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ARCHITECTURE AND THE WELFARE STATE In the decades following the Second World War, and partly in response to the Cold War, governments across western Europe set out ambitious programmes for social welfare and the redistribution of wealth that aimed to improve the everyday lives of their citizens. Many of these welfare state programmes – housing, schools, new towns, cultural and leisure centres – involved not just construction but a new approach to architectural design, in which the welfare objectives of these state-funded programmes were delineated and debated. The impact on architects and architectural design was profound and far-reaching, with welfare state projects moving centre-stage in archi- tectural discourse, not just in Europe but worldwide. This is the first book to explore the architecture of the welfare state in western Europe from an international perspective. With chapters covering Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden and the UK, the book explores the complex role played by architecture in the formation and development of the welfare state in both theory and practice. Themes include: • the role of the built environment in the welfare state as a political project • the colonial dimension of European welfare state architecture and its ‘export’ to Africa and Asia • the role of welfare state projects in promoting consumer culture and economic growth • the picture of the collective produced by welfare state architecture • the role of architectural innovation in the welfare state • the role of the architect, as opposed to construction companies and others, in determining what was built • the relationship between architectural and social theory • the role of internal institutional critique and the counterculture Mark Swenarton is James Stirling Professor of Architecture at the University of Liverpool, UK, and author of Homes fit for Heroes (1981) and Building the New Jerusalem (2008). Tom Avermaete is Professor of Architecture at TU Delft and author of Another Modern: The Post-War Architecture and Urbanism of Candilis-Josic-Woods (2005). Dirk van den Heuvel is Head of the Jaap Bakema Study Centre at Het Nieuwe Instituut, Rotterdam, Associate Professor at TU Delft and co-author of Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present (2005). ARCHITECTURE AND THE WELFARE STATE Edited by Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel First edition published 2015 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2015 Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel The right of Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel to be identified as authors of the editorial material, and of the individual authors as authors of their contributions, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. The purchase of this copyright material confers the right on the purchasing institution to photocopy pages which bear the photocopy icon and copyright line at the bottom of the page. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Architecture and the welfare state / edited by Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel. -- First edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Architecture and state--Europe, Western--History-–20th century. 2. Architecture and society-- Europe, Western--History-–20th century. 3. Welfare state--Europe, Western--History-–20th century. I. Swenarton, Mark, editor of compilation. II. Avermaete, Tom, editor of compilation. III. Heuvel, Dirk van den, 1968- editor of compilation. IV. Blau, Eve, author. From red superblock to green megastructure. NA100.A72 2014 720.1’03094--dc23 2014000473 ISBN: 978-0-415-72539-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-72540-8 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-76692-8 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Fakenham Prepress Solutions, Fakenham, Norfolk NR21 8NN CONTENTS 1 Introduction 1 Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel PART I Cultures and continuities 25 2 From Red Superblock to Green Megastructure: Municipal Socialism as Model and Challenge 27 Eve Blau 3 The Welfare State in Flanders: De-Pillarization and the Nebulous City 51 Hilde Heynen and Janina Gosseye 4 The Beginnings of High-Rise Social Housing in the Long 1940s: The Case of the LCC and the Woodberry Down Estate 69 Simon Pepper 5 West Ham and the Welfare State 1945–1970: a Suitable Case for Treatment? 93 Nicholas Bullock PART II Critiques and contradictions 111 6 Who Needs ‘Needs’? French Post-War Architecture and its Critics 113 Łukasz Stanek vi Contents 7 The Open Society and Its Experiments: The Case of the Netherlands and Piet Blom 133 Dirk van den Heuvel 8 Where the Motorways Meet: Architecture and Corporatism in Sweden 1968 155 Helena Mattsson 9 The Märkisches Viertel in West Berlin 177 Florian Urban 10 Alternatives to Welfare State: Self-Build and Do-It-Yourself 199 Caroline Maniaque-Benton PART III National and international 217 11 From Knoxville to Bidonville: ATBAT and the Architecture of the French Welfare State 219 Tom Avermaete 12 High Density without High Rise: Housing Experiments of the 1950s by Patrick Hodgkinson 237 Mark Swenarton 13 Matteotti Village and Gallaratese 2: Design Criticism of the Italian Welfare State 259 Luca Molinari 14 Exporting New Towns: The Welfare City in Africa 277 Michelle Provoost 15 From European Welfare State to Asian Capitalism: The Transformation of ‘British Public Housing’ in Hong Kong and Singapore 299 Miles Glendinning Appendix: Outcomes from the Liverpool Workshop 2012 321 Further Reading 324 Contributors 334 List of figures 336 Index 343 1 INTRODUCTION Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel In recent years the architecture of the second half of the twentieth century has become a prime area of interest for architectural historians. Most of their studies adopt the classic format of the monograph, devoted to individual architects (for example, Ernst May, James Stirling), to groups (Archigram, Team 10) or to offices (Candilis-Josic- Woods, Atelier Montrouge, Van den Broek and Bakema),1 while others have tried to theorize the field as part of a revisionary, historiographical critique of the period.2 The list of publications is extensive and proof of a most fruitful practice in mining the (recent) history of modern architecture. At the same time, within political sociology there has emerged an enormous literature on the welfare state, with Gøspa Esping- Andersen’s The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (1990) triggering a plethora of studies examining the post-war welfare state as an international phenomenon from an economic, social and political viewpoint.3 Strangely, however, these twin developments have taken place virtually in complete ignorance of each other. Little attention has been given to the varied ways in which architecture and urban planning interacted with the different regimes of welfare provision.4 The forementioned architectural histories have tended to analyze post-war buildings and neighbourhoods as expressions of individual oeuvres or cultural currents, rather then as exponents of complex welfare state arrangements. Only in Belgium and Sweden hasthere been an emerging interest in the architectural production of the welfare state per se, but largely from a national perspective.5 Conversely, to the extent that the sociological studies have investigated welfare state intervention in the built environment, they have done so as an abstract matter of decrees, programmes and strategies, without reference to the physical realization of the welfare state in archi- tecture and the built environment. If the built environment was of little significance to the welfare state, this situation might be understandable. But the planning of the built environment – from new towns (Figure 1.1), to social housing, to schools and universities, hospitals and health centres, to leisure and sports complexes, to arts centres – was one of the key areas in which the welfare state sought to achieve its ambitions of economic redistribution and 2 Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel social welfare. This already vast area of intervention in the everyday environment of the population becomes even greater when we consider that the post-war welfare state also incorporated the reconstruction of national industries and energy production, involving the construction of vast new infrastructures. Given the enormous role that the built environment played in the welfare state, and the role that welfare state ideology and commissions played in the architectural developments of the period, this mutual indifference of the two disciplines appears extraordinary. This book is a first attempt to connect these two fields with each other from an international perspective and to look at post-war architecture in western Europe in terms of its role within the welfare state. The aim is to investigate the complex kinship between the welfare state and the built environment, looking at the role of plans, neighbourhoods and buildings within welfare programmes, as well as probing the contribution made by planners, urban designers and architects to the implementation, articulation and development of the welfare state in post-war western Europe. What is offered is not a comprehensive account or synoptic overview, but rather an attempt to explore the field through a series of case studies – some thematic, some based on particular architects or projects – written from different points of view by leading architectural historians from Europe and the USA. Likewise, rather than attempting an overview of this vast subject, this introduction aims to elucidate some of the key themes and issues involved: conceptual, methodological and historical. The book is the outcome of a transnational project extending over a number of years. The first steps were taken by Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel of TU Delft when they organized a session on Architecture and the Welfare State at the European Architectural History Network (EAHN) 2010 conference in Guimaraes, Portugal.6 Mark Swenarton was one of the speakers at that session and together the three collaborated on a follow-up at the EAHN conference in Brussels in 2012.7 Meanwhile, Swenarton’s move to the University of Liverpool provided the oppor- tunity for a rather different kind of event, again organized by the three editors – an invited international closed-doors symposium, called the Liverpool Workshop – which took place in September 2012. It is the papers presented there, substantially revised in the light of the debates that took place at the symposium, which are published here for the first time.8 At the Liverpool Workshop intensive discussions took place on a wide range of issues and these were summarized on behalf of the organizers by Adrian Forty as a list of questions and issues for future research; for the benefit of other scholars these are reproduced in the Appendix.9 A specific obstacle identified at the symposium was the lack of an international multilingual bibliography on the subject and so, as a step towards this, a list of items for further reading is also provided. Why now? Our project investigating the relationship of architecture and the welfare state has coincided with the period of crisis that seized the economies of the United States and Europe in 2008. While the rationale for the project stems in part from the crisis, the one is not reducible to the other. While the crisis of the neoliberal economic model that had become dominant in the 1990s with the completion of the internal market of Introduction 3 Fi gu re 1 .1 C um be rn au ld D ev el op m en t C or po ra tio n (H ug h W ils on -D ud le y L ea ke r/ G eo ffr ey C op cu tt) , C um be rn au ld N ew T ow n, N or th L an ar ks hi re , th e to w n ce nt re p ho to - gr ap he d in 1 96 7 (A rch ite ctu ra l P re ss A rch iv e/ R IB A L ib ra ry P ho to gr ap hs C ol le cti on ). 4 Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel the EU gave a particular urgency to our research, the investigations into the post-war discourse of modern architecture created a more sharply defined project than that of the apparently neutral term of ‘the post-war’ so widely adopted: namely that of archi- tecture and the welfare state.10 It also made re-focusing on western Europe a matter of course, while being aware of the possible criticism of maintaining a eurocentric perspective. But the economic crisis is not the only reason that the relationship of architecture to the welfare state is relevant today. The built production of the welfare state consti- tutes a sizable portion of the cities of Europe that we inhabit today; if we are to make the best use of this inheritance we need to understand both its objectives and its historical formation. Moreover, the question of what parts of this inheritance to retain and conserve, and what parts can be demolished and redeveloped, is one that arises regularly in public debate in most European countries, with newspaper articles and exhibitions regularly devoted to the question of the conservation (or otherwise) of post-war buildings.11 The ultimately unsuccessful campaign to save Robin Hood Gardens in London, the only major housing scheme built by Alison and Peter Smithson (Figure 1.2), was one of the most high-profile of these. For many years the Docomomo International conferences have provided an international professional platform for these debates.12 Decisions about retention or demolition need to be informed not just by an understanding of the individual building or buildings, which can be provided by conservation bodies and listing agencies, but by an understanding of the broader context within which they stood. If we are to assess their historical importance, we need to understand that history. To investigate the shifting role, or roles, of the architect in society and in the process of planning and building constitutes a second motivation for revisiting the architecture of the welfare state. For a number of years the claim of the architect to be the leader of the building team has been under attack.13 Architects, it is said, may be useful at the early stage of a project for gaining planning consents, but after that have little to offer, with contractors taking over their role in the specification of construc- tional methods and materials and project managers taking over their role in directing the project. This contrasts with the picture of the architect widely held in the heyday of the welfare state. In those times, we are told, the architect was the heroic figure, building the future, the form-giver who devised new forms of homes, of schools, of hospitals, and of entire cities: the person at the forefront of innovation, tasked by government to devise new ways of living for the population and with the authority to drive through his or her (mostly his) vision. Recently, this historical role of the architect has been subjected to reappraisal, notably at OMA’sinstallation at the 2012 Venice Biennale, Public Works: Architecture by Civil Servants. But was the architect really as powerful as it appeared? The claim is double-edged, because if so then the architect also has to take responsibility for those things that went wrong. Perhaps the architect was only the figurehead, and in reality, others – politicians, managers, planners, the building industry – had more influence. If so, it may be that the post-war golden age of the architect is a myth and then, as now, it was the development process that dictated the outcome. We need to know what the real roles of the various actors were, what the space that they had for decision-making was, and what coalitions were built between the parties involved in the planning processes. Introduction 5 Fi gu re 1 .2 A lis on a nd P et er S m ith so n (G re at er L on do n C ou nc il) , R ob in H oo d G ar de ns e sta te, L on do n, 1 96 5– 19 72 , ph ot og ra ph ed b y Sa nd ra L ou sa da . 6 Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel Since the onset of the financial crisis in 2008 it has become apparent that in Europe we have been entering an era in which the large-scale provision of public services by public bodies will be further reduced. To revisit the welfare state era accordingly is not to look back in nostalgia but to learn from the consistent negotiations between capital, labour and the state from which the western European welfare state emerged. The resulting balance of power was not so much a clear-cut model as a precarious hybrid, a balancing act, indeed. Whereas in the past in many countries the state undertook to provide the necessities of life – for example, education, health services, housing – more and more it seems today that these are either left to the market, with the state withdrawing altogether, or are provided by private companies operating on its behalf. In the Netherlands, since 1995, the national government has ceased providing credit to housing corporations, turning them into de facto private companies. Likewise, in the UK the ‘academy schools’ programme, first launched in 2000 and much extended since, has devolved the state’s responsibility for secondary education to private companies. The role of architecture and the built environment in the delivery of state policy is becoming more complex and diffused, since a building provided by a private company in this way no longer stands as the emblem or image of the state. What will this mean for our cities and suburbs? It is hard to predict but by looking at the period when almost all publicly funded buildings carried this meaning (whether implicitly or, as with Vienna’s housing of the 1920s, explicitly), we can get a better understanding of the role of buildings in carrying messages about the state and society in western Europe. As European economies appear to stagnate and welfare provisions are under pressure, it is parts of Asia, South America and Africa that lead the world in economic performance. These countries (for example, China, India, South Korea) are now enjoying the kind of boom that Europe experienced in the decades following the Second World War, and face not dissimilar issues of rapid urbanization and moderni- zation. Sociologists have pointed out that features of the European welfare state, not least construction of new towns and state-funded housing, are now recurring in the sunshine economies of China and south-east Asia.14 In other parts of the world popular demand for basic welfare provision, especially education and healthcare, is fuelling social unrest, for example, in Brazil in the widespread protests against the staging of the 2014 football World Cup.15 To what extent is what happened in Europe, whether in the nineteenth or the twentieth century, being repeated elsewhere? To what extent is a model devised for European countries in that period applicable to other parts of the world today? Mapping the welfare state This book focuses on the welfare state as a largely European invention that has known its greatest development and proliferation in north-western Europe.16 The politics of the Cold War and the rise of a new consumer culture (the so-called ‘western way of life’) form part of this development, together with the concomitant phenomena of decolonization and the emergence of the post-industrial society. The sources of this western welfare state date back to the nineteenth century when, as economist Karl Polyani has argued, a ‘Great Transformation’ took place, characterized by the development of industrial capitalism, rapid urbanization and Introduction 7 economic growth, and intense population increase.17 These radical transformations not only altered social, cultural, economic and political life. They also destabilized the traditional forms of welfare provided by family networks, charity organizations, feudal ties, guilds, municipalities and religious institutions. The result was a massive pauperization which was strikingly portrayed in the engravings of Gustave Doré, the photography of Thomas Annan, the political analyses of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, and the novels of Charles Dickens and Victor Hugo. Increased productivity resulting from industrialization, however, provided the resources necessary to cope collectively with the emerging ‘social question’. Towards the end of the nineteenth century institutional initiatives started to emerge at local, regional and national levels that engaged with these social needs politically and demanded redistribution of some of these resources.18 Simultaneously the counter-movement to Polyani’s Great Transformation gave rise to a growing Labour Movement which itself became an important driver of the move towards welfare provision by the state. Wars have often acted as the catalyst for the development of the welfare state and its architecture.19 With the Second World War, welfare was, for the first time, presented as a goal of national and international policy. Two of the eight war aims in the Atlantic Charter (1941) dealt with social welfare, specifically ‘securing, for all, improved labor standards, economic advancement and social security’ (aim 5) and ‘that all men in all the lands may live out their lives in freedom from fear and want’ (aim 6).20 After the Second World War the need for reconstruction propelled economic growth and provided once again resources for welfare state expansion, while rivalry with the Communist block – the Cold War – provided the ideological imperative for a non-revolutionary route to social improvement. As noted above, in the past two decades a large and impressive sociological literature has developed on the welfare state. Following Esping-Andersen, much of the focus has been on the way in which the various western European countries – though all affected to greater or lesser degree by the fundamental transformations – differed in response. Investigations have focused on the remarkable diversity experi- enced with respect to the timing of welfare state consolidation, the variety of goals (whether to provide a safety net for all or for specific groups, etc.), the diversity of financing mechanisms, various forms of public-private collaboration, and the variety of administrative models and programme types (for example, enacted collectively or individually). The magisterial Oxford Handbook of the Welfare State, extending to more than 900 pages, with five editors and 70-plus contributors from fifteen countries, gives a good overview of this field.21 What is meant by the term ‘welfare state’ in this literature? A useful starting point is provided by Wil Arts and John Gelissen in a 2002 review article in the Journal of European Social Policy. They state: the general term ‘welfare state’ is a label for a certain class of democratic indus- trial capitalist societies, characterized by certainproperties (i.e. social citizenship or the fact that more or less extensive welfare provisions are legally provided, or, in still other words, the fact that the state plays a principal part in the welfare mix alongside the market, civil society and the family).22 8 Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel According to Ian Gough (2008), the emergence of welfare states is to be understood in terms of what he calls the Five ‘I’s. First, industrialization, which creates both the wealth to sustain, and the changes in social organization that create the opening for the state to deliver items of social welfare. Second, interests, or what Marxists would term classes: ‘class cleavages, class organizations within civil society, their respective powers, their economic and social mobilization, and later, their parliamentary repre- sentation’.23 One might add that the balance of power between the classes is markedly affected by wars and by the booms and slumps of the economic cycle, which is why these events have played such a prominent role in the history of the welfare state. Third, institutions, i.e. the organization of both civil society (the church, trade unions, voluntary associations, etc.) and the state (central government, municipalities, etc.), which determines the pattern in which welfare is provided, both outside and within the remit of the state. These three ‘I’s are the primary determinants but the way they operate is shaped by two further factors: ideas, i.e. the prevailing culture and ideology of different countries (for example, Catholic social teaching in Germany and Italy); and internationalism, both the fact that one country looks at and learns from another and that international communities of experts develop who claim special under- standing of, and therefore power over, a given area of policy and decision-making.24 While Esping-Andersen originally identified three variants of welfare capitalism, the general view now is that within Europe four types can be distinguished.25 First, the liberal type developed by the Anglophone countries (Britain and Ireland), based on individualism, with pronounced social citizenship in some areas (notably the National Health Service) and reliance on the market elsewhere. Second, the continental type pioneered in Germany and prevalent in western European countries (France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Austria), where the primary focus is on protecting the income of the (male) industrial worker via social insurance schemes delivered through employer/employee partnerships. Third, the social democratic type developed in the Nordic countries (Sweden, followed by Norway, Denmark and Finland), in which the state assumes responsibility for the welfare of all (women as much as men), on a universal basis. Fourth, the southern type followed in Italy after 1945 and in Spain, Portugal and Greece after the overthrow of the dictatorships in the 1970s, which is based on the primacy of the male wage earner and offers only a weak safety net for those outside the official labour market.26 In terms of periodization, it is generally considered that the 30-year period from 1945 to the 1970s – what Jean Fourastié called Les Trente Glorieuses or the Glorious Thirty – was the ‘golden age’ of the welfare state.27 The term ‘welfare state’ was taken from Britain, where the vision of social support extending ‘from the cradle to the grave’ was set out in the 1942 Beveridge Report, establishing a ‘new European model’ of welfare provision.28 In the immediate post-war years, governments across Europe introduced extensive welfare systems as part of the settlement negotiated between labour and capital at the end of the Second World War, while Keynesian economic policies oiled the growth that made seemingly ever-higher consumer and welfare spending possible. This came to an abrupt end with the economic crisis of the 1970s and the neoliberal counter-revolution that followed. In geographical terms, while the primary locus was western Europe, the process of industrialization out of which the welfare state emerged had always involved a much Introduction 9 Fi gu re 1 .3 C an di lis J os ic W oo ds ( C om m iss ar ia t à l’é ne rg ie a to m iq ue ( C E A ) an d M in ist èr e de l a co ns tru cti on ), L a C ita de lle h ou sin g, B ag no ls- su r- C èz e, 1 95 8 (B ib lio th èq ue K an di ns ky , C en tre n at io na l d ’a rt et d e cu ltu re G eo rg es P om pi do u) . 10 Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel wider geographical reach. Industrialization in Britain, the pioneer industrial nation, was accompanied by the involuntary de-industrialization of other countries (for example, India, Ireland, Egypt), which were converted from manufacturers of goods to a new role as suppliers of raw materials for, and consumers of the goods manufac- tured by, British industry.29 To this extent, the process that spawned the European welfare state had global, and globally destructive, implications from the start. Colonial or quasi-colonial economic relationships with other parts of the world were integral to the process of wealth accumulation in western Europe and provided the resources for the welfare state. This colonial dimension fed directly into architecture and building programmes. The experience gained in the colonies was re-deployed in the home countries, where the devisers and designers of welfare facilities – housing, or schools, or hospitals – could draw on what had been done overseas in colonies and protectorates, and architects specializing in these typologies could operate equally at home and abroad. The ‘homes fit for heroes’ programme in Britain of 1919–1921 – the first national programme of state housing construction undertaken anywhere in the world – derived parts of its financial and administrative structure from the (far smaller) housing programme that Britain had been carrying out in the preceding years in Ireland.30 Architects from Weimar Germany, fleeing the Nazi regime in the 1930s, found an outlet for their talents in the colonies (for example, Ernst May in Kenya, Otto Koenigsberger in India) while prominent figures in the 1950s like Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew in Britain or the team of Georges Candilis, Alexis Josic and Shadrach Woods in France could operate equally on the colonial and domestic stage (Figure 1.3). In the same period international development programmes such as those organized by the World Bank and the United Nations provided an infrastructural basis for architects like Constantinos Doxiadis to develop international practices exporting welfare state expertise on a global scale. Pre-history of the welfare state While the thirty years after 1945 is considered the classic period of the welfare state in Europe, this does not mean that story begins in 1945. On the contrary, its origins lie in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century and what we might term the ‘proto-welfare state’ of the inter-war years. The first steps towards general provision of welfare by the state are considered to be the insurance schemes protecting industrial workers against sickness, industrial accidents and old age introduced by Bismarck in Germany in the 1880s. Over the following decade neighbouring countries followed Germany’s lead in whole or part: Austria in the 1880s, then Belgium, Denmark, the UK, Italy, France, Norway, Spain, the Netherlands and Switzerland in the 1890s.31 The connection between state- subsidised welfare and construction was established in 1869, when Liverpool became the first city in Europe to provide social housing, and over the years that followed other municipalities followed suit, notably the London County Council following its creation in 1889.32 In the Netherlands the advent of the welfare state is commonly identified with the so-called Woningwet (HousingAct), enacted in 1901 and imple- mented the following year, which was one of the first examples of the integration of spatial planning, house construction and welfare provision. The act compelled local Introduction 11 councils to start developing comprehensive zoning plans, while the state made credit available for low-cost housing construction. The regulation of slum clearance was also included, along with the introduction of building permits for all construction work, whether public or private.33 While by 1914 social insurance measures were in place in most advanced European countries, the First World War brought the problem of housing to the forefront. The problem was that while the war brought house construction to a virtual standstill, demand, generated by household formation and demographic movements consequent on the war (and peace), soared. In Berlin, for example, there had been nearly 28,000 vacant dwellings in 1914 but by the end of the war these had all been taken up and after 1918 the authorities stopped recording vacant dwellings and instead started recording households seeking accommodation, which by 1922 had reached 195,000.34 Moreover, with the general expectation that at some future point conditions would return to normal and construction costs would come down, there was no realistic prospect in the meantime that the market would provide, and hence unless the state intervened in some way, nothing would be built and the housing crisis would simply intensify. This was the conclusion reached in most European countries in the 1920s, with the result that many governments became involved in the large-scale provision of social housing. The proportion of housing production represented by social housing varied widely in different countries but in many cases was substantial: 82 per cent in Austria (1914–1928), 42 per cent in Germany (1927–1929), 36 per cent in Britain (1919–1929) and 29 per cent in the Netherlands (1921–1929).35 In major cities the figures could be as high or higher: for example, reportedly 76 per cent in the five largest towns in Norway (1914–1928) and 61 per cent in Copenhagen (1910–1929).36 These housing programmes of the 1920s had major implications for architects. The Tudor Walters Report of 1918, the ‘bible’ of the new municipal housing in Britain (largely written by Raymond Unwin), recommended that every housing scheme should be designed by an architect.37 In mainland Europe, modernist architects inspired by the dream of building a new society set about building new Siedlungen (housing settlements) in Berlin, Frankfurt, Karlsruhe, etc. (Figure 1.4). Some of them came together in 1928 at La Sarraz in Switzerland for the inaugural meeting of the Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM) and the following year gathered at the CIAM 2 conference on existenzminimum (minimum-income) housing held in the office of Frankfurt city planner Ernst May. But even while the architects were meeting in Frankfurt an event took place across the Atlantic that would bring the housing programmes to a standstill. The Wall Street crash of October 1929 brought chaos to the European economies, prompting the rise of rightwing parties (nowhere more so than in the central European economies dependent on U.S. finance) and major cuts in welfare spending, including housing. As Karel Teige told the delegates at the next CIAM conference, held in Brussels in 1930, ‘the restoration of private house-building and the free market are the dominant tendencies in nearly every country’, and by 1933 the housing programmes in Germany, Austria, Britain and France had been axed.38 But the economic catastrophe that brought about the demise of these welfare programmes also had counter-effects. In 1933 in the USA, Franklin D. Roosevelt launched the New Deal to counter the effects of the Great Depression.39 In Europe, just as the proto-welfare states bequeathed by the post-1918 settlement were being 12 Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel Figure 1.4 C ity of Frankfurt am M ain (E rnst M ay/C arl R udloff ), B ruchfeldstrasse estate (‘Z ickzackhausen’), Frankfurt, 1927 (B ryan & N orm an W estw ood/R IB A L ibrary Photographs C ollection). Introduction 13 dismantled, a new type of welfare state was emerging, containing many of the features of the future (post-1945) welfare state. In 1932 the social democrats came to power in Sweden and, determined to avoid the dictates of free-market political economy in responding to the slump, demanded that the state become an active player in the economy and in the creation of social welfare. Anticipating the ideas that Keynes would make famous in General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money in 1936, they set about creating a new kind of society, Folkhemmet (The People’s Home), in which the citizen would be protected by the state and consumption would be the motor of the economy, thereby foreshadowing the ideas that were to be pursued much more widely after 1945.40 The built environment and the welfare state During the Trente Glorieuses of 1945–1975, the built environment was a preferred locus of economic redistribution for the majority of welfare states. Along with social insurance, pensions, healthcare and education, housing was considered as one of the main pillars of the welfare state.41 As with the other three pillars, with housing, welfare states attempted to achieve de-commodification and thus to provide families with access to housing, independent of the income they acquired through the labour market. This implied that the state would become a main actor in the delivery of housing accommodation, ranging from providing subsidies for individual families in some welfare state regimes to the commissioning of social housing through corporations and local authorities in others, but always with the aim of making good-quality housing widely available to the population.42 In some cases this new housing was located within or on the edge of existing cities but it was also provided in new towns (essentially, state-funded garden cities), which played a key role in the planning and construction of the new national infrastructure that lay at the heart of the mixed economy system of the welfare state. Figure 1.5 Jean Prouvé with construction company CIMT, youth club for the Mille Clubs programme, 1966 (L’Architecture d’Aujord’hui, 1967). 14 Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel Welfare state intervention in the built environment was not limited to housing but also included buildings for health, education and leisure. In 1966 in France, for instance, the French Minister of Youth and Sports, François Missoffe, launched the Mille Clubs programme that produced more than a thousand youth clubs across France as the complement to the mass housing programmes (Figure 1.5). It would soon be followed in 1969 by other initiatives such as the Mille Piscines (Thousand Swimming Pools) and Mille Tennis (Thousand Tennis Clubs), that together would further extend the reach of the welfare state into everyday life.43 In many welfare state regimes ‘experts of the built environment’ – not only architects but also politicians, economist and sociologists – played a central role in these spatial policies. They not only devised the policies, organized the competitions and launched the building programmes, but also interacted with the major business interests, including construction companies, materials manufacturers and property developers. In France, as Bruno Vayssière has shown, the concrete companies that had been developing roads and infrastructure during the Second World War were instru- mental in propelling the construction methods for mass housing in the immediate post-war period.44 This predominance of the building industry would soon be reflected in the joint competitions for architecture offices and construction firms that the governmentorganized. Within welfare state regimes architects and urban planners acquired new roles, and architects were asked to articulate progressive definitions of modern living.45 Not only did the welfare state become embedded in the education and formation of the profession – in the UK, for example, at the Architectural Association in the 1950s all students designed a housing project as part of their studies46 – but governments, which often had no clear image of what the concrete infill of the welfare state would be, looked to architects and urban planners to provide the concepts and deliver the forms in which everyday welfare would be provided. Thus in the Mille Clubs programme the French government invited architects to produce not just the designs but also the brief.47 To this extent, architects were not just designing, but also devising, the services delivered by the welfare state. Critiques and crisis of the welfare state The 1970s are considered the point when the welfare state project went into crisis and, just when the goal of a more equitable society seemed within reach, the welfare state system started to unravel. In the early 1970s, three decades of economic expansion abruptly came to an end with the first oil crisis and the arrival of ‘stagflation’.48 While the unions were pushing aggressively for even more radical redistribution, the economic crises of the decade brought to light the limits of the welfare state and the affluent society. These limits were not only economic; there was also a shift in terms of values and ideology. Ideas of progress and enlightened democracy had been compromised by the geopolitics of the USA and NATO, with the Vietnam War a critical chapter triggering massive public protests. The environmental pollution caused by unlimited industrialization and consumption made people aware that the western way of life was exhausting natural resources and damaging the environment beyond regeneration.49 Such political and economic developments were paralleled by the rise of youth culture Introduction 15 and counterculture, of which the student revolts of May 1968 would remain the most memorable moment, with a lasting impact into the 1970s (Figure 1.6).50 A further element of the critique of the welfare state and its planning system was represented by the local actions that emerged at this time against the demolition of inner cities and historic districts as part of modernization, slum clearance policies and functionalist planning. Jane Jacobs and The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961) represents a milestone here of course, but there are also examples of activist communities such as the radical West Berlin district of Kreuzberg or the squatters of Copenhagen’s Christiania.51 Likewise, in Amsterdam in the late 1960s and early 1970s the demolition required for the construction of the underground railway led to fierce and aggressive occupations by its citizens, with the Provo movement declaring its own republic (Oranje Vrijstaat or Orange Free State) and, in the 1980s, the anarchist squatting movement turning parts of the city into practically autonomous enclaves.52 But although the student revolts, the environmental movement and local urban pressure groups continued some sort of a progressive political project of grass-roots democratization and in some cases even utopianism, albeit in a fundamentally different way from the post-war, modernizing welfare state, by the end of the 1970s the rise of conservative postmodernism and anti-utopianism evidenced a major shift in cultural values and ideology. The costly and cumbersome bureaucracy of the welfare state, the result of a combination of Fordism and Keynesian politics designed to secure optimal redistribution of welfare for all, came under increasing attack. In Britain the ‘Winter of Discontent’ of 1978–79 saw the country paralyzed by a wave of public sector strikes against which the Labour government appeared powerless, precipitating the election victory in May 1979 of a new Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, pledged to rolling Figure 1.6 Giancarlo De Carlo talking to the students/protesters occupying the Milan Triennale, 1968, photographed by Cesare Colombo. 16 Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel back the welfare state. The following year Ronald Reagan was elected President of the USA, marking a definitive breakthrough of neoliberal politics in the western world, with the welfare state and its institutions now depicted as a patronizing ‘nanny state’ curbing individual freedom and responsibility. While in hindsight the 1970s can be seen as marking the end of the ideological hegemony of the welfare state project (even though it was fiercely contested at the time), the criticisms being made of the welfare state were not wholly new. In particular the Fordist rationale behind the planning of the economy and the subse- quent territorial distribution of functions throughout the various countries – the new industries, the new infrastructure and new towns – were attacked by certain intellectuals from the start, including Sartre, Heidegger, the Situationists, etc. Henri Lefebvre’s work is a prime example from the field of sociology, a profound critique of the technocratic impulse and the depersonalized anonymity of the planning system which he produced even while working within the system itself.53 Within architecture we see the same sort of auto-critique: it was Aldo van Eyck who – as early as 1947 at the CIAM reunion congress in Bergamo – criticized rationalism and functionalism as a ‘mechanistic conception of progress’ unfit for the reconstruction of the European cities in the aftermath of the Second World War.54 The welfare state was not a homogeneous phenomenon. Rather than attempt a synthetic overview, the research presented here proceeds by way of in-depth case studies that cover a wide range of issues, building types and countries. The studies highlight the singularities of the different national contexts at different dates, allowing both a broader, and a more nuanced, portrait of the architecture of the welfare state to emerge and providing clues for further enquiry. The chapters are grouped into three broad sections: cultures and continuities; critiques and contradictions; and national and international. Cultures and continuities The first study in the first section focuses on one of the most celebrated episodes of the ‘proto-welfare state’ era, the housing programme of Red Vienna of the 1920s, and explores its afterlife in the architectural culture of the post-war period. Eve Blau shows how, based on the theories of Austro-Marxism, the housing superblocks of Red Vienna created a new urban typology in which the barriers between public and private, city and home, were eliminated, creating a new picture of the collective and a new kind of integrated (socialized) urban space. In the very different political condi- tions that prevailed in Austria after 1945, the example of the superblocks was excluded from the welfare state agenda, but from the 1960s a new generation of Viennese architects took a renewed interest in their form and history, eventually giving birth in Vienna to a new type of superblock, the ‘green megastructure’. As noted before, one of the major innovations represented by the welfare state was the transfer to the state of functions formerly undertaken by unofficial or voluntary organisations such as churches, trade unions, etc. As Hilde Heynen and Janina Gosseye show, in Belgium the process had a particularly pronounced character because Belgian society was split into strongly differentiated sectors or ‘pillars’ along denominational lines (Catholic, trade union, etc.) and the provision of housing and other welfare Introduction 17 facilities was shaped accordingly. But from the 1960s a programmatic differentiation of another sort, namely linguistic, between Flemish and French-speaking,took over and in this process architectural projects played a key role. But while the political objec- tives changed, the impact on the urban landscape remained remarkably consistent, reinforcing the creation of urban sprawl – the ‘nebulous’ city – which is so marked a feature of Belgium today. The notion that the welfare state was the creation of the post-war period inevi- tably turns the Second World War into something of a watershed: but how much of a break did it really represent? Simon Pepper addresses this question in his study of one of the key episodes of architectural innovation in the welfare state, the adoption of the high-rise model for social housing in Britain. Against the accepted view that high-rise was an innovation brought to Britain by modernist architects after 1945, Pepper shows that from the mid-1930s the London County Council (LCC) was working on high-rise schemes which were intended to address the perceived failings of the housing output of the 1920s and 1930s. Pepper shows how the famous LCC high-rise schemes of the 1950s were the product of architectural, political and admin- istrative developments that had extended throughout what he calls ‘the long 1940s’. Continuity, in other words, as well as caesura was inherent in the story. Continuities of another sort are explored by Nicholas Bullock. Taking a single borough in east London, West Ham, that was one of the most deprived in the capital, he shows how over the thirty years after 1945 the welfare state changed from being seen as the saviour of the population to becoming its oppressor. Behind the headlines of the collapse of the Ronan Point tower block in 1968 was a much more complex picture, in which local politicians were losing touch with their roots, the problems facing the local state were becoming far more demanding and the simple meeting of material ‘needs’ offered by the welfare state was no longer deemed sufficient by an increasingly sophisticated consumer society. Bullock shows thereby how the ‘success’ of the welfare state in this borough contained within itself the seeds of its own ‘failure’. Critiques and contradictions Critiques of, and contradictions within, the welfare state constitute the focus of the second section of the book. Nowhere was the internal institutional critique of the welfare state more developed, and more firmly embedded in the state apparatus, than in France, where almost from the start of the great housing programmes of the 1950s the government created sociological research institutes to investigate the results. Łukasz Stanek’s study focuses on this new group of experts generated by the auto- critique of the welfare state, showing how a whole generation of French sociologists including Chombart de Lauwe and Henri Lefebvre first came to prominence through these studies of state housing. They developed concepts of ‘needs’ that went far beyond those envisaged by administrators or architects, not least Lefebvre’s concept, extending Marx, of le droit à la ville (‘the right to the city’) and Chombart’s theory of spatial organization as the mapping of a priori cultural concepts. Social theory of a quite different sort figures in the chapter by Dirk van den Heuvel, which focuses on one of the most prominent international networks of the Trente Glorieuses, Team 10. Van den Heuvel shows how the concept of the ‘Open 18 Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel Society’ with its inclusiveness and egalitarianism, as promoted by the philosopher Karl Popper, informed the thinking of this group. Despite the contradictions involved, Jaap Bakema, Aldo van Eyck and Alison and Peter Smithson sought to develop a parallel concept of ‘openness’ in their housing and city plans of the 1950s and 1960s, resulting in radical forms of publicness in which the relationship between public and private, collective and individual, was re-defined. One of the most spectacular of these was the Kasbah housing development in Hengelo designed in 1969 by van Eyck’s protégé, Piet Blom, which was built under a special welfare state programme allowing for experi- mental housing. With its vast covered open space at the heart of the project, it was to be a radical agent for a new sociability that was eventually smothered in the suburban context of its realization. The welfare state was predicated on high levels of consumption, for both economic and ideological reasons. What scope did this allow to the architect? Helena Mattsson examines one of the most famous Swedish new towns of the 1960s, Skärholmen, and reveals how it was conceived and organized around shopping. Mattsson shows how Sweden’s ‘corporatist’ version of the welfare state gave the leading economic interests – chambers of commerce, road associations, retail bodies, etc. – a direct role in the formation of state policy, whereas architects were unrepresented. In the design of the new town of Skärholmen accordingly it was the major business interests and the building industry that made the main decisions, with the architects largely left on the side. The agency or otherwise of the architect is also explored in Florian Urban’s study of the Märkisches Viertel in West Berlin. In the 1950s and 1960s West Germany undertook a major programme of building large housing schemes on the edge of its cities. In 1968 almost overnight one of these, the Märkisches Viertel, became a cause célèbre, depicted in the popular press as the worst kind of nightmare estate. But as Urban shows, this was not the result of decisions that the architects had made – very little attention was given to matters that were under their control – but rather stemmed from issues of location, and public transport and local politics. While the Märkisches Viertel was portrayed as a symbol of the failure of the welfare state, it was not so much the design as the wider process of production which was under attack. The process of production associated with the welfare state, with its monolithic nature, bureaucratic structures and statutory requirements, created a role for architects that many found deeply unpalatable. To architects of this view, how much better, it seemed, to sidestep the entire welfare state and instead to ‘do it yourself ’. As Caroline Maniaque-Benton shows, this was the thinking of a number of architects in France who saw in the counterculture of the USA a model for making architecture free from the constraints of state-funded industrialized production. Inspired by American counterparts, publications such as the Catalogue des ressources provided both the vision and the practical know-how to enable French architects to bypass the welfare state and create their own version of the California countercultural dream. National and international The relationship between national and international, and the role of international exchange and expertise, forms the focus of the final section of the book. Tom Avermaete’s study of the ABTAT group of architects around Le Corbusier shows Introduction 19 that they too were influenced by the USA, in this case by the ‘total’ approach to development and construction developed by the Tennessee Valley Authority, whose works they went to visit in 1945. But this group, which included Georges Candilis and Michel Ecochard, was also profoundly involved in an international relationship of another sort, namely that between France and her colonies and protectorates in North Africa, where many of them were working in the 1950s. Avermaete shows how ideas and practices developed in the colonial context of North Africa both drew on, and fed into, the debates about the design of housing and new towns in France that were to be a defining feature of Les Trente Glorieuses. The relationship between the indigenous and the imported is also a theme in Mark Swenarton’s study of innovation in welfare state architecture. Here the focus is on the housing designs of the young PatrickHodgkinson of the mid-1950s and the role they played in the development in Britain of an alternative to high-rise. Like many of his contemporaries, Hodgkinson was strongly attracted to the housing designs of Le Corbusier, but he was also deeply attached to what he saw as the indigenous English tradition, notably of building cities that were high-density but low-rise. Swenarton shows how in his student work at the Architectural Association, and later working with Leslie Martin, Hodgkinson sought to combine these two elements, transforming the Unité d’habitation from a skyscraper to a groundscraper, thereby creating an influ- ential new type of urbanism that was neither ‘modern’ nor ‘traditional’. Questions of national identity form a sub-text in Luca Molinari’s study of archi- tectural ideology in Italy in the late 1960s. The focus is on two canonic projects, Giancarlo De Carlo’s Matteotti village and Aldo Rossi’s Gallaratese 2. Molinari shows how, confronted by what was regarded by Italian architectural culture as the impov- erished housing production of the Italian welfare state, De Carlo and Rossi sought radically different means of restoring authenticity to the agency of architecture and, thereby, to the housing production of the welfare state: in the one case by engaging the populace directly in the design process, in the other by creating a monument in the city. The failure of both projects, Molinari argues, illustrates the impotence of Italian architectural culture when confronted with the realities of rapid urbanization and the demands of the welfare state. The final two chapters of the book engage explicitly with the colonial and postco- lonial dimensions of the welfare state, exploring the complex relationship between welfare states and colonial regimes in terms of both policies and architecture and problematizing the oppressive character of architectural and urban projects in both territories. Michelle Provoost’s study focuses on the architectural ideologies at play in the design of new towns in West Africa, both before and after independence from Britain. In the 1940s and 1950s Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew worked on welfare state projects both in Britain and in Britain’s colonies, especially the new town of Tema in the Gold Coast (Ghana), where their approach was notable for the attention it paid to the cultures and customs of the population. But following independence, they were replaced at Tema by Constantinos Doxiadis, whose designs focused on universal, rather than indigenous, requirements. Provoost argues that whatever the prefer- ences of ‘educated’ architectural opinion, at Tema it was the ‘top-down’ approach of Doxiadis rather than the ‘bottom-up’ approach of Fry Drew that proved the more popular and successful. 20 Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel With the last chapter we move to south-east Asia, where as noted above some of the features of European welfare states are re-emerging in the very different context of the sunrise economies of twenty-first-century capitalism. Miles Glendinning focuses on two of the ‘little tiger’ economies of south-east Asia, Singapore and Hong Kong, and explores the international exchanges, largely stemming from British colonial rule, that have shaped their housing policies and production. Glendinning shows how the promotion of economic efficiency has led the governments of these Asian states to adopt social housing programmes that draw on European experience but without any of the ideology of the welfare state. Will this be the story of the twenty-first century: welfare state building without the welfare state? Notes 1 C. Quiring, W. Voigt, P. C. Schmal and E. Herrel, Ernst May 1886–1970, München: Prestel, 2011; A. Vidler, James Frazer Stirling: Notes from the Archive, London: Yale UP, 2010; M. Crinson, Stirling and Gowan, Architecture from Austerity to Affluence, London, Yale UP, 2012; S. Sadler, Archigram: Architecture without Architecture, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2005; H. Steiner, Beyond Archigram: The Structure of Circulation, London: Routledge, 2008; M. Risselada and D. van den Heuvel, (eds.), Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present (1953–1981), Rotterdam: NAi, 2005; T. Avermaete, Another modern: the post-war architecture and urbanism of Candilis-Josic-Woods, Rotterdam: NAi, 2005; C. Blain, L’atelier de montrouge, Paris: Actes Sud, 2008; H. Ibelings, Van den Broek en Bakema 1948–1988: Architectuur en stedenbouw: de functie van de form, Rotterdam: NAi, 2000. Thanks are due to Adrian Forty, Hilde Heynen and Ed Taverne for helpful comments on an earlier draft of the introduction. 2 S. Williams Goldhagen and R. Legault (eds.), Anxious Modernisms. Experimentation in Postwar Architectural Culture, Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2001; D. Rouillard, Superarchitecture, Paris: Villette, 2004; R. Martin, The Organizational Complex: Architecture, Media and Corporate Space, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2005; F. Scott, Architecture or Techno-Utopia: Politics after Modernism, Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2007; M. Crinson and C. Zimmerman (eds.), Neo-Avant-Garde and Postmodern: Postwar Architecture in Britain and Beyond, London: Yale UP, 2010. 3 G. Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, Princeton: Princeton UP, 1990. For the current state of the art, see F. G., Castles, S. Liebfried, J. Lewis,, H. Obinger, C. Pierson The Oxford Handbook of the Welfare State, Oxford: Oxford UP 2010. 4 The exception that proves the rule is the chapter ‘New Brutalism and the architecture of the Welfare State: England 1949–59’, covering the Independent Group, the Smithsons and Stirling, in K. Frampton, Modern Architecture: A Critical History, London: Thames & Hudson, 1980, pp. 262–268. Recently architectural history and theory have moved towards greater engagement with interdisciplinary debates but even here little attention has been paid to the welfare state. See C. Greig Crysler, S. Cairns and H. Heynen, The Sage Handbook of Architectural Theory, London: Sage, 2012. 5 K. van Herck and T. Avermaete (eds.), Wonen in Welvaart: woningbouw en wooncultuur in Vlaanderen, 1948–1973, Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 2006; M. Ryckewaert, Building the Economic Backbone of the Belgian Welfare State: Infrastructure, Planning and Architecture 1945–1973, Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 2011; H. Mattsson and S.-O. Wallenstein, Swedish Modernism: Architecture, Consumption and the Welfare State, London: Black Dog, 2010. For a discussion of culture and the welfare state in the Netherlands, see K. Schuyt and E. Taverne, Dutch Culture in a European Perspective: 1950, Prosperity and Welfare, Assen: Uitgeverij Van Gorcum, 2004 (Dutch original: 2000). 6 See T. Avermaete and D. van den Heuvel (eds.), ‘The European Welfare State Project: Ideals, Politics, Cities and Buildings’, themed issue of Footprint, 9 (2011). 7 H. Heynen and J. Gosseye (eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Conference of the Architectural History Network, Brussels: Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie van België voor Wetenschappen en Kunsten, 2012, 543–567. Introduction 21 8 In addition to the contributors to this book, participants in the symposium included José António Bandeirinha (University of Coimbra), Adrian Forty (University College London), Elain Harwood (English Heritage), Eeva-Liisa Pelkonen (Yale University) and Laurent Stalder (ETH Zurich). Wolfgang Voigt (German Architecture Museum) was prevented by illness from attending. 9 Thanks also to Hilde Heynen for her contribution to this. 10 See also T. Avermaete and D. van den Heuvel, ‘ “Obama, Please Tax Me!” Architecture and the Politics of Redistribution’, in Footprint 9, Autumn 2011, 1–3. 11 For example, the English Heritage exhibition Brutal and Beautiful: Saving the Twentieth Century held in the Quadriga Gallery, London in 2013. 12 See A. Powers (ed.), Robin Hood Gardens: Re-Visions, London: Twentieth Century Society, 2010; D. vanden Heuvel, M. Mesman, W. Quist, B. Lemmens (eds.), The Challenge of Change. Dealing with the Legacy of the Modern Movement, Proceedings of the 10th International Docomomo Conference, Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2008. 13 R. Morton and A. Ross, Construction UK: Introduction to the Industry, Second Edition, Oxford: Blackwell, 2008, p. 94. 14 See, for example, I. Peng and J. Wong, ‘East Asia’, in Castles et al., Oxford Handbook, 656–670; J. Doling, ‘Housing Policies and the Little Tigers: How Do They Compare with Other Industrialised Countries?’, Housing Studies, 1999, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 229–250. 15 A placard at the protests reads ‘We want schools and hospitals, not FIFA standards’ (www.itv. com/news/update/2013-06-21/brazil-we-want-schools-and-hospitals-not-fifa-standards). See also http://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/28/world/americas/brazil-protests-favelas 16 We follow here the definition of the welfare state as offered by amongst others P. Flora, (ed.), Growth to Limits. The Western European Welfare States since World War II, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1986, vol. 1, xii. 17 This notion of Great Transformation is coined in K. Polyani, The Great Transformation (Boston: Beacon Press, 1957). 18 See for instance G. Rimlinger, Welfare Policy and Industrialization in Europe, America and Russia (New York: Wiley, 1971) and J. Alber, Some Causes and Consequences of Social Security Expenditure Development in Western Europe, 1949–1977, San Domenico, Italy: European University Institute, 1982. 19 I. Gough, ‘European Welfare States: Explanations and Lessons for Developing Countries’, in A. A. Dani and A. de Haan (eds.), Inclusive States: Social Policy and Structural Inequalities, Washington DC: World Bank 2008, 62; C. Pierson and M. Leimgruber, ‘Intellectual Roots’, in Castles et al., Oxford Handbook, 38. See also M. Swenarton, Homes Fit for Heroes: the Politics and Architecture of Early State Housing in Britain, London: Heinemann Educational Books, 1981, and J.-L. Cohen, Architecture in Uniform: Designing and Building for World War II, London: Yale UP, 2011. 20 F.-X. Kaufmann, Die Entstehung sozialer Grundrechte und sie wohlfahrtsstaatliche Entwicklung, Paderborn: Schöningh, 2003; Castles et al., Oxford Handbook, 7. 21 Castles et al., Oxford Handbook. 22 W. Arts and J. Gelissen, ‘Three worlds of welfare capitalism or more? A state-of-the-art report’, Journal of European Social Policy 12 (2), 2002, 139. See also Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. 23 Gough, ‘European Welfare States’, p. 48. 24 Gough, ‘European Welfare States’, pp. 43–54. 25 Ibid., p. 40. Castles et al, Oxford Handbook, pp. 586–642. 26 See M. Kautto, ‘The Nordic Countries’; B. Palier, ‘Continental Western Europe’; M. Ferrera, ‘The South European Countries’; and F. G. Castles, ‘The English-Speaking Countries’, in Castles et al., Oxford Handbook, pp. 586–642. 27 Gough, ‘European Welfare States’, p. 53; J. Fourastié, Les trente glorieuses: ou, La Révolution invisible de 1946 a 1975 (Paris: Fayard, 1979). For the ‘golden age’ and its collapse in the crisis of the 1970s, see E. Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century 1914–1991, London: Michael Joseph, 1994, pp. 257–286. 28 I. Gough and G. Therborn, ‘The Global Future of Welfare States’, in Castles et al., Oxford Handbook, p. 705. http://www.itv.com/news/update/2013-06-21/brazil-we-want-schools-and-hospitals-not-fifa-standards http://www.itv.com/news/update/2013-06-21/brazil-we-want-schools-and-hospitals-not-fifa-standards http://www.edition.cnn.com/2013/06/28/world/americas/brazil-protests-favelas 22 Mark Swenarton, Tom Avermaete and Dirk van den Heuvel 29 E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution 1789–1848 (New York: Mentor Books, 1962), pp. 198–199 and 216–217. 30 M. Fraser, John Bull’s Other Homes: State Housing and British Policy in Ireland, 1883–1922 (Liverpool: Liverpool UP, 1996), p. 299. 31 D. Thomson, Europe since Napoleon, Harmondsworth: Penguin 1966, pp. 358–359. 32 J. N. Tarn, Five Per Cent Philanthropy: An Account of Housing in Urban Areas between 1840 and 1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1973), p. 62; S. Beattie, A Revolution in London Housing: LCC Housing Architects and Their Work 1893–1914 (London: Greater London Council/ Architectural Press, 1980). 33 N. L. Prak, Het Nederlandse woonhuis van 1800 tot 1940 (Delft: Delft UP, 1991); N. de Vreeze, Woningbouw, Inspiratie & Ambities. Kwalitatieve grondslagen van de sociale woningbouw in Nederland (Almere: Nationale Woningraad, 1993). 34 M. Swenarton, Building the New Jerusalem: Architecture, Housing and Politics 1900–1930, Garston: IHS-BRE 2008, pp. 85–86. 35 International Labour Office, Housing Policy in Europe, Geneva: International Labour Office, 1930, pp. 44–45. 36 C. Bauer, Modern Housing, New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1934, pp. 299–301. Bauer’s figures should be treated with caution. 37 Swenarton, Homes fit for Heroes, pp. 100–101. 38 Swenarton, Building the New Jerusalem, p. 92. 39 W. A. Chafe (ed.), The Achievement of American Liberalism: The New Deal and Its Legacies, New York: Columbia UP, 2003. 40 Y. Hirdman, ‘The Happy 30s: A Short Story of Social Engineering and Gender Order in Sweden’, in Mattsson and Wallenstein, Swedish Modernism, pp. 66–67; and in the same volume H. Mattsson and S.-O. Wallenstein, ‘Introduction’, p. 16. See also Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes, p. 107. 41 For an introduction to the role of housing in welfare state regimes see J. Allen, J. Barlow, J. Leal, T. Maloutas and L. Padovani, Housing and Welfare in Southern Europe (London: Blackwell, 2004); J. Kemeny, ‘Comparative housing and welfare: theorising the relationship’, Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, vol. 16, no. 1 (2001), pp. 53–70; and P. Malpass, Housing and the Welfare State (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005). 42 Some researchers in the field of housing policy have argued that, despite the initial promise represented by the rapid expansion of social housing after the Second World War, it has more recently emerged as a distinctively weak pillar of public welfare provision – ‘the wobbly pillar under the welfare state’, as Torgersen’s (1987) widely quoted metaphor has it. See U. Torgersen, ‘Housing: the wobbly pillar under the welfare state’, in B. Turner, J. Kemeny and L. Lundqvist (eds.), Between State and Market: Housing in the Post-industrial Era, Gävle: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1987, pp. 116–126. 43 On these various leisure programs see: M. Falcoz and P. Chifflet, ‘La construction publique des équipements sportifs. Aspects historique, politique, spatial’, Les Annales de la recherche urbaine, 79 (1998), pp. 14–21. 44 B. Vayssière, Reconstruction-Déconstruction, Paris: Picard, 1988. 45 K. Schuyt and E. Taverne, Dutch Culture in a European Perspective: 1950, Prosperity and Welfare, Assen: Uitgeverij Van Gorcum, 2004. 46 See Chapter 12. 47 T. Avermaete, ‘A thousand youth clubs: architecture, mass leisure and the rejuvenation of post-war France’, Journal of Architecture, vol. 18, no. 5 (October 2013), 632–646. 48 See P. Rosanvallon, La Crise de l’État-providence, Paris: Seuil, 1992; R. Coopey and N. Woodward (eds.), Britain in the 1970s: The Troubled Economy, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1996; Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes, 403–418. 49 The Club of Rome report, The Limits to Growth (1972), was a key document, with Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) being an early predecessor. 50 See also J.-L. Violeau, Les architectes et Mai 1968, Paris: Recherches, 2005; F. Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006. 51 J. Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, New York: Random House, 1961. In parallel in Europe there was the move in the 1960s to empower tenants within the Introduction 23 production process: see N. J. Habraken, De Dragers en de Mensen, Het einde van de massa Woningbouw, Amsterdam: Scheltema& Holkema, 1961 (English version: N. J. Habraken, Supports: An Alternative to Mass Housing, London: Architectural Press, 1972) and J. Turner, ‘The fits and misfits of people’s housing’, RIBA Journal, vol. 18, no. 2 (February 1974), 14–21. See also C. Klemek, The Transatlantic Collapse of Urban Renewal, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011. 52 In the end, armed force broke this resistance. See V. Mamadouh, De stad in eigen hand. Provo’s, kabouters en krakers als stedelijke sociale beweging, Amsterdam: SUA, 1992. 53 See Chapter 6. 54 V. Ligtelijn and F. Strauven (eds.), Aldo van Eyck, Writings. Volume 2: Collected Articles and Other Writings 1947–1998, Amsterdam: SUN Publishers, 2008, pp. 32–42. This page intentionally left blank PART I Cultures and continuities Figure 2.0 Karl Ehn, Karl Marx Hof, View of forecourt, 1927–30 (Georg Mittenecker, 2012). 2 FROM RED SUPERBLOCK TO GREEN MEGASTRUCTURE : MUNICIPAL SOCIALISM AS MODEL AND CHALLENGE Eve Blau The structure and provisions of the Austrian Welfare State were shaped under extraor- dinary circumstances in the context of a radical programme of municipal socialism known as ‘Red Vienna’ in the period between 1919–1934.1 The urban and socio- spatial focus of that programme – and the role assigned to architecture and urban design in realizing it – remained a reference, challenge, and standard against which the postwar Austrian social welfare programme was measured and, especially in the decades following the Second World War, found wanting. Red Vienna was not only the measure but also the model for postwar Austrian social welfare, a model that had to be rescaled to the postwar political and economic conditions of the Second Republic through a process described by officials as ‘Austrification’. In the immediate postwar decades Austrification involved abandonment of the vital connection between social programme and urban architectural form that had been forged in interwar Vienna. That connection was only re-established in the 1970s by a generation of architects educated after the war whose anti-functionalist polemics, ‘architectural actions’, and calls for a return to ‘urbanity’ in the late 1960s inaugurated a new episode of typological innovation and urban engagement in Austrian housing design, and led ultimately to the (at least partial) rediscovery of the architectural instrumentality and urban spatial politics of Red Vienna. The Austrian experience provides both an unusually long historical lens for examining the relationship between architecture and the welfare state, and a unique perspective on how that relationship was impacted by the very different political conditions and geographies which prevailed not only within Austria but also in Europe in the inter-war and post-war periods. One of the determining conditions of Austria’s nascent welfare system in Red Vienna was Vienna’s inter-war status as a state (Bundesland) of the federal Republic of Austria. According to a constitutional amendment, ratified in 1921, Vienna, in addition to being the capital of the newly established Republic of Austria, became a federal state of the Republic. This gave the municipality unprecedented constitutional independence: Vienna could legislate as both a city and a state; it also had access to federal funds and could levy taxes as a 28 Eve Blau municipality and state – all of which gave Vienna extraordinary political and financial resources and made it possible for the city to govern and finance its programme. At the same time, however, Red Vienna was also under constant siege from political opposition within Austria. Throughout the period during which the Social Democrats governed Vienna, 1919–1934, the municipality was a socialist enclave in a country ruled by a rabidly anti-socialist, conservative, and clerical Christian Social political majority. The Social Democratic policies and architecture of Red Vienna therefore took shape not only within the context of a socialist programme of municipal reforms, but also in the midst of highly charged, and often violent, political conflict between right and left.2 Austria itself was also embattled during that period: the new republic was economically and politically isolated after the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Precluded from political union or Anschluss with Social Democratic Germany by the terms of the Treaty of St. Germain in 1919, and surrounded by the hostile successor states of the former Empire which erected high tariff barriers, the rump state was also cut off from essential supplies of food, coal and raw materials as well as markets for its own industrial products. The Austrification of Vienna’s social welfare programmes after the Second World War involved not only a systemic scaling up from municipal to federal policies and programmes, but also a fundamental ideological, political, and economic reorientation and adjustment to conditions that were radically different from those that had prevailed in the inter-war period. In May 1955, when the Allied occupation ended, Austria was granted full independence as a free, sovereign and democratic state, and in October of that year Austria declared its permanent neutrality. The Second Republic was governed almost continuously from 1955 to the late 1970s by a coalition government formed of the two largest federal parties: the Austrian People’s Party (ÖVP) and the Social Democratic Party (SPÖ), with important political posts split evenly between the parties.3 Vienna was once again, as in the pre-war period, administered by the Social Democrats. Interestingly, the city also retained its dual constitutional status as municipality and federal state, as well as its position as the nation’s capital. Vienna was, and continues to be, the seat of the municipal, state, and federal governments. But the Central European context in which Red Vienna and Austrian welfare systems first took shape had ceased to exist with the binary division of Cold War Europe. Austria, newly part of western Europe, saw itself as strategically positioned on the border between East and West: a bastion of western democracy, which was still actively engaged in trade with its Warsaw Pact neighbours. Culturally, however, Austria was resolutely oriented toward the West. In archi- tecture this had long been the case. Since the late nineteenth century, Viennese architects, most notably Adolf Loos, had (as Richard Neutra put it) an ‘unrequited love’ for Anglo-American culture.4 In Viennese architectural culture, ever since Loos launched his attack on the hide-bound conservatism of Viennese culture and society (of which the historicist architecture of the Ringstrasse was emblematic) in the 1890s, ‘the West’ and in particular Anglo-American modern culture, portrayed as techno- logically advanced and embodying democratic values and practices, had figured as the critical ‘Other’ [Das Andere] of Austrian (‘eastern’) cultural backwardness.5 In the 1950s and 1960s the compulsion toward ‘westernization’ of Austrian culture took on new internationalist perspectives and points of reference, cultural as well as social. In From Red Superblock to Green Megastructure 29 architecture these ranged from the Situationists to Archigram, the Metabolists, and Team 10. Red Vienna: municipal socialism as model The birth of the Austrian welfare state coincided with that of Austria itself. With the defeat of the central powers in the First World War, the empire of Austria-Hungary dissolved into the new national states of Central Europe – including the ‘residual’ Republic of Austria – ratified by the Treaty of St. Germain in 1919. Vienna, the capital, emerged from the war diminished and on the edge of economic collapse and famine. No longer the seat of a vast empire but, instead, of a small cluster of rural and alpine provinces, Vienna was still a metropolis of almost two million inhabitants, a number
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