria Plateaus includes
outcropping of geological formations of scenic
interest that constitute sites appropriate for
geotourism.
Keywords
Paraná basin � Southern Brazil
Mixed ombrophilous forest � Plains
3.1 Introduction
There is a landscape unit that covers portions
of three states in Southern Brazil (Paraná,
Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul)
J. C. Paisani (&) � V. H. R. Biffi
Center of Palaeoenvironmental Studies, State
University of Western Paraná, Cascavel, Brazil
e-mail: juliopaisani@hotmail.com
V. H. R. Biffi
e-mail: vhugorosabiffi@gmail.com
L. J. C. Santos � G. Goudard � A. Á. Goulart
Department of Geography, Federal University
of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
e-mail: santos.ufpr@gmail.com
G. Goudard
e-mail: gabigoudard.ufpr@gmail.com
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
A. A. R. Salgado et al. (eds.), The Physical Geography of Brazil,
Geography of the Physical Environment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_3
21
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_3&domain=pdf
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_3&domain=pdf
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_3&domain=pdf
mailto:juliopaisani@hotmail.com
mailto:vhugorosabiffi@gmail.com
mailto:santos.ufpr@gmail.com
mailto:gabigoudard.ufpr@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04333-9_3
(Fig. 3.1) that is marked by the integration of
plateau relief and forest cover with Araucaria
forests (Mixed Ombrophilous Forest with
Araucaria angustifolia—MOF (Bertol.) Kuntze)
(Fig. 3.2). The integration of these two
components of the natural environment, relief
and vegetation, drew the attention of natural-
ists, geologists and geographers, among others,
who in their work began to characterize the
area of occurrence as a landscape unit (Maack
Fig. 3.1 Spatial distribution of Subtropical Araucaria
Plateaus (based on Maack 1949; Azevedo 1950; Almeida
1956; Ab’Sáber 1967; IBGE 2004). Core area
corresponds to the predominance of the forest (Montane
MOF) with Araucaria trees
22 J. C. Paisaniet al.
1949; Azevedo 1950; Almeida 1956). This
work was highlighted as a landscape category in
Brazil in the famous article “Morphoclimatic
domains and phytogeographical provinces of
Brazil (Domínio Morfoclimáticos e Provincias
Fitogeográficas do Brasil)” published by
Ab’Sáber (1967), when it became part of the
palaeogeographic studies with the designation
of “Subtropical Araucaria Plateaus (Planaltos
Subtropicais com Araucárias) (Fig. 3.2). This
landscape unit is distributed from the north of
the State of Rio Grande do Sul to the
central-west of the State of Paraná and is
bounded by Argentina and the Brazilian Atlan-
tic Forest, Semi-humid and Pampas (Fig. 3.1).
Although the Subtropical Araucaria Plateaus
have been recognized as a Brazilian landscape
unit for some decades, information about the
components of their physical environment is
scattered in the Brazilian geographic literature.
Thus, this chapter aims to systematize that
information, providing the reader with a detailed
description of its geographical landscape. The
main components of this scenario are individu-
ally presented in order by geology, geomor-
phology, climate, vegetation and surface
formations. These components of the physical
environment are interrelated in the characteri-
zation of the landscape of the Subtropical
Araucaria Plateaus, but here they are presented
in a sequence of individual layers.
3.2 Geology
The Subtropical Araucaria Plateaus are found on
the eastern flank of the Paraná Basin, which is one
of the Brazilian sedimentary basins (Fig. 3.3). The
basin’s name comes from the Paraná river, which
runs along its central axis and is the main hydro-
graphic system of this geotectonic unit. It takes an
elliptical form that is 1750 km long and 900 km
wide in the NNE–SSW direction (Milani et al.
1998), extending over an area of 1,600,000 km2,
covering parts of the territory of Brazil
(1,000,000 km2), Argentina (400,000 km2),
Paraguay (100,000 km2), and Uruguay
(100,000 km2) (Schneider et al. 1974) (Fig. 3.3).
This sedimentary basin was installed on the South
American Shelf in intracratonic conditions after
the Brazilian/Pan-African orogenic cycle between
the Neo-Ordovician and the Neo-Cretaceous.
According to Milani et al. (2007), the thickness
along its central axis exceeds 8000 m.
The Paraná Basin presents a complex evolu-
tionary history under the control of climatic and
tectonic factors that has been documented by
sedimentary and volcanic lithologies that inte-
grate six supersequences, as proposed by Milani
et al. (1998): Rio Ivaí, Paraná, Gondwana I,
Gondwana II, Gondwana III and Bauru
(Fig. 3.3). The first three present facies associated
with a continental and coastal transitional envi-
ronment generated by transgressive-regressive
Fig. 3.2 One of the landscape scenarios of Subtropical
Araucaria Plateaus. Relief is a gently undulating plateau.
The Mixed Ombrophilous Forest with Araucaria trees was
devastated, giving rise to crop areas. In the background is
the preservation area (Conservation Unit) of Mata Preta
Ecological Station in the state of Santa Catarina
3 Subtropical Araucaria Plateaus 23
Fig. 3.3 Spatial distribution of the Paraná Basin (modified by Milani 2004)
24 J. C. Paisani et al.
cycles, whereas the others were generated in
continental environments and interspersed with
volcanic flows (Gondwana III). The Bauru and
Rio Ivai supersequences do not appear in the
occurrence area of the Subtropical Araucaria
Plateaus.
The Paraná supersequence (Fig. 3.3) and
other supersequences were established when the
basin presented as a syneclise. Its lithologies
were generated during the Devonian and consti-
tute the Furnas (quartzite and sandstone con-
glomerates with ichnofossils) and Ponta Grossa
(shales and sandstones) Formations.
The Upper Gondwana I was established
between the Carboniferous and the Eotriassic. It
comprises the Itararé, Guatá and Passa Dois
Groups and presents a varied lithology (e.g.,
conglomerate, diamictite, sandstone, siltstone,
shale and bituminous chalet). The Itararé Group
(Lagoa Azul, Campo Mourão, Taciba and
Aquidauana Formations) recorded the apex of
glacial conditions (Milani and Ramos 1998) and
formed when the basin presented a topographic
gradient from north to south—a fact that con-
tributed to the establishment of sedimentary
rocks of glacial-marine origin. The Guatá Group
(Rio Bonito and Palermo Formations) formed
when the gradient pattern changed from south to
north (Milani and Ramos 1998), forming sedi-
mentary deposits under deltaico-marine-coastal
and marine environments. The Passa Dois Group
(Irati, Serra Alta, Teresina, Corumbataí and Rio
do Rastro Formations) records sedimentary rocks
of marine origin. In the Neopermiano, the Paraná
Basin was already continentalized (Rio do Rastro
Formation), and in the upper part, it records a
desert climate (Sanga do Cabral and Pirambóia
Formations) (Milani and Ramos 1998; Milani
et al. 2007).
The Upper Gondwana II formed between the
Meso and the Neotriassic and comprises the
Southern Rosary Group of the Sanga of Cabral,
Santa Maria, Caturrita and Guará Formations. It
presents a predominant lithology of sandstones
and pellets of fluvial-lacustrine and lacustrine
origins, with abundant fauna of reptiles and
mammals. This supersequence and the Gond-
wana I and Paraná supersequences appear on the
border of the Paraná Basin and are the substrates
of the sedimentary plateaus of the landscape in
its eastern and south-eastern range (Fig. 3.3).
The Upper Gondwana III formed between the
Neojurassic and Eocretaceous and comprises the
São Bento Group of the Botucatú and Serra Geral
Formations. The Botucatú Formation has at its
base an ephemeral fluvial origin associated with
a distributary system and top medium to fine
sandstones of wind origin (Scherer 2002). Aeo-
lian sandstones are correlated to the upper por-
tion of the African Karoo wind system, which
taken together document the highest desertifica-
tion of Gondwana, which occurred over an area
on the order of 1,300,000 km2. The Serra Geral
Formation also expresses an event of transcon-
tinental order (South America–Africa) during the
Gondwana (Paraná-Etendeka Province) and
constitutes one of the great igneous provinces of
the world (Leinz 1949). It comprises a succession
of flows of approximately 1,500 m thickness in
the depocentre of the Paraná Basin and covers an
area of 1,200,000 km2. The product of this
magmatism comprises toleitic associations with
high and low TiO2 contents, predominant basalts
(>90% by volume) and the rest of felsic nature,
andesites and rhyolites (Peate et al. 1990). The
isotope ages of the lava flow point to volcanic
activity ranging over 131.5–134.8 Ma (Rossetti
et al. 2017), the first flows of which were inter-
spersed by the Gondwana II supergroups (Leinz
1949).
At the southern end of the area of occurrence
of the Subtropical Araucaria Plateau, in the
palaeotopographies of the Gondwana III super-
history, sediments of the Tupanciretã Formation
appear that are constituted by sedimentary facies
of distributary fluvial environments of an arid
climatic regime. These sediments may be corre-
lated with those of the Bauru supersequence
(Menegotto et al. 1968), but controversies remain
(Coulon et al. 1973).
On the eastern border of the Paraná Basin,
sedimentary rocks of the Gondwana I, II and III
supersequences are in contact with crystalline
rocks of the South American Platform (Mata
Atlântica Landscape). On the other hand, the
volcanic flows of the Serra Geral Formation
3 Subtropical Araucaria Plateaus 25
(Gondwana III supersequences) are predominant
in the Subtropical Araucaria Plateaus and extend
to the Atlantic Ocean in Rio Grande do Sul
(Fig. 3.3).
3.3 Geomorphology
Because the landscape unit is located on the
eastern flank of the Paraná Basin, inclined con-
cordant structures and cuesta type slopes are
common. In the Brazilian geomorphological lit-
erature, the reverse of a cuesta is designated as a
“plateau”, while its front is referred