Coursebook - History ENG Lang, shorter appendices

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The History of English 
 
 Page 1 
 
 FIRST SEMESTER 
 
INTRODUCTION Lesson 
1 
 
Orientation about course programme, discussion assessment methods 
 
This course is organised in a cyclical way. Its basic theme, the history and origins of 
the English language, is presented three times, each time going into more detail and at each 
consecutive cycle, more is explained about interesting features and events that may 
increase your understanding of the way in which this language developed. 
Unit 1 will therefore only present major historical facts and events. But as we 
proceed during the course, more attention will be given to (socio-)linguistic aspects and 
socio-economic implications of the major role English as a language has started to play in 
our modern world. 
 
 
UNIT 1 Lesson 
2 
Short History of Origins of English Language – Old English 
Sources: www.englishclub.com/English-language history.htm 
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/thehistoryofeng 
 
The Anglo-Saxon Settlement 
 
It's never easy to pinpoint exactly when a specific language 
began, but in the case of English we can at least say that there is little 
sense in speaking of the English language as a separate entity before 
the Anglo-Saxons came to Britain. The Celts were already resident in 
Britain when the Anglo-Saxons arrived, but there are few obvious 
traces of their language in English today. Some scholars have 
suggested that the Celtic tongue might have had an underlying 
influence on the grammatical development of English, particularly in 
some parts of the country, but this is highly speculative. The number of loanwords known 
for certain to have entered Old English from this source is very small. Those that survive in 
modern English include brock (badger), and coomb a type of valley, alongside many place 
names. 
Little is known of this period with any certainty, but we do know that Germanic 
invaders came and settled in Britain from the north-western coastline of continental Europe 
in the fifth and sixth centuries. The invaders all spoke a language that was Germanic 
(related to what emerged as Dutch, Frisian, German and the Scandinavian languages, and 
to Gothic), but we'll probably never know how different their speech was from that of their 
continental neighbours. However it is fairly certain that many of the settlers would have 
spoken in exactly the same way as some of their north European neighbours, and that not 
all of the settlers would have spoken in the same way. 
The History of English 
 
 Page 2 
 
The reason that we know so little about the linguistic situation in this period is 
because we do not have much in the way of written records from any of the Germanic 
languages of north-western Europe until several centuries later. When Old English writings 
begin to appear in the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries there is a good deal of regional 
variation, but not substantially more than that found in later periods. This was the language 
that King Alfred the Great referred to as ‘English’ in the ninth century. 
QUESTIONS: 
A. About when can we say did the history of the language called “English” begin and 
where? 
B. Why do we know so little about the early period of “Old English”? 
C. When and who first mentioned this language in writing, referring to it as “English”? 
 
 
UNIT 1 Lesson 
3 
Short History of Origins of English Language – Old English 
 
Sources: www.englishclub.com/English-language history.htm 
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/thehistoryofeng 
Old English (450-1100 AD) 
So, the history of the English language really started with the arrival of three 
Germanic tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th century AD. These tribes, the Angles, 
the Saxons and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea from what today is Denmark and northern 
Germany. At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language. But most of the 
Celtic speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders - mainly into what is now 
Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Angles came from Englaland and their language was 
called Englisc - from which the words England and English are derived. 
Germanic invaders entered Britain on the east 
and south coasts in the 5th century. 
 
 
The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in Britain developed 
into what we now call Old English. Old English did not sound or look like English today. 
Native English speakers now would have great difficulty understanding Old English. 
Nevertheless, about half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old 
English roots. The words be, strong and water, for example, derive from Old English. Old 
English was spoken until around 1100. 
The History of English 
 
 Page 3 
 
 
The Scandinavian Settlements 
The next invaders were the Norsemen. From the middle of the 
ninth century large numbers of Norse invaders settled in Britain, 
particularly in northern and eastern areas, and in the eleventh century 
the whole of England had a Danish king, Canute. The distinct North 
Germanic speech of the Norsemen had great influence on English, 
most obviously seen in the words that English has borrowed from this 
source. These include some very basic words such as take and even 
grammatical words such as they. The common Germanic base of the 
two languages meant that there were still many similarities between 
Old English and the language of the invaders. Some words, for example give, perhaps show 
a kind of hybridization with some spellings going back to Old English and others being 
Norse in origin. However, the resemblances between the two languages are so great that in 
many cases it is impossible to be sure of the exact ancestry of a particular word or spelling. 
However, much of the influence of Norse, including the vast majority of the loanwords, does 
not appear in written English until after the next great historical and cultural upheaval, the 
Norman Conquest. 
QUESTIONS: 
A. Who were the first speakers of this language “Old English” and where did they come 
from? 
B. What language(s) was this “Old English” probably quite similar to? 
C. When these Germanic invaders arrived in Britain who were already living there? 
D. Are there many traces of these older people’s language left in English today? 
(Explain.) 
E. How does the English you are learning today compare to this much older form of 
English? 
F. Are there any roots of this Old English left in present-day English? (Examples, 
please.) 
G. The there was a second wave of invaders. Who were they and where did they come 
from? 
H. Explain why the language spoken by these new invaders was quite similar to the 
language spoken by the first group of invaders? 
I. Give examples of words in present day English that come from this second group. 
 
 
 
 UNIT 1 Lesson 
4 
Short History of Origins of English Language – Middle English and Modern English 
Sources: www.englishclub.com/English-language history.htm 
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/thehistoryofeng 
 
Middle English (1100-1500) 
In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of modern France), 
invaded and conquered England. The new conquerors (called the Normans) brought with 
themhy a kind of French, which became the language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and 
‘[‘[-/business classes. For a period there was a kind of linguistic class division, where the 
lower classes spoke English and the upper classes spoke French. 
The History of English 
 
 Page 4 
 
In the 14th century English became dominant 
in Britain again, but with many French words 
added. This language is called Middle 
English. It was the language of the great poet 
Chaucer (c1340-1400), but it would still be 
difficult for native English speakers to 
understand today. 
 
 
 
1066 and after 
 
The centuries after the Norman Conquest witnessed enormous 
changes in the English language. In the courseof what is called the 
Middle English period, the fairly rich inflectional system of Old English 
broke down. It was replaced by what is broadly speaking, the same 
system English has today, which unlike Old English makes very little 
use of distinctive word endings in the grammar of the language. The 
vocabulary of English also changed enormously, with tremendous 
numbers of borrowings from French and Latin, in addition to the 
Scandinavian loanwords already mentioned, which were slowly 
starting to appear in the written language. 
Old English, like German today, showed a tendency to find native equivalents for 
foreign words and phrases (although both Old English and modern German show plenty of 
loanwords), whereas Middle English acquired the habit that modern English retains today of 
readily accommodating foreign words. Tri-lingualism in English, French, and Latin was 
common in the worlds of business and the professions, with words crossing over from one 
language to another with ease. You only have to flick through the etymologies of any English 
dictionary to get an impression of the huge number of words entering English from French 
and Latin during the later medieval period. This trend was set to continue into the early 
modern period with the explosion of interest in the writings of the ancient world. 
 
QUESTIONS: 
A. Who was responsible for the third invasion that was to change this older form of 
English profoundly and where did these people come from? 
B. Explain about the language they spoke (similar to..?) and how did it divide the 
society in Britain? 
C. When was the language that was spoken by the lower classes restored back to its 
original position of the dominant language? 
D. It developed into a variety that we now refer to as Middle English. Compare Old with 
Middle English in terms of grammar and vocabulary. (You may compare Old English 
with German today to explain in what way Old English was different from the variety 
that it developed into: Middle English.) 
E. Who was a great poet/writer in those days? 
The History of English 
 
 Page 5 
 
F. Are any of the sentences in the passage from this poet comprehensible to you? Can 
you try to “translate” some of it in present-day English? 
 
 
 
 UNIT 1 Lesson 
5 
Short History of Origins of English 
Language – Modern English & Varieties 
of English 
Sources: www.englishclub.com/English-language history.htm 
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/thehistoryofeng 
Early Modern English (1500-1800) 
 
Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation 
(the Great Vowel Shift) started, with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter. From 
the 16th century the British had contact with many peoples from around the world. This, and 
the Renaissance of Classical learning, meant that many new words and phrases entered the 
language. The invention of printing also meant that there was now a common language in 
print. Books became cheaper and more people learned to read. Printing also brought 
standardization to English. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the dialect of London, 
where most publishing houses were, became the standard. In 1604 the first English 
dictionary was published. 
 
Late Modern English (1800-Present) 
The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is 
vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two principal factors: 
firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly, 
the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the earth's surface, and the English 
language adopted foreign words from many countries. 
Standardization 
The late medieval and early modern periods saw a fairly steady 
process of standardization in English south of the Scottish border. The 
written and spoken language of London continued to evolve and 
gradually began to have a greater influence in the country at large. For 
 
 
Hamlet's famous "To be, or not to be" 
lines, written in Early Modern English by 
Shakespeare.To be, or not to be, that is the 
question: 
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer 
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, 
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, 
And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep, 
No more; and by a sleep to say we end 
The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks 
That flesh is heir to: 'tis a consummation 
Devoutly to be wished. To die, to sleep; 
To sleep, perchance to dream – ay, there's the rub: 
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come, 
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil, 
Must give us pause – there's the respect 
That makes calamity of so long life. 
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time, 
The oppressor’s wrong 
 
The History of English 
 
 Page 6 
 
most of the Middle English period a dialect was simply what was spoken in a particular area, 
which would normally be more or less represented in writing - although where and from 
whom the writer had learnt how to write were also important. 
It was only when the broadly London standard began to dominate, especially 
through the new technology of printing, that the other regional varieties of the language 
began to be seen as different in kind. As the London standard became used more widely, 
especially in more formal contexts and particularly amongst the more elevated members of 
society, the other regional varieties came to be stigmatized, as lacking social prestige and 
indicating a lack of education. 
In the same period a series of changes also occurred in English pronunciation 
(though not uniformly in all dialects), which go under the collective name of the Great Vowel 
Shift. These were purely linguistic ‘sound changes’ which occur in every language in every 
period of history. The changes in pronunciation weren’t the result of specific social or 
historical factors, but social and historical factors would have helped to spread the results 
of the changes. As a result the so-called ‘pure’ vowel sounds which still characterize many 
continental languages were lost to English. The phonetic pairings of most long and short 
vowel sounds were also lost, which gave rise to many of the oddities of English 
pronunciation, and which now obscure the relationships between many English words and 
their foreign counterparts. 
 
QUESTIONS: 
A. How and when did the pronunciation of Middle English change dramatically in a 
relatively short period? 
B. What historical events caused the adoption of many new words? 
C. What caused the language to become rapidly standardised (in terms of spelling and 
other language features)? 
D. What dialect became the model for English throughout the country and why? 
E. How did early modern English differ from later modern English? What factors 
caused these changes? 
 
UNIT 1 Lesson 
6 
Short History of Origins of English Language – Colonisation and Globalisation 
Sources: www.englishclub.com/English-language history.htm 
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/thehistoryofeng 
 
Colonization and Globalization 
During the medieval and early modern periods the influence of 
English spread throughout the British Isles, and from the early seventeenth 
century onwards its influence began to be felt throughout the world. The 
complex processes of exploration, colonization and overseas trade that 
characterized Britain’s external relations for several centuries led to 
significant change in English. Words were absorbed from all over the 
world, often via the languages of other trading and imperial nations such as 
Spain, Portugal and the Netherlands. At the same time, new varieties of English emerged, 
each with their own nuances of vocabulary and grammar and their own distinct 
pronunciations. More recently still, English has become a lingua franca, a global language, 
regularly used and understood by many nations for whom English is not their first language. 
The eventual effectson the English language of both of these developments can only be 
guessed at today, but there can be little doubt that they will be as important as anything that 
has happened 
The History of English 
 
 Page 7 
 
Varieties of English 
From around 1600, the English colonization of North America resulted in the 
creation of a distinct American variety of English. Some English pronunciations and words 
"froze" when they reached America. In some ways, American English is more like the 
English of Shakespeare than modern British English is. Some expressions that the British 
call "Americanisms" are in fact original British expressions that were preserved in the 
colonies while lost for a time in Britain (for example trash for rubbish, loanas a verb instead 
of lend, and fall for autumn; another example, frame-up, was re-imported into Britain 
through Hollywood gangster movies). Spanish also had an influence on American English 
(and subsequently British English), with words 
like canyon, ranch, stampede and vigilante being examples of Spanish words that entered 
English through the settlement of the American West. French words (through Louisiana) 
and West African words (through the slave trade) also influenced American English (and so, 
to an extent, British English). 
Today, American English is particularly influential, due to the USA's dominance of 
cinema, television, popular music, trade and technology (including the Internet). But there 
are many other varieties of English around the world, including for example Australian 
English, New Zealand English, Canadian English, South African English, Indian English and 
Caribbean English. 
QUESTIONS: 
A. When did English first become to be used far beyond its original regions (the 
British Isles) and started to be spread by many users all over the world? 
B. From what other languages did English absorb new vocabulary during the period 
of the colonisation of America, and later Africa and parts of Asia? 
C. What major effect did the colonisation of America have on the language? 
D. Name a few other varieties of English that have become at least as important as 
British English today. 
 
 
UNIT 2 Lesson 
8 
More Detailed History of English – Introduction , The Celtic, Roman Presence 
Source: http://www.sk.com.br/sk-enhis.html 
INTRODUCTION 
The English language is the result of a complex 
history and rooted in a very distant past. 
There is evidence of human presence in the British Isles 
since before the last ice age, when they had not 
yet separated from the continent and oceans before 
forming the English Channel. This recent geological 
phenomenon that separated the British Isles from the 
mainland, occurred about 7,000 years, also isolated the 
people living there of the turbulent motions and the 
obscurity that characterized the early Middle Ages in 
Europe. 
Archaeological sites show that the wetlands that the Romans came 
to call the Britannia already housed a thriving culture 8,000 years ago, 
although little is known about it. 
http://www.sk.com.br/sk-enhis.html
The History of English 
 
 Page 8 
 
THE CELTIC 
The history of England begins with the Celts. Around 1000 BC, after many 
migrations, several dialects of Indo-European languages become different language 
groups. This broad family includes most of the European languages spoken today. The Indo-
European family includes several major branches: Latin and the modern Romance 
languages (French etc.); the Germanic languages (English, German, Swedish 
etc.); the Indo-Iranian languages (Hindi, Urdu, Sanskrit etc.); the Slavic languages (Russian, 
Polish, Czech etc.); the Baltic languages of Latvian and Lithuanian; Greek; the Celtic 
languages (Welsh, Irish Gaelic etc.). 
 
The Celts originated presumably from people who already lived in 
Europe during the Bronze Age. For nearly eight centuries, from 700 BC to 
100 AD, the Celtic people inhabited the region now known as Spain, France, 
Germany and England. The Celtic became the main language group in 
Europe, before eventually the Celts almost totally assimilated into the 
Roman Empire. 
Prior to the Germanic invasions, Britain was inhabited by various 
Celtic tribes who were united by common speech, customs, and religion. 
The word “Britain” originated from the name of one of the major Celtic 
tribes, the Britons. Each tribe was headed by a king and was divided by 
class into Druids (priests), warrior nobles, and commoners. The lack of 
political unity made them vulnerable to their enemies. During the first century, Britain was 
conquered and subjugated by Rome. 
ROMANS’ PRESENCE 
In 55 BC and 54 occur the first Roman invasions of recognition, under the personal 
command of Julius Caesar. In 44 AD, the time of Emperor Claudius, is the third invasion, 
whereupon the main British island is attached to the Roman Empire to the limits with the 
Caledonia (now Scotland) and Latin begin to exert influence on the Celtic-Breton 
culture. Three and a half centuries of presence of the Roman legions and its merchants, 
brought profound influence in the economic, political and social life of the Celtic tribes that 
inhabited Britain. Latin words naturally came to be used for many new concepts. 
QUESTIONS: 
A. How long ago there might have been people living in what we today call Britain? 
B. Any idea what the huge rocks in a circle on the photo are called (They are not far 
from Oxford; little is known about their purpose but they are assumed to have 
something to do with an ancient religion.) 
C. Where did the Celts in Britain come from, presumably? 
D. Although the Celtic language has little connection or similarity with Old English, if 
one goes back far enough there is of course a connection. Explain. 
E. In what way were these Celts an easy “prey” for invaders? 
F. Who were these Celtic tribes subjugated by first? 
G. What effects did the Roman presence have on the Celts? 
 
UNIT 2 Lesson 
9 
More Detailed History of English – Early migrations and The Anglo-Saxons. 
Source: http://www.sk.com.br/sk-enhis.html 
The Anglo-Saxons 
http://www.sk.com.br/sk-enhis.html
The History of English 
 
 Page 9 
 
Due to the difficulties faced by the Empire in Rome, the Roman legions in 410 AD, 
withdrew from Britannia, leaving its inhabitants at the mercy of Celtic enemies (Scots and 
Picts). Since Rome no longer had a military force to defend the Celts, they resorted to the 
Germanic tribes (Jutes, Angles, Saxons and Frisians) in 449 AD for help. These, however, 
opportunistically became invasive, taking in the most fertile areas in the southeast of 
Britain, destroying villages and massacring the local population. The Celts, Britons 
survivors took refuge in the west. Evidence of violence and disregard for local culture of the 
invaders is the fact that almost no traces remained of the Celtic language into English. 
Migration of the Germanic speaking people 
When Britain gained "independence" from Rome in the year 410 AD, the Roman 
legions withdrew leaving the country vulnerable to invaders. Soon after the withdrawal of 
Roman troops, inhabitants from the north began attacking the Britons. In response to these 
attacks, individual towns sought help from the Foedarati, who were Roman mercenaries of 
German origin, for the defense of the northern parts of England. As the legend has been 
told, a man named Hengest arrived on the shores of Britain with "3 keels" of warriors in 450 
AD. This event is known in Latin as the "adventus Saxonum," or the coming of the Saxons. At 
this time, the Foedarati stopped defending Britain and began conquering the territories on 
the southern and eastern shores of the country. These invaders drove the Britons to the 
north and west. The Saxons called the native Britons, 'wealas', which meant foreigner or 
slave, and from this term came the modern word Welsh. Eight to ten years later many British 
aristocrats (Celts) and city dwellers began migrating toBrittany, an event known as the 
second migration. 
Although there were many different Germanic tribes migrating to England, several 
stood out from among the others, such as the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Frisians, and Franks. 
The Angles migrated from Denmark and the Saxons from northern Germany. There is some 
debate as to the exact origin of the Jutes, since linguistic evidence suggests that they came 
from the Jutland peninsula, while 
archaeological evidence suggests an 
origin from one of the northern 
Frankish realms near the mouth of the 
Rhine river. The Frisians and Franks 
migrated mainly from the low 
countries (now, the Netherlands) and 
north-western Germany. 
During the sixth and seventh 
centuries these Germanic invaders 
started to carve out kingdoms, fighting 
both the native Britons and each other 
for land. First called Saxons, the 
German invaders were later referred 
to as Angles, and in the year 601 AD, 
the pope referred to Aethelbert of Kent as Rex Anglorum ("king of the Angles"). As time 
passed, the differences between the Germanic tribal cultures gradually unified until 
eventually they ceased referring to themselves by their individual origins and became 
either Anglo-Saxon or 
English. 
England 650 -750: 
The History of English 
 
 Page 10 
 
As Old English began to evolve, four 
major dialects emerged which were 
Kentish, spoken by the Jutes, West 
Saxon, the Saxon dialect, and 
Northumbrian and Mercian, subdivisions 
of the dialect spoken by the Angles. By 
the 9th century, partly through the 
influence of King Alfred, the West Saxon 
dialect became prevalent in literature 
which aided the dialect's dominance 
among scholars. 
 
Soon after the Germanic invasions, the inhabitants 
gave their settlements new names. The most common Saxon 
place names are those ending in -ton (fenced area), -wick 
(dwelling), -ham (home), -worth(homestead), -den(pasture), -
hurst(wooded hill), and -burn(stream). Some settlement 
names began with more than one word which either stated 
personal possession or described a physical description of 
the area and would later evolve into one word. One example 
of this evolution would be the word Chatham which was 
originally Ceatta's Ham (Ceatta's home). 
 
 Source:http://www.anglik.net/anglosaxonmap.htm 
German dialects are spoken by the Angles and Saxons who 
will lead the English. The word England, for example, 
originated from Angle-land (land of the Angles). From there, the history of the English 
language is divided into three periods: Old English, Middle English and Modern English . The 
second half of the fifth century when the Germanic invasions occurred, marking the 
beginning of the period known as Old English . 
OLD ENGLISH (500 - 1100 AD) 
Old English, also sometimes also called Anglo-Saxon , compared to modern English, 
a language is almost unrecognizable, both in pronunciation and vocabulary and 
grammar. For a native speaker of English today, the 54 words of the Lord's Prayer in Old 
English , less than 15% are recognizable in writing, and probably nothing would be 
recognized to be pronounced. The correlation between pronunciation and spelling, 
however, was much closer than in modern English. On the grammatical level, the 
differences are also substantial. In Old English, and decline nouns have gender (masculine, 
feminine and neuter), and the verbs are conjugated: 
 
Translation of Old English Text 
 
Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum; 
Si þin nama gehalgod 
to becume þin rice 
gewurþe ðin willa 
on eorðan swa swa on heofonum. 
urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg 
Father our thou that art in heavens 
be thy name hallowed 
come thy kingdom 
be-done thy will 
on earth as in heavens 
our daily bread give us today 
http://www.anglik.net/anglosaxonmap.htm
http://www.sk.com.br/lp-all.wav
http://www.sk.com.br/lp-all.wav
The History of English 
 
 Page 11 
 
and forgyf us ure gyltas 
swa swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum 
and ne gelæd þu us on costnunge 
ac alys us of yfele soþlice 
 
and forgive us our sins 
as we forgive those-who-have-sinned-against-us 
and not lead thou us into temptation 
but deliver us from evil. truly 
 
 
QUESTIONS: 
 
A. How in about 410 AD did the Celts themselves cause their own doom: being 
dominated by Germanic tribes? 
B. How were the Germanic invaders that started terrorising the Celtic tribes linked to 
the Romans who since 50 BC had dominated the west of Europe? 
C. What main groups invaded Britain and from where? 
D. Their languages where in fact as dialects from one and the same basic language. 
Explain. 
E. Of the dialects that evolved in Britain itself, which became dominant and because of 
whom? 
F. How is this still evident in the names of many places (towns) in present day Britain? 
 
UNIT 2 Lesson 
10 
More Detailed History of English - Introduction of Christianity 
 
The Old English language (also called Anglo-Saxon) dates back to 449 CE. The 
Celts had been living in England when the Romans invaded. Although they invaded twice, 
they did not conquer the Celts until 43 CE and Latin never overtook the Celtic language. 
The Romans finally left England in 410 CE as the Roman Empire was collapsing, leaving 
the Celts defenseless. Then the Germanic tribes from the present-day area of Denmark 
arrived. The four main tribes were the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians. These tribes 
set up seven kingdoms called the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy that included: Mercia, 
Northumbria, Kent, Wessex, Sussex, Essex, and East Anglia. Four dialects were spoken in 
these kingdoms: West Saxon, Kentish, Mercian and Northumbrian. The Celts moved north 
to Scotland, west to Ireland and south to France, leaving the main area of Britain. 
In 432 AD St Patrick had begun his mission to bring Christianity to the Celtic 
population of Ireland. In 597 AD the church sent missionaries led by St Augustine to convert 
the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. The process of Christianization occurred gradually and 
peacefully, marking the beginning of the influence of Latin on the German language from the 
Anglo-Saxon origin of modern English. This influence occurs in two forms: the introduction 
of new vocabulary related to religion and adaptation of the Anglo-Saxon vocabulary to cover 
new areas of meaning. The need for reproduction of the biblical texts also represents the 
beginning of English literature. 
The introduction of Christianity also represented a rejection of elements of Celtic 
culture and the same association of witchcraft that the Anglo-Saxons had inherited from the 
Celts. The observation today of Halloween on the evening of October 31 is preserved 
example of Celtic culture in the view of Christianity. 
 
The History of English 
 
 Page 12 
 
At that time, Britain was divided into 
seven kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon 
origin and Old English, then spoken, 
actually was not a single language 
but a variety of different dialects. The 
dialects of Old English before 
Christianity were a functional 
language to describe facts and meet 
the needs of daily 
communication. The vocabulary of 
the Greco-Latin origin introduced by 
Christianization expanded the Anglo-
Saxon language toward abstract 
concepts. 
 
 
After the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity, problems arose with the 
Celtic Christians (or the Britons). The Celtic church had ceased communication with the 
Roman church for almost two centuries and did not practise the new theological ideas 
brought to the Anglo-Saxons by Augustine. In particular, they used an older method of 
calculating the date on which Easter was to be held. Representatives from the two churches 
met with Oswiu, the king of Northumbria, who was then asked to choose between the two 
missions. Oswiu chose Rome. Although the Celtic church found favor with some of the later 
kings, the Roman church was the more dominant of the two. The largest number of Latin 
words was introduced as a result of thespread of Christianity, such as altar, mass, priest, 
psalm, temple, kitchen, palm, and pear. 
In 731 CE, Bede wrote the "Ecclesiastical History of the English People" in Latin. It 
detailed the sophisticated society of the Germanic tribes. They had destroyed the Roman 
civilization in England and built their own, while dominance shifted among the kingdoms 
beginning with Kent and Northumbria. They aligned with the Celtic clergy and converted 
to Christianity. Laws and contracts were written down for a sense of permanence and 
control. The Tribal Hidage, a list of subjects who owed tribute to the king, was written 
during the Mercian period of power. 
 
QUESTIONS: 
 
A. When and by whom did the Celtic peoples start to be Christianised and where? 
B. When did Christianisation of the Anglo-Saxon peoples begin and by whom was it 
introduced? 
C. How were the Anglo-Saxons politically organised? 
D. Did the Anglo-Saxons accept the Christian religion completely and rapidly or was the 
transition to Christianity problematic with older cultural influences competing for 
dominance? Explain. 
E. Can you give an example of a present-day tradition that dates back to the “heathen” 
past of the peoples of Britain? 
F. What language was used to write the “history” of the people in those days and what 
famous document was written? 
 
 
The History of English 
 
 Page 13 
 
UNIT 2 Lesson 
11 
More Detailed History of English – The 8th century and the Scandinavian Invaders 
 
 
By the late 8th century, the Vikings originating from the western coasts of 
Scandinavia initiated attacks against England. These people were using violence and their 
attacks caused destruction in many parts of Europe. The Vikings who settled in England 
were predominantly from the region now belonging to Denmark and spoke Old Norse , the 
ancestor language of Danish. These more than 200 years of Scandinavian presence in 
England had an influence on Old English. However, due to the similarity between the two 
languages, it is difficult, now, to determine precisely the nature of this influence. 
 The first major raid by Vikings occurred in the year 793 at the Northumbrian 
monastery at Lindisfarne. The Vikings would continue major raids along most of the 
southern and eastern coasts of England for a decade. About 40 Scandinavian (Old Norse) 
words were introduced into Old English during this period. Words acquired during this 
period pertained to the sea and the Scandinavian administrative system. Some examples of 
these borrowings are law, take, cut, anger, wrong, freckle, both, ill, ugly, as well as, the 
verb form 'are' as in “you are”. They also introduced many new names as they founded new 
settlements with endings such as -scale, -beck, -by, and -fell. One example of a settlement 
name would be Portinscale or 'Prostitute's hut'. 
 
English Surnames 
Anglo-Saxons distinguished between two people with the same name by adding 
either the place they came from or the job they did to their first name. Modern surnames 
such as Baxter, Baker, Weaver, Fisher, Fowler, Hunter, and Farmer are Anglo-Saxon in 
origin. The Vikings had a different way of distinguishing between people of the same name. 
They added the name of the person's father or mother to the child's name. As an example, 
Harald, the son of Erik would be known as Harald Erik's son, or as we would say it today, 
Harald Erikson. Often Viking families alternated the name of the eldest so that Arn 
Gunnarsson might be the father and son of Gunnar Arnsson, and the grandfather and 
grandson of Arn Gunnarson. 
Source:http://www.anglik.net/anglosaxonmap.ht
m 
The 9th century 
Alfred the Great was the king of Wessex from 871-899 while Wessex was the 
dominant kingdom. (see map p. 11) During his reign, he united the kingdoms together and 
commissioned the Anglo-Saxon chronicles, a historical record of important events in 
England that continued 200 years after his death. Alfred also settled a truce with the Vikings 
who repeatedly invaded the area. During this century, the Danes had begun a series of 
major raids on the whole of England. 
Alfred the Great eventually fought the Vikings to a standstill at Edington which 
produced the Treaty of Wedmore in 878 CE. This led to an uneasy peace and the 
establishment of the Danelaw. The fighting continued, and in 886 CE, Alfred captured 
London from the Danes. The name Engla lande ("the land of the Angles") was used at the 
end of this century. The Treaty of Wedmore was signed in 878 CE and this "Danelaw" gave 
the northeastern half of England to the Danes for settlement. However, because the 
languages were so similar, the Danes quickly assimilated and intermarried into the English 
society. 
Although the Danes brought their own writing system with them, called the Futhorc, it was 
not used in England. It is commonly referred to as Runes. The Insular Hand was the name 
of the writing system used in England, and it contained many symbols that are no longer 
found in Modern English: the aesc, thorn, edh, yogh and wynn, as well the macron for 
http://www.anglik.net/anglosaxonmap.htm
http://www.anglik.net/anglosaxonmap.htm
The History of English 
 
 Page 14 
 
distinguishing long vowels. Anglo-Saxon scribes used these 'extra' (non-Latin) letters to 
help write down characteristic sounds of that very Germanic language, Old English. Two 
of these continued till about 1500. These were the thorn, (þ) and the yogh (ʒ). 
 
QUESTIONS: 
A. The Vikings raided Britain in two major waves. Which two and with how many years 
between them? 
B. What language are these Vikings said to have spoken and where were they from? 
What about written forms? 
C. What elements in present day English can still be traced back to these 
Scandinavian invasions? 
D. Explain what “Danelaw” stands for. 
E. How was a truce achieved between the second group, the Danes and the Anglo-
Saxons? Who was the architect of this truce and what were the political 
consequences for the Anglo-Saxons? 
F. Into what did this Scandinavian presence eventually evolve? 
 
 
 
UNIT 2 Lesson 
12 
More Detailed History of English – The Conquest of England by the Normans
 Sources: http://www.sk.com.br/sk-enhis.html 
http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/bayeux.htm 
The Conquest of England by the Normans -THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS 
King Edward of England (called "The Confessor" because of his 
construction of Westminster Abbey) died on January 5, 1066, after a reign 
of 23 years. Leaving no heirs, Edward's passing ignited a three-way 
rivalry for the crown that culminated in the Battle of Hastings and the 
destruction of the Anglo-Saxon rule of England. 
The leading pretender was Harold Godwinson, the second most powerful 
man in England and an advisor to Edward. Harold and Edward became 
brothers-in-law when the king married Harold's sister. Harold's powerful 
position, his relationship to Edward and his esteem among his peers made him a logical 
successor to the throne. His claim was strengthened when the dying Edward supposedly 
uttered "Into Harold's hands I commit my Kingdom." With this kingly endorsement, the 
Witan (the council of royal advisors) unanimously selected Harold as King. His coronation 
took place the same day as Edward's burial. With the placing of the crown on his head, 
Harold's troubles began. 
Across the English Channel, William, Duke of Normandy, also laid claim to the 
English throne. William justified his claim through his blood relationship with Edward (they 
were distant cousins) and by stating that some years earlier, Edward had designated him as 
his successor. 
 
http://slb-ltsu.hull.ac.uk/awe/index.php?title=Germanic
http://slb-ltsu.hull.ac.uk/awe/index.php?title=Thorn
http://slb-ltsu.hull.ac.uk/awe/index.php?title=Yogh
http://www.sk.com.br/sk-enhis.html
http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/bayeux.htm
The History of English 
 
 Page 15 
 
William was the bastard son of the Dukeof Normandy. His father died when he was 
young and he grew up in a chaotic duchy until, in adulthood, he was able to bring the barons 
to heel. Through his aunt, he was a cousin of King Edward the Confessor of England who, at 
one time, contemplated leaving William the English Crown. Although he later seems to have 
changed his mind, as far as William was concerned, England was his. When Edward died, 
he crossed the Channel and defeated the English in a miraculous battle near Hastings. 
The Battle of Hastings in 1066 was a historic event of great importance in the history 
of England. It represented not only a drastic reorganization policy, but also changed the 
course of English, marking the beginning of a new era. The battle was fought between the 
Norman army, commanded by William, Duke of Normandy (Northern France), and Anglo-
Saxon army led by King Harold, on October 14, 1066. 
 
The bloody battle ended only in the evening; King 
Harold and his brothers were killed as were the majority of 
the Saxon aristocracy, and a balance from 1500 to 2000 
Norman warriors dead and as many or more, on the English 
side. William's victory was complete. On Christmas day 1066, 
William was crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey. 
William had won a victory in a few days a feat that the 
Romans, Saxons and Danes had fought long and hard for to 
achieve. He had conquered a country of one and half million 
inhabitants, and probably the richest in Europe at the 
time. For this fact was known in history as William the 
Conqueror. 
 
 
 
The regime which had resulted from the conquest was characterized by 
centralization, power, and of course the language of the conquerors: the French dialect 
called Norman French . L William himself did not speak English and, upon his death in 1087, 
there was not a single region of England that was not controlled by a Norman. He is best 
known for giving all the land in England away to his cronies and then the first census ever 
undertaken in the country. It was called the Domesday Book. His successors, William II 
(1087-1100) and Henry I (1100-1135), spent nearly half their reigns in France and probably 
had little knowledge of English. 
During the 300 years that followed, mainly in the initial 150 years, the language used 
by the aristocracy in England was French. Speaking French then became a condition for 
those of Anglo-Saxon origin in search of social ascent through sympathy and favors from 
the ruling class. 
 
 
QUESTIONS: 
 
A. How long did it take William, Duke of Normandy, to conquer Britain and was did he 
get the “nickname” the Conqueror”? 
B. Some people say that his battle against the English was the outcome of an “error” 
made by the English King himself. Explain. 
C. When and where was the war fought and how bloody was it? 
D. What language did William and his men speak? 
E. What was the consequence of this for Anglo-Saxons who sought to rise in society? 
F. What about his successors? 
 
 
 
The History of English 
 
 Page 16 
 
 
UNIT 2 Lesson 
13 
More Detailed History of English – Middle English 
Source: http://www.sk.com.br/sk-
enhis.html 
MIDDLE ENGLISH (1100 - 1500) 
Old French was the Romance dialect continuum spoken in territories that span 
roughly the northern half of modern France and parts of 
modern Belgium and Switzerland from the 9th century to the 14th century. It is a direct 
descendent of Old Gallo-Romance. Old Gallo-Romance is the ancestral language of 
all Gallo-Romance languages, such as French. Old Gallo-Romance contained many features 
of Vulgar Latin. The Norman dialect of Normandy was also spread to England and Ireland 
after the Normans, led by William the Conqueror, had invaded England. 
The most important element of the period that corresponds to the Middle English 
 was undoubtedly a strong presence and influence of Old French into English. This true 
transfusion of culture in French-Norman Anglo-Saxon nation, which lasted three centuries, 
resulted in a considerable contribution of vocabulary. This demonstrates that, however 
strong may be the influence of one language over another, this influence does not usually go 
beyond a vocabulary enrichment, which hardly affects the pronunciation or grammatical 
structure of the “affected” language. 
The centuries passed and the disputes that kept occurring between the Normans of 
the British Isles and the continent caused the emergence of a nationalist sentiment in 
England, and by the late 15th century, it became evident that the English language had 
prevailed. Even as a written language, English had replaced French and Latin as official 
language for documents. Also a national literatur e in Middle English began to emerge. 
Much new vocabulary had been incorporated with the introduction of new 
management, political and social concepts, for which there were no equivalents in 
English. In some cases, however, there were words of Germanic origin, which, either just 
disappeared or came to coexist with the equivalents of French origin, in principle as 
synonymous, but over time, acquiring different connotations. Examples: 
 
Anglo-Saxon French 
 
Anglo-Saxon French 
 
Anglo-Saxon French 
 
Anglo-Saxon French 
answer 
begin 
bill 
chicken 
clothe 
eats 
end 
respond 
commence 
beak 
poultry 
dress 
Arrive 
finish 
fair 
feed 
folk 
freedom 
ghost 
happiness 
help 
beautiful 
nourish 
people 
Liberty 
phantom 
felicity 
aid 
hide 
house 
hunt 
kin 
kingly 
look 
mistake 
Conceal 
mansion 
chase 
relations 
royal 
search 
error 
pig 
sheep 
shut 
sight 
wish 
work 
yearly 
pork 
mutton 
close 
vision 
desire 
labor 
Annual 
Minor dialectal differences resulting from this symbiosis between different social 
groups and their languages can be observed even today. In intellectual circles of the more 
privileged classes of English-speaking countries still exists a tendency to greater use of 
words of Latin origin. 
The Split Between the French-speaking Normans and Saxons-speaking peasant 
English still exists today in a curious fashion. The Normans, the conquerors and the rulers, 
became The upper-class of England and their speech metamorphosed into today's well-
educated English - primarily composed of Latin-based vocabulary. The most common 
everyday speech of modern speakers’ English, however, is still directly based on the Anglo-
Saxon. 
http://www.sk.com.br/sk-enhis.html
http://www.sk.com.br/sk-enhis.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_languages
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialect_continuum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Gallo-Romance
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgar_Latin
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_England
The History of English 
 
 Page 17 
 
Besides the influence of Old French on the (Old) English vocabulary, Middle 
English was also characterized by gradual loss of inflections, by neutralization and loss of 
unstressed vowels in word endings and the beginning of the Great Vowel Shift, which will be 
explained in the next lesson. 
 
QUESTIONS: 
A. What was the origin of the language the Normans introduced to Britain in the 
eleventh century? 
B. How long did this period of influence roughly last? 
C. In what way was English transformed during this period (in a linguistic sense)? 
D. Why did English, in its transformed version (Middle English) regain its dominant 
position in the fourteenth century? 
E. How can the influence of the Norman dialect of old French still be noticed in present-
day English? 
 
 
 
UNIT 2 Lesson 14 
More Detailed History of English – The Great Vowel Shift, Modern English 
Source: http://www.sk.com.br/sk-enhis.html 
The Great Vowel Shift 
A sharp change in the pronunciationof English vowels occurred mainly during the 
15th and 16th centuries. Almost all the vowel sounds, including diphthongs, consonants 
have changed and some have ceased to be pronounced. In general, changes of vowels 
corresponded to a movement toward the end of the spectrum of vowels, as shown in the 
chart below. 
 
http://www.sk.com.br/sk-enhis.html
The History of English 
 
 Page 18 
 
 
The system of vowel sounds of English before the 15th century was quite similar to 
that of other western European languages, including Portuguese of today. Therefore, the 
current lack of correlation between spelling and pronunciation of modern English, which is 
observed mainly in the vowels, is largely a result of this change occurred in the 15th 
century. 
MODERN ENGLISH (starting at 1500) 
While Middle English was characterized by a marked diversity of dialects, Modern 
English represented a period of standardization and unification of the language. The advent 
of printing in 1475 and the creation of a postal system in 1516 enabled the spread of the 
dialect of London - already the politically dominant dialect - to develop socially and 
economically in the rest of England. The availability of printed materials also gave impetus 
to education, bringing literacy to reach the middle class. 
Reproduction and dissemination of a standardized spelling finally, however, 
coincided with the period in which also the Great Vowel Shift took place. The changes in 
pronunciation since that period, were no longer accompanied by spelling reforms, which 
reveals the conservative character of English culture. We have here the origin of the 
current lack of correlation between pronunciation and spelling in modern English . 
The standardization process of the English language began in the early 
16th century with the advent of lithography, and ended up settling in these 
ways throughout the 18th century with the publication of dictionaries of Samuel 
Johnson (illustration) in 1755, Thomas Sheridan in 1780 and John Walker in 
1791. Since then, the spelling of English has changed in only minor details, 
while the pronunciation has changed considerably. The result is that today we 
have a spelling system based on language as it was spoken in the 18th century, 
being used to represent the pronunciation of the language in the 20th century. 
Similar to the first dictionaries that were used to standardize the 
spelling of the first papers incorporating grammatical concepts of the Latin 
languages and bringing uniformity in grammar were published describing the 
grammatical structure of English, which influenced the use of the language. During the 16th 
and 17th centuries was the emergence and the final incorporation of the auxiliary verb “do” 
“does” in interrogative sentences and don’t / doesn’t for negative form. From the 18th 
century, the use of a double negation in the same sentence as, for example, She did not go 
neith was considered to be incorrect 
 
 
http://www.sk.com.br/sk-interfer.html
The History of English 
 
 Page 19 
 
QUESTIONS: 
A. What is the “Great Vowel Shift” and when did it occur? 
B. How can the occurrence of this phenomenon be linked to the fact that the spelling of 
English does not neatly correspond with the pronunciation of the words. 
C. How do Middle English and modern English compare with respect to dialects and 
forms of spelling? 
D. What contributed to the standardisation of spelling and grammar? 
E. What dialect became to be used as the model for standardisation and why? 
F. How did Samuel Johnson contribute to the standardisation of English? Mention 
some other scholars. 
G. Can you present some English words that when pronounced as if they were 
Portuguese words, for example, in fact sound the way they were pronounced some 
500 hundred years ago. 
 
 
 
UNIT 2 Lesson 
15 
More Detailed History of English – Shakespeare, American English, English as a 
Language of the World 
Source: http://www.sk.com.br/sk-enhis.html 
 
SHAKESPEARE 
William Shakespeare (1564-1616), represented a strong 
influence on the development of a literary language. His plays are 
characterized by a greater creative use of vocabulary than existing in 
contemporary works, and the creation of new words. Nouns turned 
into verbs and verbs into adjectives, and the free addition of prefixes 
and suffixes and the use of figurative language are frequent in the 
works of Shakespeare. (See APPENDIX 3.) 
While that literature has developed, the 19th-century British 
colonialism, brought the English language to remote areas of the 
world, providing contact with different cultures and bringing 
enrichment to the new English vocabulary. 
Since the early Christian era until the 19th century, six 
languages came to be spoken in Britain: Celtic, Latin, Old English, Norman French, Middle 
and Modern English. This diversity of influences explains the fact that the English language 
is less systematic and less regular than, for example, Portuguese or Italian and even 
German. It could also lead us to conclude that English today can be likened to a quilt made 
of scraps of fabric from various source. 
 
AMERICAN ENGLISH 
The hope of achieving prosperity and aspirations for freedom of religion were the 
factors that led to the colonization of North America. The arrival of the first English 
immigrants in 1620, marks the beginning 
of the presence of English in the New 
World. 
At the time of independence from 
the United States in 1776, when the 
country's population reached nearly 4 
million, the American Dialect already 
http://www.sk.com.br/sk-enhis.html
The History of English 
 
 Page 20 
 
showed distinct characteristics in relation to the dialects of the British Isles. The contact 
with the reality of a new environment, with native and indigenous cultures with the Spanish 
regions adjacent to the south, colonized by Spain, led a diverse vocabulary development of 
British English. 
Today, however, the differences between the British and Americans dialects are 
largely in pronunciation, small differences in vocabulary. Unlike what happened between 
Brazil and Portugal, the United States and Britain have maintained strong cultural 
commercial and political ties. While the Portuguese over four centuries has evolved into two 
dialects differ substantially in Portugal and Brazil, the differences between dialects British 
and American are less significant. 
 
ENGLISH AS THE LANGUAGE OF THE WORLD 
Recent historical facts explain the current role of English as the language of the world. 
Firstly, we have the great economic power of England in the 18th, 19th and 20th 
centuries, driven by the Industrial Revolution and the consequent expansion of British 
colonialism. This true empire of economic and political influence peaked in the first half of 
the 20th century, with a territorial expansion that reached 20% of Earth's land. The British 
Empire came to be known as "the empire where the sun never sets" due to its wide 
geographic spread, causing an equally wide spread of English. 
Secondly, the political and military might of the U.S. after World War II and, as a 
consequence, the remarkable economic and cultural influence of English worldwide 
eventually displace French as the predominant language and solidify English as the 
diplomatic standard language for international communication. Simultaneously, there is 
rapid development of air transport and telecommunication technologies. In our present-day 
world concepts such as superhighway of information (e.g. Internet) and global village have 
become central to describe a world in which a common language of communication is 
essential, at this time in history, being English. 
 
QUESTIONS: 
A. In what way did the playwright Shakespeare contribute to the enrichment of the 
English language? 
B. Read Macbeth’s words in Appendix 3 after he hears about Lady Macbeth’s death 
and mention some figures of speech you can find there. 
C. Howis it explained in this lesson that the syntax of English appears to be less 
systematic than that of, for example, Portuguese or German? 
D. When did English settlers start living in North America? 
E. How long afterwards did American English start to show distinct linguistic 
features of its own when compared to British English? 
F. What is one of the reasons for American English to have lots of words that do not 
occur in British English? 
G. Explain why the differences between the varieties of English as spoken in 
America and in Britain are less great that between the varieties of Portuguese as 
spoken in Portugal and Brazil? 
H. Explain briefly and in your own words what caused English to become a world 
language. 
 
 
 Lesson 
16 
Preparation test 2 
In which students work in groups to raise questions about the contents to be examined in 
test 2 (Unit 2) 
The History of English 
 
 Page 21 
 
 
 
TEST 2 Lesson 
17 
 
 
 
UNIT 3 Lesson 
18 
History of English with focus on Linguistic features – 
Oldest origins and Old English 
Source: http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm 
 
 
English is a member of the Indo-European family of languages. This broad family 
includes most of the European languages spoken today. The Indo-European family includes 
several major branches: Latin and the modern Romance languages (French, Spanish, 
etc.); the Germanic languages (Dutch, German, Swedish etc.); [English could be grouped 
either under Germanic or Romance languages as it is, in fact, a mixture, but as its origin and 
basis is Germanic, the tendency is to categorise it as Germanic] the Indo-Iranian 
languages (Hindi, Urdu, Sanskrit etc.); the Slavic languages (Russian, Polish, Czech 
etc.); the Baltic languages of Latvian and Lithuanian; the Celtic languages (Welsh, Irish 
Gaelic etc.); Greek. 
The existence of the original Indo-European language can be verified today in the 
modern languages that have developed from it, even though no written record of Indo-
European exists. The word for father, for example, is vater in German, pater in Latin, 
and pitr in Sanskrit. These words are all cognates, similar words in different languages that 
share the same root. 
Of these branches of the Indo-European family, two are, as far as the study of the 
development of English is concerned, of paramount importance, the Germanic and the 
Romance (called like that because the Romance languages derive from Latin, the language 
of ancient Rome). English is a member of the Germanic group of languages. It is believed 
that this group began as a common language in the Elbe river region (being one of the major 
waterways of central Europe, it runs from the Czech Republic through Germany to the 
North Sea) about 3,000 years ago. By the second century BC, this Common Germanic 
language had split into three distinct sub-groups: 
 East Germanic was spoken by peoples who migrated back to southeastern Europe. 
No East Germanic language is spoken today, and the only written East Germanic 
language that survives is Gothic. 
 North Germanic evolved into the modern Scandinavian languages of Swedish, 
Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic (but not Finnish, which is related to Hungarian and 
Estonian and is not an Indo-European language). 
 West Germanic is the ancestor of modern German, Dutch, Flemish, Frisian, and 
English. 
 
Old English (500-1100 AD) 
Old English is the product of a mixture of Germanic dialects that were introduced to 
Britain by West Germanic invaders who began to settle on the British Isles in the fifth and 
sixth centuries CE. Although there were many different Germanic tribes migrating to 
England, several stood out from among the others, such as the Angles (whose name is the 
http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm
The History of English 
 
 Page 22 
 
source of the words England < Englaland and English < Englisc), Saxons, Jutes, Frisians, 
and Franks. The Angles migrated from Denmark and the Saxons from northern Germany. 
There is some debate as to the exact origin of the Jutes, since linguistic evidence suggests 
that they came from the Jutland peninsula (now Denmark), while archaeological evidence 
suggests an origin from one of the northern Frankish realms near the mouth of the Rhine 
river (now Rotterdam of the Netherlands). The Frisians and Franks migrated mainly from the 
low countries (now Netherlands) and north-western Germany. 
During the sixth and seventh centuries these Germanic invaders started to carve out 
kingdoms, fighting both the native Britons (Celtic tribes) and each other for land. First 
called Saxons, the German invaders were later referred to as Angles, and in the year 601 
CE the pope referred to Aethelbert of Kent as Rex Anglorum ("king of the Angles"). As time 
passed, the differences between the Germanic tribal cultures gradually unified until 
eventually they ceased referring to themselves by their individual origins and became either 
Anglo-Saxon or English. (map of England 650-750) Four major dialects of Old English 
emerged, Northumbrian in the north of England, Mercian in the Midlands, West Saxon in the 
south and west, and Kentish in the Southeast. 
As Old English began to evolve, four 
major dialects emerged which were Kentish, 
spoken by the Jutes in the Southeast, West 
Saxon, the Saxon dialect spoken in the south 
and west, Northumbrian in the north of 
England and Mercian in the midlands, the latter 
two dialects being subdivisions of the dialect 
spoken by the Angles. By the 9th century, 
partly through the influence of King Alfred, the 
West Saxon dialect became prevalent in 
literature which aided the dialect's dominance 
among scholars. 
 
After the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity, problems arose with the 
Celtic Christians (or the Britons). The Celtic church had ceased communication with Roman 
church for almost two centuries and did not practice the new theological ideas brought to 
the Anglo-Saxons by Augustine. In particular, they used an older method of calculating the 
date on which Easter was to be held. The Germanic invaders pushed the original, Celtic-
speaking inhabitants out of what is now England into Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and 
Ireland, leaving behind a few Celtic words. These Celtic languages survive today in the 
Gaelic languages of Scotland and Ireland and in Welsh. Cornish, unfortunately, is, in 
linguistic terms, now a dead language. (The last native Cornish speaker died in 1777). 
The Old English language, also called Anglo-Saxon, was the earliest form of English. 
It is difficult to give exact dates for the rise and development of any language, because 
changes in languages do not occur suddenly. However, Old English was in use from about 
600 AD to about 1100, shortly after which occurred the most important event in the 
development and history of the English language, the Norman Conquest. 
Old English, whose best known surviving example is the poem Beowulf, 
 The greatest Old English poem is Beowulf, 
which belongs to the seventh century. It is a story of 
about 3,000 lines, and it is the first English epic (a 
story in poetry of the adventures of a brave man or 
men). The name of its author is unknown. 
 Beowulf is not based upon events in England, but 
about Hrothgar, King of the Danes, and about a brave 
young man, Beowulf, from southern Sweden, who 
goes to help him. Hrothgar is in trouble. His great hall, 
called Heorot, is visited by night by a terrible creature 
named Grendel, which lives in a lake and comes to kill 
and eat Hrothgar's men. One night Beowulf waits in 
The first page of 
the Beowulf manuscript :
http://www.anglik.net/oldenglish.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf
The History of English 
 
 Page 23 
 
secret for Grendel, attacks it, and in a fierce fght pulls 
its arm off! It manages to reach the lake again, but 
dies there. Then its mother comes to the hall in search 
ofrevenge, and the attacks begin again. Beowulf 
follows her to the bottom of the lake and after a 
struggle kills her there. Later, as an aged warrior-
king, Beowulf has to defend his country against a fire-
breathing dragon, guarding a huge treasure. He kills 
the creature but is badly wounded in the fight, and 
dies. The poem ends with a sorrowful description of 
Beowulf's funeral fire. Here are a few lines of it: 
"... alegdon tha tomiddes maerne theoden 
laeleth hiofende hlaford leofne 
ongunnon tha on beorge bael-fyra maest 
wigend weccan wudu-rec astah 
sweart ofer swiothole swogende leg 
wope bewunden" 
Or a modern English translation might go something 
like this ... " The sorrowing soldiers then laid the 
glorious prince, their dear lord, in the middle. Then on 
the hill the war-men began to light the greatest of 
funeral fires. The wood-smoke rose black above the 
flames, the noisy fire, mixed with sorrowful cries" 
As you can see Old English is almost 
impossible to read now except by those who have 
made a special study of it! 
 
 
 
 
QUESTIONS: 
A. From which language have most languages in Europe originated? 
B. How can that be easily demonstrated? 
C. Indicate to what branches of this primal language the following languages belong: 
Swedish, Sanskrit, Italian, Frisian, Czech, Lithuanian, Welsh and Flemish. 
D. What were the origins of the several tribes that came to Britain? Mention names and 
areas of origin. 
E. What are the roots of English, i.e. what two branches of proto-Germanic or 
languages of the Indo European family is English a product of? 
F. Which of the two branches is the most dominant part of the ‘ancestry’ of present-day 
English? Explain. 
G. Explain what happened to the peoples living there before the arrivals of these tribes 
from the continent and what has happened to their languages? 
H. Explain in what way the poem Beowulf shows how the Anglo-Saxon origin is really 
continental, i.e. from northern Europe. 
 
UNIT 3 Lesson 
19 
History of English with focus on Linguistic features 
Some Linguistic features of Old English 
 
The dialects spoken by the invading Germanic tribes formed what is called Old 
English or Anglo-Saxon. "Anglo-Saxon" is also the term applied to the English-speaking 
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/Old_English_language
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/Old_English_language
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_language
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg
The History of English 
 
 Page 24 
 
inhabitants of Britain up to the time of the Norman Conquest (1066), when the Anglo-Saxon 
line of English kings came to an end. 
Old English shared its Germanic heritage in vocabulary, sentence structure and 
grammar with its sister languages in continental Europe (notably Frisian which still exists 
and the ancestor languages of modern German and Dutch referred to as West Germanic 
languages). Some features were specific to the West Germanic language family while some 
other features were inherited from the older Proto-Germanic or Indo-European languages. 
 Old English was fully inflected with five grammatical cases like German today: the 
nominative, accusative, genitive, dative and instrumental. It had dual plural forms for 
referring to groups of two objects, in addition to the usual singular and plural forms. It 
assigned gender to all nouns, including those that describe inanimate objects: for 
example, sēo sunne (the Sun) was feminine, while se mōna (the Moon) was masculine (cf. 
modern German die Sonnevs. der Mond) 
 
Example of the Strong Noun Declension for each Gender 
Case 
Masculine 
engel 'angel' 
Neuter 
scip 'ship' 
Feminine 
sorg 'sorrow' 
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 
Nominative engel englas Scip scipu sorg Sorga 
Accusative engel englas Scip scipu sorge sorga/sorge 
Genitive engles engla scipes scipa sorge Sorga 
Dative engle englum Scipe scipum sorge Sorgum 
 The instrumental case indicated an instrument used to achieve something, for 
example lifde sweorde, "he lived by the sword", where sweorde is the instrumental form 
of sweord. During the Old English period, the instrumental was falling out of use, having 
largely merged with the dative. Only pronouns and strong adjectives retained separate 
forms for the instrumental. 
 Old English was spelled essentially as it was pronounced. Words were spelt as 
they were pronounced (“phonetic” spelling). The "silent" letters in many Modern English 
words, such as the "k" in "knight", were pronounced in Old English (OE cniht). Spelling was 
extremely variable; writers could practically invent their own spelling and there was no 
national or regional standard, only conventions that a writer could adhere to if he so wished. 
The spelling of a word would usually reflect differences in the phonetics of the writer's 
regional dialect. For example, the word "and" could be spelt either and or ond. Most present 
day students of Old English learn the language using normalised versions (no variant 
spellings). 
 Below is an excerpt of The Nativity according to Luke in Old English. If you look at it 
carefully, you can see the similarities with the German or a Scandinavian language and we 
can see why English is called a sister language of German. Also, there was a time back in 
the Old English period when the Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, 
Icelandic) and English were mutually understandable. English is certainly the one that has 
broken further away from the other four (Scandinavians can still pretty much understand 
each other's dialects), but the strong influence of Latin (mostly through the church and 
scholars) and the Norman invasion of England brought about significant changes in the 
language, as did a host of smaller influences. 
The Nativity has been chosen because the gospels are available in all three "languages". 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/West_Germanic_language
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/Proto-Germanic
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/Inflection
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/Grammatical_case
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/Genitive_case
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/Dative_case
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/Instrumental_case
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number%2529
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/Grammatical_gender
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/Noun
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/Sun
http://www.1066andallthat.com/wiki/Moon
The History of English 
 
 Page 25 
 
THE BIBLE NATIVITY STORY 
KJV Bible--Luke 2:1-38, Matthew 2:1-23 
Old English Present day English 
Soþlice on þam dagum wæs geworden gebod 
fram þam casereAugusto, þæt eall 
ymbehwyrft wære tomearcod. Þeos 
tomearcodneswæs æryst geworden fram þam 
deman Syrige Cirino. And ealle hig eodon,and 
syndrige ferdon on hyra ceastre. Ða ferde 
Iosep fram Galilea of þæreceastre Nazareth 
on Iudeisce ceastre Dauides, seo is 
genemned Bethleem, for þam þe he wæs of 
Dauides huse and hirede; þæt he ferde mid 
Marianþe him beweddod wæs, and wæs 
geeacnod. 
 Soþlice wæs geworden þa hi þar wæron, 
hire dagas wæron gefyllede þæt heo cende. 
And heo cende hyre frumcennedan sunu, and 
hine mid cildclaþum bewand, and hine on 
binne alede, for þam þe hig næfdon rum on 
cumena huse. 
 And hyrdas wæron on þam ylcan rice 
waciende, and nihtwæccan healdende ofer 
heora heorda. Þa stod Drihtnes engel wiþ hig, 
and Godes beorhtnes him ymbe scean; and hi 
him mycelum ege adredon. And se engel him 
to cwæð, Nelle ge eow adrædan; soþlice nu ic 
eow bodie mycelne gefean, se bið eallum 
folce; for þam to dæg eow ys Hælend 
acenned, se is Drihten Crist, on Dauides 
ceastre. 
 
 And it came to pass in those days, that there 
went out a decree from Caesar Augustus, that 
all the world should be taxed. (And this taxing 
was first made when Cyrenius was governor 
in Syria.) And all wentto be taxed, every one 
into his own city. And Joseph also went up 
from Galilee, out of Nazareth, into Judaea, 
unto the city of David, which is called 
Bethlehem; (because he was of the house and 
lineage of David.) To be taxed with Mary his 
espoused wife, being great with child. 
 And so it was, that while they were there, 
the days were accomplished that she should 
be delivered. And she brought forth her 
firstborn son, and wrapped him in swaddling 
cloths, and laid him in a manger, because 
there was no room for them in the inn. 
 And there were in the same country 
shepherds abiding in the field, keeping watch 
over their flock by night. And, lo, the angel of 
the Lord came upon them, and the glory of the 
Lord shone round about them; and they were 
sore afraid. And the angel said unto them, 
Fear not; for, behold, I bring you good tidings 
of great joy, which shall be to all people. For 
unto you is born this day in the city of David a 
Saviour, which is Christ the Lord. 
 
 
 
 
QUESTIONS: 
A. What linguistic features did Anglo-Saxon or Old English have in common with the 
West Germanic languages spoken at the time? 
B. In what ways was old English spelled differently from the way present day English is 
spelled? 
C. Was there an Old English standard spelling? Explain. 
D. What impression does Old English make on you comparing it to present day English 
(See the Bible “Nativity Story” by Lucas). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The History of English 
 
 Page 26 
 
UNIT 3 Lesson 
20 
History of English with focus on Linguistic features 
Main Influences on Old English 
Sources: 
http://www.1066andallthat.com/beowulf.asp 
 http://www.krysstal.com/english.html 
 
The majority of words in modern English come from foreign, not Old English roots. In 
fact, only about one sixth of the known Old English words have descendants surviving 
today. But this is deceptive; Old English is much more important than these statistics would 
indicate. About half of the most commonly used words in modern English have Old English 
roots. Words like be, water, and strong, for example, derive from Old English roots. 
Old English is remarkable in the number and type of language-contact situations 
which the Anglo-Saxons experienced within their own borders. In the six centuries between 
500 and 1100, the people had to deal routinely with speakers of no fewer than four language 
families, including: 
a) Celtic (chiefly Old Welsh) 
b) Italic (Vulgar Latin, Classical Latin) 
c) Other branches of Germanic (Old Norse, Old Saxon, Frisian) 
d) Romance (Old French, Norman French) < after 1066 
No subsequent period in British history introduced such a diverse set of linguistic 
influences within the British Isles 
 The Germanic tribes were exposed to Latin before they invaded England, so the 
languages they spoke did have some Latin influence. After the Anglo-Saxons converted to 
Christianity, Latin had more influence, as evidenced in words pertaining to the church. 
Celtic, on the other hand, did not have a large impact on English, as only a few place names 
are of Celtic origin, but Danish (Old Scandinavian) did contribute many vocabulary words. 
 
Latin Influence on Old English language 
 Latin was the lingua franca of Europe at the time. A large percentage of the educated 
and literate population (monks, clerics, etc.) were competent in Latin. There were at least 
three notable periods of Latin influence: 
- The first occurred before the ancestral Saxons left continental Europe for England. 
- The second began when the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity in the late sixth 
and seventh centuries, and Latin-speaking priests became widespread 
- The third occurred following the Norman invasion of 1066, after which an enormous 
number of Norman words entered the language (most of them were themselves derived 
from classical Latin). 
Old English word 
Modern English 
gloss 
Latin origin 
Alter 
biblioþece 
cancer 
creda 
cucumer 
culpe 
deacon 
fenester 
fers 
grammatic 
mamma 
notere 
altar 
library 
crab 
creed, belief 
cucumber 
guilt, fault 
deacon 
window 
verse 
grammar 
breast 
notary 
Altar 
bibliotheca 
cancer 
credo 
cucumer 
culpa 
diaconus 
fenestra 
versus 
grammatica 
mamma 
notarius 
http://www.1066andallthat.com/beowulf.asp
http://www.krysstal.com/english.html
The History of English 
 
 Page 27 
 
offrian 
orgel 
papa 
philosoph 
predician 
regol 
sabbat 
scol 
sacrifice 
organ 
pope 
philosopher 
preach 
religious rule 
Sabbath 
School 
offere 
organum 
papa 
philosophus 
praedicare 
regula 
sabbatum 
scola 
 
Influence of North Germanic or Old Norse 
 
During the 7th and 8th Centuries, Northumbria's culture and language dominated 
Britain (see bottom page 20). The Viking invasions of the 9th Century brought this 
domination to an end (along with the destruction of Mercia). Only Wessex remained as an 
independent kingdom. 
Norse invasions and settlement, beginning around 850, brought many North 
Germanic words into the language, particularly in the north of England. 
 Old Norse was a North Germanic language, spoken by the Vikings who settled 
mainly in the north-east and the east coast down to London. Old Norse was related to Old 
English: both derived from the same ancestral Proto-Germanic language. It spread during 
the Viking invasions of the ninth and tenth centuries. 
 The everyday flavour of the Scandinavian loans can be seen in these examples, all of 
which survived into modern Standard English: anger, awkward, bond, cake, crooked, dirt, 
dregs, egg, fog, freckle, get, kid, leg, lurk, meek, muggy, neck, seem, sister, skill, skirt, 
smile, Thursday, window, take, get. Its influence was reflected in place names, items of 
basic vocabulary, and words concerned with particular administrative aspects of the 
Danelaw. 
 
 Old Norse is also credited with the introduction of a new set of third-person plural 
pronouns, they, them, and their. These replaced the earlier Old English inflected forms: hi 
or hie (in the nominative and accusative cases, 'they / them'), hira or heora (in the genitive 
case, 'their, of them'), and him or heom (in the dative case, 'to them, for them'). 
 A mixture of Old Norse and Old English helped accelerate the decline of case endings 
in Old English. Many pairs of English and Norse words coexisted giving us two words with 
the same or slightly differing meanings. Some examples are dream, which had meant 'joy' 
until the Vikings imparted its current meaning on it from the Scandinavian cognate draumr, 
and skirt, which continues to live alongside its native English cognate shirt. More examples 
follow: 
Norse English 
anger wrath 
any no 
fro from 
raise rear 
iIl sick 
bask bathe 
skill craft 
skin hide 
dike ditch 
scatter shatter 
skip shift 
 
 By the 10th Century, the West Saxon dialect became the official language of 
The History of English 
 
 Page 28 
 
Britain. Written Old English is mainly known from this period. It was written in an alphabet 
called Runic, derived from the Scandinavian languages. The Runic alphabets were a set of 
related alphabets using letters (known as runes), used to write Germanic languages before 
and shortly after the Christianization of Scandinavia and the British Isles. Old English shifted 
to the Latin alphabet after the Anglo-Saxons' conversion to Christianity. The Latin Alphabet 
was brought over from Ireland by Christian missionaries. This has remained the writing 
system of English. 
 Concluding, the vocabulary of Old English consisted of an Anglo Saxon base with 
borrowed words from the Scandinavian languages (Danish and Norse) and Latin. Besides 
the words you find in the table above, many more words were added from Latin such as: 
street, kitchen, kettle, cup, cheese, wine, angel, bishop, martyr and candle.The Vikings added many Norse words. Besides the ones already mentioned above, 
there were many more words such as: sky, egg, cake, leg, window (wind eye), husband, 
fellow, flat, odd, ugly, get, give, take, raise, call, die, etc. A limited number of Celtic words 
also survived mainly in place and river names (Devon, Dover, Kent, Trent, Severn, Avon, 
Thames). 
 
 
QUESTIONS: 
 
A. Why does it depend on what register of present English you analyse to decide how 
much of Old English can still be found in present day English? 
B. So if only part of present English derives from Old English what does the rest of 
present day English derive from? (Mention other sources of influence on the 
formation on present day English.) What were the main influences on Old English in 
the period from 500 to 1100? 
C. What were the three notable periods of Latin influence? 
D. Mention five words in present day English that clearly have a Latin origin (also 
present the Latin equivalents). 
E. How did the political situation of Britain change dramatically after the invasions of 
the Norseman or Vikings beginning around 850? 
F. Was the language of the Vikings very different from Old English? Explain. 
G. What can still be found in present day English that was introduced from Old Norse? 
Give examples. 
H. From when do we have written records of the language used in Britain in those days 
produced in that particular language itself? Which specific dialect? 
I. What two alphabets were used and which one eventually became the dominant one? 
J. Is there anything that has survived from the earlier Celtic languages? 
 
 
 
UNIT 3 Lesson 
21 
History of English with focus on Linguistic features – The Norman Conquest 
and Middle Ages - Focus: Vocabulary 
Sources: http://www.1066andallthat.com/beowulf.asp 
 http://www.krysstal.com/english.html 
 http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm 
 
The Norman Conquest and Middle English (1100-1500) 
http://www.krysstal.com/writing_runic.html
http://www.krysstal.com/writing_latin.html
http://www.1066andallthat.com/beowulf.asp
http://www.krysstal.com/english.html
http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm
The History of English 
 
 Page 29 
 
William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered England and 
the Anglo-Saxons in 1066 AD. The new overlords spoke a dialect of Old French known as 
Anglo-Norman. The Normans were also of Germanic stock ("Norman" comes from 
"Norseman") and Anglo-Norman was a French dialect that had considerable Germanic 
influences in addition to the basic Latin roots. 
Prior to the Norman Conquest, Latin had been only a minor influence on the English 
language, mainly through vestiges of the Roman occupation and from the conversion of 
Britain to Christianity in the seventh century (ecclesiastical terms such as priest, vicar, 
and mass came into the language this way), but now there was a wholesale infusion of 
Romance (Anglo-Norman) words. 
The Normans, their vassals and the representatives of the government, i.e. the 
nobility, (some of them may have not been Normans and may have switched from Old 
English to the language of their overlords) continued speaking their Norman dialect of old 
French while the rest of the population, the commoners, communicated in the vernacular 
Old English dialects. This bilingual situation lasted for about 200 years. 
 
In 1204 AD, King John lost the province of Normandy to the King of France. This 
began a process where the Norman nobles of England became increasingly estranged from 
their French cousins. England became the chief concern of the nobility, rather than their 
estates in France, and consequently the nobility adopted a modified English as their native 
tongue. About 150 years later, the Black Death (1349-50) killed about one third of the 
English population. And as a result of this, the labouring and merchant classes grew in 
economic and social importance, and along with them English increased in importance 
compared to Anglo-Norman. 
This mixture of the two languages came to be known as Middle English. The most 
famous example of Middle English is Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. (See Appendix 
2) By 1362, the linguistic division between the nobility and the commoners was largely over. 
In that year, the Statute of Pleading was adopted, which made English the language of the 
courts and it began to be used in Parliament. 
 Many legal terms, such as indict, jury, and verdict, though, have Anglo-
Norman roots because the Normans had for centuries run the courts. This split, where 
words commonly used by the aristocracy have Romantic roots and words frequently used 
by the Anglo-Saxon commoners have Germanic roots, can be seen in many instances. 
The influence of the Normans can be illustrated by looking at two words, beef and 
cow. Beef, commonly eaten by the aristocracy, derives from the Anglo-Norman, while the 
Anglo-Saxon commoners, who tended the cattle, retained the Germanic cow. The class 
division that existed in those days has given rise to peculiar semantic divisions in the 
vocabulary that still exists today. Because the English underclass cooked for the Norman 
upper class, the words for most domestic animals are English (ox, cow, calf, sheep, swine, 
deer) while the words for the meats derived from them are “French” (beef, veal, mutton, 
pork, bacon, venison). 
Sometimes ‘French’ words replaced Old English words; crime replaced firen and 
uncle replaced earn. Other times, French and Old English components combined to form a 
new word, as the French gentle and the Germanic man formed gentleman. Finally, two 
different words with roughly the same meaning may have survived into modern English. 
Thus we have the Germanic doom and the French judgement or wish and desire. 
There are many other pairs from each origin (the Anglo-Norman/French and Old 
English origins, respectively) as can be seen from the following examples: 
“French” (origin) English 
Close shut 
Reply answer 
Odour smell 
Annual yearly 
Demand ask 
http://www.anglik.net/chaucer.htm
The History of English 
 
 Page 30 
 
Chamber room 
Desire wish 
Power might 
Ire wrath / anger 
It is useful to compare various versions of a familiar text (here: The Lord’s Prayer) to 
see the differences between Old, Middle, and Modern English. Take for instance this Old 
English (c. 1000) sample: 
Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum 
si þin nama gehalgod tobecume þin rice gewurþe þin willa on eorðan swa swa on 
heofonum 
urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us to dæg 
and forgyf us ure gyltas swa swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum 
and ne gelæd þu us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele soþlice. 
Rendered in Middle English (Wyclif, 1384), the same text is recognizable to the modern eye: 
Oure fadir þat art in heuenes halwid be þi name; 
þi reume or kyngdom come to be. Be þi wille don in herþe as it is doun in heuene. 
yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred. 
And foryeue to us oure dettis þat is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure dettouris þat 
is to men þat han synned in us. 
And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl. 
Finally, in Early Modern English (King James Version, 1611) the same text is completely 
intelligible: 
Our father which art in heauen, hallowed be thy name. 
Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth as it is in heauen. 
Giue us this day our daily bread. 
And forgiue us our debts as we forgiue our debters. 
And lead us not into temptation, but deliuer us from euill. Amen. 
 
Unlike Old English, Middle English can be read, albeit with difficulty, by modern English-
speaking people. The Middle English period came to a close around 1500 AD with the rise of 
Modern English. 
 
 
QUESTIONS: 
 
A. What did Anglo-Norman, the dialect of Old French introduced by the Normans led by 
William the conqueror, have in common with the language spoken in Britain before 
the conquest, (that is, a late form of Old English)?Think of their origins. 
B. How did the country become linguistically divided and when and because of what 
political, economical and social factors did this division return to a “normalized” 
situation i.e. a monolingual society? 
C. What major influences did this language, introduced by the Normans under William 
the conqueror, have on the language used before their conquest, Old English? 
(Refer to changes in the vocabulary and the semantic areas that were most affected 
with a lasting influence until present day English). 
D. What did the mixture of languages and cultures eventually result into, i.e. what did 
Old English develop into? Mention a great poet of these times? 
E. Focus on the last line of the prayer “Our father” and find a word that has a Latin root 
which substituted an older (Germanic – Old English) word; this word has persisted 
until now and exists in present day English. 
F. What can you conclude, in general, about Middle English when comparing it to Old 
and Modern English (see the three versions of “The Lord’s Prayer”)? 
The History of English 
 
 Page 31 
 
 
 
 
UNIT 3 Lesson 
22 
History of English with focus on Linguistic features – 
Grammar, Spelling and Pronunciation of Middle English 
 Source: 
http://www.ielanguages.com/enghist.html 
 
 
SPELLING CHANGES 
 
Compared to spelling conventions as were used in the days of Old English, the 
writing system changed dramatically in Middle English. However, the striking change in the 
written language of England during the twelfth century was, to a considerable extent, a 
matter of mere spelling, not of pronunciation. ME Looks very different from OE, but this 
doesn’t always reflect sound changes. 
Old English > OE toþ, toð /toθ/ 
Middle English > ME tooth to(o)th(e) /toθ/ 
Present day English > PDE tooth /tuwθ/ 
 
One of the reasons was that soon after the Norman conquest children ceased to be 
regularly taught to read and write English, and were taught to read and write French 
instead. When, therefore, the mass of the new generations tried to write English, after 
English had returned to its original position of the national language, they had no 
orthographical traditions to guide them, and had to spell the words phonetically according 
to French rules. They used ch instead of the oldc, when it was pronounced as 
in cirice church. The sound of the Old English sc in sceamu shame, which did not exist at 
that time in French, was rendered by ss, ssh, sch, or sh. The French qu took the place of cp. 
A list of some of the marked changes is: 
a. þ and ð were replaced by th (and sometimes y, as in ye meaning the) 
b. c before i or e became ch (e.g. OE cild -> ME child ) 
c. sc became sh ( OE scip -> ME sc-, sch-, sh-, s-, ss- ... for PDE “ship”) 
d. hw became wh (“hw” stood for the Romance/Latin <qu> in ‘quos’ = who ) 
e. cw became qu (eg. cween became queen) 
f. the new symbols v and u were added; v was used word initially, and u was used 
everywhere else (e.g. abouen, heuens, ouer, yuel but visitist, virgyn ; (but 
confusingly the same letter was used vndirkast, vndir for a vowel if followed by a 
consonant) 
g. k was used much more often (cyning became king) 
These are just examples, there were many more changes. Concluding, the causes for the 
changes in spelling were: 
a. the collapse of the West Saxon standard spelling form used in Old English 
b. influence of Old French (or Anglo-Norman) conventions 
c. the development of local traditions (e.g. the Ancrene Riwle MSS 1) 
For instance, during the Middle English period, there could be a number of different 
spellings for the same word, for example, the spellings of ‘might’ was spelt as: maht mahte 
mihte mihhte mist mithe mouthe myhte micht. 
An even stronger example is the spelling of the word “new” in Old and Middle English: 
http://www.ielanguages.com/enghist.html
The History of English 
 
 Page 32 
 
OE nú -> 
ME nu, nv; new, newe; no, noou, noue; noug, nough, nou,nouwe, nov, nowgh, nuge, nw, nyw
, 
 
1 Ancren Riwle (äng'krĕn rē'ūlə) or Ancrene Wisse (äng'krĕnə wĭs'ə) [Mid. Eng.,=anchoresses' rule], 
English tract written c.1200 by an anonymous English churchman for the instruction of three young ladies about 
to become religious recluses. The work, important as a sample of early Middle English prose, is a charming 
mixture of realism and humor, didacticism and tenderness. It is also important for its depiction of the manners 
and customs of the time. French and Latin versions of the work are also extant. 
Read more: http://www.answers.com/topic/ancrene-wisse#ixzz1Go6wLv1u 
 
GRAMMAR AND SYNTAX CHANGES 
Because of the stress shift to the beginning of the word, Middle English lost the 
case suffixes or inflections at the ends of nouns. Phonological erosion also occurred 
because of this, and some consonants dropped off while some vowels became əand 
dropped off too. 
The generalized plural marker became -s, but it still competed with -n. The Germanic 
form of plurals that were still common in Old English (house, housen; shoe, shoen) was 
eventually displaced by the French method of making plurals: adding an s (house, houses; 
shoe, shoes). Only a few words have retained their Germanic plurals: men, oxen, feet, teeth, 
children. 
 
Verb infinitives dropped the -an ending, and used "to" before the verb to signify the 
infinitival form. The third person singular and plural was marked with -(e)th; but the singular 
also competed with -(e)s from the Northern dialect. More strong (irregular) verbs became 
weak (regular) as well. 
 
Adjectives lost agreement with the noun, but the weak ending -e still remained. The 
comparative form became -er and the superlative became -est. Vowels tended to be long in 
the adjective form, but short in the comparative form (late - latter). The demonstratives 
these and those were added during this period. And the adverb ending -lič became -ly; 
however, some "flat" adverbs did not add the -ly: fast, late, hard. 
 
The dual number disappeared in the pronouns, and the dative and accusative 
became the object forms of the pronouns. The third person plural pronouns replaced the old 
pronouns with th- words (they, them, their) borrowed from Scandinavian. She started being 
used for the feminine singular subject pronoun and you (plural form) was used in the 
singular as a status marker for the formal. 
 
Syntax was stricter and more prepositions were used. New compound tenses were 
used, such as the perfect tenses, and there was more use of the progressive and passive 
voice. The use of double negation also increased as did impersonal constructions. The use 
of the verbs will and shall for the future tense were first used too. Formerly, will meant want 
(In German “I want” is “Ich will”,) and shall meant “obliged to”. 
 
PRONUNCIATION CHANGES 
Some Pronunciation changes were: 
 Loss of initial h in a cluster (hleapan - to leap; hnutu - hut) 
 [w] lost between consonant and back vowel (w is silent in two, sword, answer) 
 [v] lost in middle of words (heofod - head; hæfde - had) 
 Loss of final -n in possessive pronouns (min fæder - mi fæder) and the addition of -n 
to some words beginning with a vowel (a napron - an apron, a nuncle - an uncle) 
http://www.answers.com/topic/ancrene-wisse#ixzz1Go6wLv1u
The History of English 
 
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QUESTIONS: 
 
A. Did the changes in spelling in Middle English as compared to the spelling in Old 
English reflect marked pronunciation changes? Explain. 
B. Explain why there were so many changes and also varieties of spelling. 
C. Give examples of grammar and pronunciation changes. 
D. How did the syntax change? 
 
 
 
UNIT 3 Lesson 
23 
Old, Middle and Present Day English Compared 
 
See below a comparison between The Nativity Story by Lucas from the Bible in 
Middle English as compared to present day English: 
 
Old English 
8th century 
Translation by John Wycliffe, 
c. 1380-83 
Present- day EnglishSoþlice on þam dagum wæs 
geworden gebod fram þam 
casere Augusto, þæt eall 
ymbehwyrft wære tomearcod. 
(Þeos tomearcodneswæs 
æryst geworden fram þam 
deman Syrige Cirino.) And 
ealle hig eodon,and syndrige 
ferdon on hyra ceastre. Ða 
ferde Iosep fram Galilea of 
þæreceastre Nazareth on 
Iudeisce ceastre Dauides, seo 
is genemned Bethleem, for 
þam þe he wæs of Dauides 
huse and hirede; þæt he ferde 
mid Marianþe him beweddod 
wæs, and wæs geeacnod. 
Soþlice wæs geworden þa hi 
þar wæron, hire dagas wæron 
gefyllede þæt heo cende. And 
heo cende hyre frumcennedan 
sunu, and hine mid cildclaþum 
bewand, and hine on binne 
alede, for þam þe hig næfdon 
rum on cumena huse. 
 
 
 And hyrdas wæron on þam 
ylcan rice waciende, and 
nihtwæccan healdende ofer 
heora heorda. Þa stod Drihtnes 
And it was don in tho daies, a 
maundement wente out fro the 
emperour August, thatal the 
world schulde be discryued. 
(This firste discryuyng was 
maad of Cyryn, iustice of 
Sirie.) And alle men wenten to 
make professioun, ech in to his 
owne citee. And Joseph went 
vp fro Galilee, fro the citee 
Nazareth, in to Judee, in to a 
citee of Dauid, that is clepid 
Bethleem, for that he was of 
the hous and of the meyne of 
Dauid, that he schulde 
knouleche with Marie, his wijf, 
that was weddid to hym, and 
was greet with child. 
 And it was don, while thei 
weren there, the daies were 
fulfillid, that sche schulde bere 
child. And sche bare hir first 
borun sone, and wlappide hym 
in clothis, and leide hym in a 
cratche, for ther was no place 
to hym in no chaumbir. 
 
 
 And scheepherdis weren in 
the same cuntre, wakynge and 
kepynge the watchis of the 
nygt on her flok. And lo! the 
And it came to pass in those 
days, that there went out a 
decree from Caesar 
Augustus, that all the world 
should be taxed. (And this 
taxing was first made when 
Cyrenius was governor in 
Syria.) And all went to be 
taxed, every one into his own 
city. And Joseph also went 
up from Galilee, out of 
Nazareth, into Judaea, unto 
the city of David, which is 
called Bethlehem; (because 
he was of the house and 
lineage of David.) To be taxed 
with Mary his espoused wife, 
being great with child. 
 And so it was, that while 
they were there, the days 
were accomplished that she 
should be delivered. And she 
brought forth her firstborn 
son, and wrapped him in 
swaddling cloths, and laid him 
in a manger, because there 
was no room for them in the 
inn. 
 And there were in the same 
country shepherds abiding in 
the field, keeping watch over 
their flock by night. And, lo, 
The History of English 
 
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engel wiþ hig, and Godes 
beorhtnes him ymbe scean; 
and hi him mycelum ege 
adredon. And se engel him to 
cwæð, Nelle ge eow adrædan; 
soþlice nu ic eow bodie 
mycelne gefean, se bið eallum 
folce; for þam to dæg eow ys 
Hælend acenned, se is Drihten 
Crist, on Dauides ceastre. 
aungel of the Lord stood 
bisidis hem, and the 
cleernesse of God schinede 
aboute hem; and thei dredden 
with greet drede. And the 
aungel seide to hem, Nyle ye 
drede; for lo! Y preche to you a 
greet ioye, that schal be to al 
puple. For a sauyoure is borun 
to dai to you, that is Crist the 
Lord. 
the angel of the Lord came 
upon them, and the glory of 
the Lord shone round about 
them; and they were sore 
afraid. And the angel said 
unto them, Fear not; for, 
behold, I bring you good 
tidings of great joy, which 
shall be to all people. For 
unto you is born this day in 
the city of David a Saviour, 
which is Christ the Lord. 
TASK: 
As you may have noticed, to make a comparison easier, names have been underlined. Find 
20 words that you think are interesting examples of how the language changed in the period 
of roughly 1200 years and present them as groups of three (one in Old English, one in 
Middle English and one in Present day English), e.g. “engel” / “aungel” / ‘angel’. 
 
 
 
UNIT 3 Lesson 
24 
History of English with focus on Linguistic features – Early Modern English
 (1500 – 1800): Pronunciation and Grammar 
Source: http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm 
 
 
A major factor that influenced the language and served to separate Middle and 
Modern English was the Great Vowel Shift. The Great Vowel Shift (1400-1600) changed the 
pronunciation of all the vowels. The tongue was placed higher in the mouth, and all the 
verbs moved up. Vowels that were already high ([i] and [u]) added the dipthongs [aj] and 
[aw] to the vowels of English. 
 
 
This was a change in pronunciation that began around 1400. While modern English 
speakers can read Chaucer with some difficulty, Chaucer's pronunciation would have been 
completely unintelligible to the modern ear. Shakespeare, on the other hand, would be 
http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm
The History of English 
 
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accented, but understandable. Vowel sounds began to be made further to the front of the 
mouth and the letter "e" at the end of words became silent. Chaucer's Lyf (pronounced 
"leef") became the modern life. In Middle English name was pronounced "nam-a," five was 
pronounced "feef," and down was pronounced "doon." In linguistic terms, the shift was 
rather sudden, the major changes occurring within a century. The shift is still not over, 
however, vowel sounds are still shortening although the change has become considerably 
more gradual. 
Other pronunciation changes were that several consonants were no longer 
pronounced, but the spelling system was in place before the consonant loss, so they are 
still written in English today. The consonants lost include: 
a. Voiceless velar fricative lost in night; pronounced as f in laugh 
b. [b] in final -mb cluster (dumb, comb) 
c. [l] between a or o and consonant (half, walk, talk, folk) 
d. [r] sometimes before s (Worcestershire) 
e. initial clusters beginning with k and g (knee, knight, gnat) 
f. [g] in -ing endings (more commonly pronounced [ɪn]) 
g. Finally, assibilation occurred when the alveolars [s], [d], [t], and [z] preceded the 
palatal glide [j], producing the palatal consonants: [š], [ǰ], [č], [ž] 
 
There were also some noticeable grammar changes: Adjectives lost all endings 
except for in the comparative and superlative forms. The neuter pronoun it was first used as 
well as who as a relative pronoun. More strong verbs became weak and the third person 
singular form became -(e)s instead of -(e)th. There was a more limited use of the 
progressive and auxiliary verbs than there is now, however. Negatives followed the verb 
and multiple negatives were still used. 
 
 
QUESTIONS: 
A. If we compare Shakespeare’s English with that of the poet Chaucer, what major 
conclusions can be drawn about its comprehensibility for a present day speaker 
of English? 
B. What phenomenon is, basically, the cause for the great difference in 
comprehensibility between the two varieties of English for the present day 
listener (if we could actually hear and compare present day English with the 
older two forms)? 
C. In what other ways did Early Modern English pronunciation distinguish itself from 
Middle English pronunciation? 
D. Mention a few interesting grammatical changes that occurred from Middle 
English to early Modern English. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The History of English 
 
 Page 36 
 
 
UNIT 3 Lesson 
25 
History of English with focus on Linguistic features - Linguistic features of 
Early Modern English: Vocabulary and Standardisation 
 Source: 
http://www.ielanguages.com/enghist.html 
 
 
Modern English began around the 16th Century and, like all languages, is still 
changing. This wave of innovation in English came with the Renaissance. The revival of 
classical scholarship brought many classical Latin and Greek words into the Language. 
Because of the Renaissance of Classical learning, many words have entered the language 
either directly or indirectly. New words werecreated at an increasing rate. 
Another changing factor was the increased contact that the British had from the 16th 
Century onwards with many peoples from around the world. Borrowed words include 
names of animals (giraffe, tiger, zebra), clothing (pyjama, turban, shawl), food (spinach, 
chocolate, orange), scientific and mathematical terms (algebra, geography, species), 
drinks (tea, coffee, cider), religious terms (Jesus, Islam, nirvana), sports (checkmate, golf, 
billiards), vehicles (chariot, car, coach), music and art (piano, theatre, easel), weapons 
(pistol, trigger, rifle), political and military terms (commando, admiral, parliament), and 
astronomical names (Saturn, Leo, Uranus). 
Languages that have contributed words to English include Latin, Greek, French, 
German, Arabic, Hindi (from India), Italian, Malay, Dutch, Farsi (from Iran and Afghanistan), 
Nahuatl (the Aztec language), Sanskrit (from ancient India), Portuguese, Spanish, Tupi 
(from South America) and Ewe (from Africa). 
The list of borrowed words is enormous. The vocabulary of English is the largest of 
any language. Even with all these borrowings the heart of the language remains the Anglo-
Saxon of Old English. Only about 5000 or so words from this period have remained 
unchanged but they include the basic building blocks of the language: household words, 
parts of the body, common animals, natural elements, most pronouns, prepositions, 
conjunctions and auxiliary verbs. Grafted onto this basic stock was a wealth of 
contributions to produce, what many people believe, is the richest of the world's languages. 
These borrowings were deliberate and many bemoaned the adoption of these 
"inkhorn" terms, but many survive to this day. Shakespeare coined over 1600 words. This 
process has grown exponentially in the modern era. Many students having difficulty 
understanding Shakespeare would be surprised to learn that he wrote in modern English. 
But, as can be seen in the earlier example of the Lord's Prayer (p.28), Elizabethan English 
has much more in common with our language today than it does with the language of 
Chaucer. Many familiar words and phrases were coined or first recorded by Shakespeare, 
some 2,000 words and countless idioms are his. Newcomers to Shakespeare are often 
shocked at the number of clichés contained in his plays, until they realize that he coined 
them and they became clichés afterwards. "One fell swoop," "vanish into thin air," and 
"flesh and blood" are all Shakespeare's. Words he bequeathed to the language include 
"critical," "leapfrog," "majestic," "dwindle," and "pedant." For more on Shakespeare, see 
Appendix 3. 
 
Standardisation and Early Grammarians (18th Century) 
A major factor in the development of Modern English was the advent of the printing 
press. William Caxton brought the printing press to England in 1476. Books became 
cheaper and as a result, literacy became more common. Publishing for the masses became 
a profitable enterprise, and works in English, as opposed to Latin, became more common. 
http://www.ielanguages.com/enghist.html
http://www.krysstal.com/borrow.html
http://www.anglik.net/shakespeare.htm
The History of English 
 
 Page 37 
 
The printing press brought standardization to English. The dialect of London, where most 
publishing houses were located, became the standard. Spelling and grammar became 
fixed, and the first English dictionary was published in 1604. 
A proposal for an Academy of the English Language was first brought forth by 
Jonathan Swift in 1712, but the Parliament voted against it. Nevertheless, several 
grammarians wrote dictionaries and grammar books in a prescriptive manner - telling 
people what to do or not to do with the language. Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the 
English Language was published in 1755 and Robert Lowth's Introduction to English 
Grammar appeared in 1762. Early grammarians felt that language should be logical, 
therefore, the double negative was considered incorrect (two negatives equal one positive) 
and should not be used. They also didn't like shortened or redundant words, borrowing 
words from other languages (except Latin and Greek), split infinitives, or prepositions at the 
end of the sentence. 
In England, (as opposed the Scotland, Wales and Ireland) several changes to English 
had occurred since 1700. These include a loss of the post-vocalic r (so that the r is only 
pronounced before a vowel and not after); an increase in the use of the progressive tenses; 
and a rise in class consciousness about speech (Received Pronunciation.) 
 
 
QUESTIONS: 
 
A. What factors caused a flux of new words into early modern English? 
B. Name sources of borrowed words. Try to match some examples with some 
languages of origin. 
C. How is Shakespeare not only remembered as a great playwright but also 
because of his great contribution to the language? 
D. What other change took place in the language over the length of what period? 
E. How did the discrepancy between spelling and pronunciation increase; give a 
few examples. 
F. What factors contributed to the standardisation of English? Give a few examples 
of forms that were no longer accepted in Standard English. 
G. How did speech in the south become distinguishable from the other areas of the 
country as linked to a growth in class consciousness? 
UNIT 3 Lesson 26 
History of English with focus on Linguistic features - Late-Modern English 
(1800-Present) 
 
 
The principal distinction between early- and late-modern English is vocabulary. 
Pronunciation, grammar, and spelling are largely the same, but Late-Modern English has 
many more words. These words are the result of two historical factors. The first is the 
Industrial Revolution and the rise of the technological society. This necessitated new words 
for things and ideas that had not previously existed. Since 1900, a very large amount of 
vocabulary words has been added to English in a relatively short period. The majority of 
these words are related to science and technology, and use Greek and Latin roots. The 
second was the British Empire. At its height, Britain ruled one quarter of the earth's surface, 
and English adopted many foreign words and made them its own. 
The industrial and scientific revolutions created a need for neologisms to describe 
the new creations and discoveries. For this, English relied heavily on Latin and Greek. 
Words like oxygen, protein, nuclear, and vaccine did not exist in the classical languages, 
but they were created from Latin and Greek roots. Such neologisms were not exclusively 
created from classical roots though, English roots were used for such terms 
as horsepower, airplane, and typewriter. This burst of neologisms continues today, perhaps 
The History of English 
 
 Page 38 
 
most visible in the field of electronics and computers. Byte, cyber-, bios, hard-drive, 
and microchip are good examples. 
Also, the rise of the British Empire and the growth of global trade served not only to 
introduce English to the world, but to introduce words into English. Hindi, and the other 
languages of the Indian subcontinent, provided many words, such as pundit, shampoo, 
pajamas, and juggernaut. Virtually every language on Earth has contributed to the 
development of English, from Finnish (sauna) and Japanese (tycoon) to the vast 
contributions of French and Latin. 
The British Empire was a maritime empire, and the influence of nautical terms on the 
English language has been great. Phrases like three sheets to the wind have their origins 
onboard ships. 
A more scientifically minded attitude took hold by the 19th century when the Oxford 
English Dictionary was proposed in 1859. It was to be a factual account of every word in the 
English language since 1000 including its main form, pronunciation, spelling variations, part 
of speech, etymology, meanings in chronological order and illustrative quotations. The 
project was begun in 1879 under itsfirst editor, James AH Murray. The first edition was 
published in 1928, with supplements in 1933 and 1972-6. The second edition was published 
in 1989 and it recognized American and Australian English, as the International Phonetic 
Alphabet for pronunciation. 
Finally, the military influence on the language during the latter half of twentieth 
century was significant. Before the Great War, military service for English-speaking 
persons was rare; both Britain and the United States maintained small, volunteer militaries. 
Military slang existed, but with the exception of nautical terms, rarely influenced standard 
English. During the mid-20th century, however, a large number of British and American men 
served in the military. And consequently military slang entered the language like never 
before. Blockbuster, nose dive, camouflage, radar, roadblock, spearhead, and landing 
strip are all military terms that made their way into standard English. 
 
QUESTIONS: 
A. What was the principal distinction between early and late Modern English and 
what factors caused this distinction? 
B. How were new words created? 
C. How was the introduction of many new words in English formally acknowledged? 
D. What influence did the world wars have on English? Give examples please. 
 
UNIT 3 Lesson 
27 
History of English with focus on Linguistic features - American English and 
other varieties 
Source: http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm 
Of great historical significance, beginning around 1600 CE, was the English 
colonization of North America and the subsequent creation of American English. 
Immigrants from Southeastern England began arriving on the North American continent in 
the early 1600's. By the mid-1800's, 3.5 million immigrants left the British Isles for the United 
States. The American English language is characterized by archaisms (words that changed 
meaning in Britain, but remained in the colonies). Some pronunciations and usages "froze" 
when they reached the American shore. In certain respects, some varieties of American 
English are closer to the English of Shakespeare than modern Standard English 
('English English' or as it is often incorrectly termed 'British English') is. Some 
"Americanisms" are actually originally English English expressions that were preserved in 
http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm
The History of English 
 
 Page 39 
 
the colonies while lost at home (e.g., fall as a synonym for autumn, trash for rubbish, 
and loan as a verb instead of lend). 
There were also many innovations in vocabulary (borrowing from the French and 
Spanish who were also settling in North America). Noah Webster was the most vocal about 
the need for an American national identity with regards to the American English language. 
He wrote an American spelling book, The Blueback Speller, in 1788 and changed several 
spellings from British English (colour became color, theatre became theater, etc.) In 1828, 
he published his famous American Dictionary of the English Language. 
Dialects in the United States resulted from different waves of immigration of English 
speakers, contact with other languages, and the slave trade, which had a profound impact 
on African American English. A dialectal study was done in 1920 and the findings are 
published in the Linguistics Atlas of the U.S. and Canada. 
The American dialect also served as the route of introduction for many native 
American words into the English language. Most often, these were place names 
like Mississippi, Roanoke, and Iowa. Indian-sounding names like Idaho were sometimes 
created that had no native-American roots. But, names for other things besides places were 
also common. Raccoon, tomato, canoe, barbecue, savanna, and hickory have native 
American roots, although in many cases the original Indian words were mangled almost 
beyond recognition. 
Spanish has also been great influence on American English. Mustang, canyon, 
ranch, stampede, and vigilante are all examples of Spanish words that made their way into 
English through the settlement of the American West. 
A lesser number of words have entered American English from French and West 
African languages. 
 
 
QUESTIONS: 
A. How did American English develop into a distinctly different variety of English 
compared to British English and in what ways did it actually become different? 
B. Mention a number of sources of new English words in the American variety of 
English with a few examples for each. 
 
 
UNIT 3 Lesson 
28 
History of English with focus on Linguistic features - American English and 
other varieties Source: 
http://www.ielanguages.com/enghist.html 
 
English around the World 
Dialects or “varieties” of English have developed in many of the former colonies of 
the British Empire. There are distinct forms of the English language spoken in Australia, 
New Zealand, South Africa, India and many other parts of the world. 
Although the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia and New Zealand have 
English as an official language, the United States does not have an official language. This is 
how it's possible to become a US citizen without speaking English. Canada also has French 
as an official language, though it is mostly spoken in the province of Quebec. Because many 
of the English speakers who originally inhabited Canada came from the US, there is little 
difference in the American and Canadian dialects of English. Similarly, Australian and New 
Zealand English have few differences, except Australia was originally settled as a penal 
colony and New Zealand was not. New Zealanders were more attached to the Received 
http://www.ielanguages.com/enghist.html
The History of English 
 
 Page 40 
 
Pronunciation of the upper class in England, so their dialect is considered closer to British 
English. 
British colonialism has spread English all over the world, and it still holds prestige in 
South Africa, India, and Singapore, among other nations. In South Africa, English became 
an official language, along with Afrikaans and 9 African languages, in the 1996 constitution. 
However, only 3% of the country's 30 million people are native English speakers. Twenty 
percent are descendants of Dutch farmers who speak Afrikaans, and the rest are native 
Africans. Although the British won the Boer Wars of 1899-1901 against the Afrikaans 
farmers (the Boers), Britain still promised the Boers self-government under the Union of 
South Africa. By 1948, these Afrikaners won state elections and remained in power through 
the 1990's. Apartheid (which segregated the Afrikaners and Africans) officially ended under 
Nelson Mandela's reign, and although Afrikaans was the language used more often, the 
Africans wanted English as the official language. Hence the compromise of 11 official 
languages. 
India became independent from Britain in 1947, and the English language was 
supposed to be phased out by 1965. However, today English and Hindi are the official 
languages. Indian English is characterized by treating mass nouns as count nouns, frequent 
use of the "isn't it?" tag, use of more compounds, and a different use of prepositions. In 
Singapore, Chinese, Malay and Indian languages have an impact on the form of English 
spoken. Everyone is taught English in the school system, but there are a few differences 
from British English as well. Mass nouns are treated as count nouns, "use to" means 
usually, and no articles are used before occupations. 
Creoles of English can be found on the coast of West Africa, China, and on islands of 
the Pacific and Caribbean (especially the West Indies.) Originally, these creoles were 
pidgins so that English-speaking traders could conduct business. Over time, they became 
the native languages of the children and evolved into creoles 
 
QUESTIONS: 
A. In what way is it possible for foreign immigrants to be accepted as a USA citizen 
without knowing English? 
B. Why is the New Zealandvariety consistently closer to British RP than the 
Australian variety? 
C. What is the language situation in South Africa and how important is English 
there? 
D. What role does English play in India? 
E. Where do we find creoles of English? 
 
 
 
 
FINAL PAPER Lessons 29/ 
30 
Write a paper using the tables below or any of the material that you find in the appendices 
that follow. 
The History of English 
 
 Page 41 
 
 
 
 
English - A Historical Summary 
The History of English 
 
 Page 42 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The History of English 
 
 Page 43 
 
APPENDIX 1 
Beowulf 
The greatest Old English poem is Beowulf, which belongs to the seventh century. It is a 
story of about 3,000 lines, and it is the first English epic (a story in poetry of the adventures 
of a brave man or men). The name of its author is unknown. 
Beowulf is not based upon events in England, but about Hrothgar, King of the Danes, and 
about a brave young man, Beowulf, from southern Sweden, who goes to help him. Hrothgar 
is in trouble. His great hall, called Heorot, is visited by night by a terrible creature named 
Grendel, which lives in a lake and comes to kill and eat Hrothgar's men. One night Beowulf 
waits in secret for Grendel, attacks it, and in a fierce fght pulls its arm off! It manages to 
reach the lake again, but dies there. Then its mother comes to the hall in search of revenge, 
and the attacks begin again. Beowulf follows her to the bottom of the lake and after a 
struggle kills her there. Later, as an aged warrior-king, Beowulf has to defend his country 
against a fire-breathing dragon, guarding a huge treasure. He kills the creature but is badly 
wounded in the fight, and dies. The poem ends with a sorrowful description of Beowulf's 
funeral fire. Here are a few lines of it: 
"... alegdon tha tomiddes maerne theoden 
laeleth hiofende hlaford leofne 
ongunnon tha on beorge bael-fyra maest 
wigend weccan wudu-rec astah 
sweart ofer swiothole swogende leg 
wope bewunden" 
Or a modern English translation might go something like this ... " The sorrowing soldiers 
then laid the glorious prince, their dear lord, in the middle. Then on the hill the war-men 
began to light the greatest of funeral fires. The wood-smoke rose black above the flames, 
the noisy fire, mixed with sorrowful cries" 
As you can see Old English is almost impossible to read now except by those who have 
made a special study of it! There are many other Old English poems. Among them are the 
bible-based works Genesis A and Genesis B, Exodus, Daniel, Christ and Satan, The Dream 
of the Rood (the rood is Christ's cross) and The Fates of the Apostles. Sadly, we now know 
little or nothing of the identity of the poets. Beowulf lines 1 to 11, approximately AD 900 
Hwæt! Wē Gār-Dena in geārdagum, 
þēodcyninga, þrym gefrūnon, 
hū ðā æþelingas ellen fremedon. 
Oft Scyld Scēfing sceaþena þrēatum, 
monegum mǣgþum, meodosetla oftēah, 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf
The History of English 
 
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egsode eorlas. Syððan ǣrest wearð 
fēasceaft funden, hē þæs frōfre gebād, 
wēox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þāh, 
oðþæt him ǣghwylc þāra ymbsittendra 
ofer hronrāde hȳran scolde, 
gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs gōd cyning! 
Which, as translated by Francis Gummere, reads: 
Lo, praise of the prowess of people-kings 
of spear-armed Danes, in days long sped, 
we have heard, and what honor the athelings won! 
Oft Scyld the Scefing from squadroned foes, 
from many a tribe, the mead-bench tore, 
awing the earls. Since erst he lay 
friendless, a foundling, fate repaid him: 
for he waxed under welkin, in wealth he throve, 
till before him the folk, both far and near, 
who house by the whale-path, heard his mandate, 
gave him gifts: a good king he! 
Other poems in Old English include The Battle of Maldon, which describes a battle thought 
against the Dane in 991. Here is another excerpt together with our translation: 
"hige sceal the heardra heorte the cenre 
mod sceal the mare the ure maegen lytlath 
her lith ure ealdoe eall forheawen 
god on greote a maeg gnornian 
se the nu fram this wigplegan wendan thenceth" 
The mind must be the firmer, the heart must be braver, the courage must be the greater, as 
our strength grows less. Here lies our lord all cut to pieces, the good man on the ground. If 
anyone thinks now to turn away from this war-play, may he be unhappy for ever after" 
Apart from poetry we also have surviving examples of song lyrics and prose (the ordinary 
written language). Notable examples of lyrics include The Husband's Message, Deor's 
Complaint, The Wanderer and The Wife's Complaint. And as for prose we have Laws written 
at the beginning of the seventh century; the works of AELFRIC: Homilies (990) and Lives of 
Saints (995); and the splendid The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. 
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is an early history of England. It was written in several parts, 
with different chronicles coming from different cities, and therefore had several different 
The History of English 
 
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writers. It is believed that KING ALFRED (849-901) had a great influence on this work. He 
probably brought the different writings into some kind of order. He also translated a number 
of books written in Latin, including BEDE's Ecclesiastical History, into Old English, so that 
his people could read them. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
APPENDIX 2 
Chaucer and 'Middle English' 
Geoffrey Chaucer (c.1340-1400) 
 
The English which was used from about 1100 to about 1500 is called Middle English, and 
most critics would rate Geoffrey Chaucer the greatest poet of the time. Indeed, he is often 
referred to as the father of English poetry, although, there were many poets before him - 
Caedmon, Cynewulf, Aelfric, and numerous unidentified poets. 
Chaucer was a well-educated man who read Latin, and studied French and Italian poetry; 
but he was not interested only in books. To earn a living he worked as translator, courtier, 
diplomat and forester. He travelled widely and made good use of his eyes; and the people 
whom he describes are just like real people! His poems clearly show his fondest for women 
... 
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Middle English is much easier for the modern reader to understand than the earlier Old 
English. Here are the opening lines of The Canterbury Tales written in about 1387: 
From The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, 14th century: 
Whan that Aprille with his shoures soote 
The droghte of March hath perced to the roote 
And bathed every veyne in swich licour, 
Of which vertu engendred is the flour; 
Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth 
Inspired hath in every holt and heeth 
The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne 
Hath in the Ram his halfe cours yronne, 
And smale foweles maken melodye, 
That slepen al the nyght with open yë 
(So priketh hem Nature in hir corages); 
Than longen folk to goon on pilgrimages 
Glossary: 
 soote: sweet 
 swich licour: such liquid 
 Zephirus: the west wind (Zephyrus) 
 eek: also (Dutch ook; German auch) 
 holt: wood (German Holz) 
 the Ram: Aries, the first sign of the Zodiac 
 yronne: run (German gerannt) 
 priketh hem Nature: Nature pricks them 
 hir corages: their hearts 
The Canterbury Tales total more than 17.000 lines, and is in the form of a 'link and frame' 
story - in imitation of Boccaccio's Decamrone. In Chaucer's work a party of pilgrims agree 
to tell stories to pass the time on their journey from London to Canterbury. There are more 
than twenty of these stories, mostly in verse, and in the stories we get to know about the 
pilgrims themselves. The majority of them, like the merchant, the lawyer, the cook, the 
sailor, the ploughman, and the miller are ordinary people and each of them can be 
recognised as a real person with his or her own character. One of my favourite characters, 
for example, is the Wife of Bath. By the time she has finishedtelling the story we know her 
as a woman of very strong opinions who believes firmly in marriage - she has had five 
husbands, one after the other! It is equally clear that she believes firmly in the need to 
manage husbands strictly. In her story one of King Arthur's knights must correctly answer 
within one year the question 'What do women love most?' in order to save his life. An ugly 
http://www.anglik.net/oldenglish.htm
http://www.anglik.net/oldenglish.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canterbury_Tales
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zephyr
The History of English 
 
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old witch knows the answer ('To rule')and agrees to tell him if he marries her. He finally 
agrees, and at the marriage she becomes young and beautiful again. Of Chaucer's other 
poems, the most important are probably Troylus and Cryseyde (1375) and The Legend of 
Good Women (1385). 
A selection of excerpts Chaucer's work - in the original Old English!: 
The Wife of Bath's Tale 
'... He seeketh every house and every place 
where as he hopeth for to finde grace, 
To lerne what thing women loven most. 
But he ne coud arriven in no cost 
Where as he mighte find in this mattere 
Two creatures according with each other 
Some saiden women loven best richesse; 
Some said honour, some saide jolinesse, 
Some rich array, some saiden lust abedde, 
And ofte time to be widow and wedde, 
Some saide that our hearte is most esed 
Whan that we been y-flattered and y-plesed ...' 
 
The Miller's Tale 
'... fair was this yonge wyf, and ther-with-al 
As any weasele hir body gent and small. 
A girdle she werede barred all of silk 
An apron eek as whyt as morne milk 
Up-on hir loins full of many a gore, 
Whyt was hir smok and brouded al bifore ... 
Her filet brood of silk, and set ful hye: 
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And certainly she hadde a lecherous ye 
She was ful more blisful on to see 
than is the new pear tree 
There nis no man so wys, that could imagine, 
So gay a darling, or swich a wenche ...' 
 
Triolus and Criseyde 
'... For thy tak herte, and thenk, right as a knight, 
Thourgh love is broken alday every lawe, 
Display now sumwhat thy curage and thy might, 
Have mercy on thy-self, for any awe. 
Let not this wrecched wo thine herte gnaw, 
But manly set the worlde on six and sevene; 
And, if thou dye a martir, go to hevene.' 
 
Other important works of the Middle English period include: 
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight by an unknown author. This is, by any standards, one of 
the greatest early narrative poems in any European language. The story is of King Arthur 
and his knights of the round table. It tells of the adventures of Sir Gawain (one of King 
Arthur's knights) in a struggle against an enemy with magical powers as well as great 
strength and cunning. The same unknown author is also thought to have 
written Pearl and Patience two fine poems of the same period. Check back soon for a full-
page on the works of this anonymous poet! 
The Vision of Piers the Ploughman by William Langland (c.1330-1400). This poem written by 
a poor man describes the sorrows of the poor, and sadly tells, as in a dream, how most 
people prefer the false treasures of this world to the true treasures of heaven. 
Morte D'Arthur by Sir Thomas Mallory (died 1471). Eight seperate tales of King Arthur joined 
together to form one long story. The tales concern the search for the Holy Grail (the cup 
supposedly used by Christ at the last supper), King Arthur's battles against his enemies, 
and similar subjects. 
A good deal of Middle English prose is religious. Examples of which include: The Form of 
Perfect Living by Richard Rolle, and John Wycliffe's translations of the Bible. 
The History of English 
 
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APPENDIX 3 
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) 
 
Apart from the information recorded in the Stratford-Upon-Avon parish registers about 
William Shakespeare's birth as the third child of John Shakespeare and Mary Arden, his 
marriage to Ann Hathaway in 1582, the birth of their three children, and his death, most of 
what we know about his life is merely the guesswork of historians and biographers. 
However, Shakespeare probably did not have an academic education. He may have learned 
his craft in the theatre. From 1585 he seems to have been in London in several capacities 
connected with the theatre. In 1594 he joined a company of actors, and later became part 
owner of the Globe Theatre. But, most of this is uncertain. The only real evidence we have 
are his works and the references to them and their author, which we find in the work of 
contemporary and later writers. 
 
Some rather splendid Shakespeare lines: 
"To be, or not to be, that is the question" 
"To me, fair friend, you never can be old. For as you were when first your eye I eyed, such 
seems your beauty still" 
"The devil can cite scripture for his purpose" 
"O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo?" 
"With mirth and laughter let old wrinkles come" 
"Through tatterd clothes, small vices do appear. Robes and gowns hide all" 
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"All the world's a stage" 
"Have you not a moist eye, a dry hand, a yellow cheek, a white beard, a decreasing leg, an 
increasing belly? Is not your voice broken, your mind short, your chin double, your wit 
single, and every part about you blasted with antiquity" 
"If music be the food of love, play on" 
"Journeys end in lovers meeting" 
"All that glisters is not gold" 
"Your old virginity is like one of our French withered pears: it looks ill, it eats dryly" 
"He that is well paid is well satisfied" 
Oh, what a bitter thing it is to look into happiness through another man's eyes" 
"Such as we are made of, such we be" 
"The tartness of his face sours ripe grapes" 
"Of all base passions, fear is the most accursed" 
"Reason and love keep little company together now-a-days" 
"Friendship is constant in all other things, save in the office and affairs of love" 
"Nothing can come of nothing:" 
"Though this be madness, yet there is method in it" 
"My only love sprung from my only hate" 
"The web of our life is of a mingled yarn, good and ill together" 
"Love looks not with the eyes but with the mind" 
"In delay there lies no plenty" 
"He is not great who is not greatly good" 
"Time is the justice that examines all offenders" 
"Love sought is good, but given unsought is better" 
"By medicine life can be prolonged, yet death will seize the Doctor too" 
"Some cupid kills with arrows, some with traps" 
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"We may know what we are, but know not what we may be" 
"The course of true love never did run smooth" 
"So wise so young, they say do never live long" 
"Dost thou think because thou art virtuous there shall be no more cakes and ale?" 
"We are such stuff as dreams are made on" 
"Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon 
them" 
 
 
The Works of Shakespeare in Chronological Order 
Poetry: 
 Venus and Adonis 
The Rape of Lucrece 
A Lover's Complaint 
The Phoenix and the Turtle 
 
 
Plays: 
HenryVI, RichardIII, Titus Andronicus, Love's Labour Lost, The Gentlemen of Verona 
The Comedy of Errors, The Taming of the Shrew, Romeo and Juliet, A Midsummer Night's 
Dream 
Richard II, King John, The Merchant of Venice, Henry V, Much Ado About Nothing, 
Merry Wives of Windsor, As You Like It, Julius Caesar, Trylus and Cressida, Hamlet 
Twelfth Night, Measure for Measure, All's Well That Ends Well, Othello, King Lear 
Macbeth, Timon of Athens, Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus, Pericles, Cymbeline 
The Winter's Tale, The Tempest, Henry VIII 
The History of English 
 
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Short summaries of, and lines from, some of our favourite works: 
Romeo and Juliet (1594-95) 
The first of Shakespeare's great tragedies. The plot of this story: pure and tragic love,is 
known throughout the world. The deaths of Romeo and Juliet are in many ways necessary: 
their families are enemies, and death appears to be the only way out of their hopeless 
situation. The tragedy is deeply sad and moving. 
THE NURSE REMEMBERS JULIET'S AGE 
NURSE: Even or odd, of all the days of the year, 
Come Lammas-eve at night shall she be fourteen; 
That shall she, marry; I remember it well. 
'Tis since the earthquake now eleven years; 
And she was weaned, i never shall forget it, 
Of all the days of the year, upon that day ... 
 
The Merchant of Venice (1594-97) 
In this play Antonio, a merchant, borrows money from the jew, Shylock, to help his friend 
Bassanio, who wants to marry therich and beautiful Portia. Shylock hates Antonio and only 
agrees to lend the money on condition that, if it is not repaid at the right time, Antonio shall 
pay a pound of flesh. When Antonio's ships are wrecked, and to everyone's surprise he 
cannot pay the money, Shylock demands his pound of flesh. the case is taken to court, and 
Antonio has no hope. then suddenly Portia, dressed as a lawyer, appears in court. At first 
she tries to persuade Shylock to have mercy, but she does not succeed, even with the 
famous speech about mercy: 
It (mercy) droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven 
Upon the place beneath; it is twice blessed: 
It blesseth him that gives and him that takes 
'T is mightiest in the mightiest; it becomes 
The throned monarch better than his crown. 
Then Portia herself becomes hard: Shylock may have his flesh - but not one drop of blood; 
there is nothing about blood in the agreement. As Shylock cannot take the flesh without 
spilling some blood, Antonio is saved. 
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Macbeth (1605-06) 
In Macbeth the hero, Macbeth, is told my three old witches that he will receive high honours 
and then become king. The high honours come, and he decides to help fate to make him 
king. King Duncan stays with him at his castle, and he and his wife, Lady Macbeth, murder 
the king; but Duncan's sons escape. One of the sons, Malcolm, brings an army against 
Macbeth, who is killed. Lady Macbeth is already dead. here are some words of Macbeth 
when he hears of her death: 
 She should have died hereafter; 
There would have been a time for such a word. 
Tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow 
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day 
To the last syllable of recorded time; 
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools 
the way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle! 
Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player, 
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage 
And then is heard no more; it is a tale 
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, 
Signifying nothing. 
Twelfth Night (1600) 
This play has been called the perfection of english comedy. The whole play is alive with 
humour and action. The Duke of Orsino believes that he is in love with the Lady Olivia, but 
he is more in love with love. "If music be the food of love," he says at the beginning of the 
play, "play on." Like several other of his plays there are twins, and they cause great 
confusion when the girl dresses like her brother. Two other characters, Sir Toby Belch and 
Sir Andrew Aguecheek provide much amusement with their foolish plans and their drinking. 
The play contains a number of songs. Here is one: 
O, mistress mine, where are you roaming? 
O, stay and hear; your true love's coming, 
That can sing both high and low. 
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Trip no further, pretty sweeting; 
Journeys end in lovers meeting, 
Every wise man's son doth know. 
What is love? 'T is not hereafter; 
Present mirth hath present laughter; 
What's to come is still unsure. 
In delay there lies no plenty; 
Then come and kiss me, sweet and twenty, 
Youth's a stuff will not endure. 
 
Hamlet 
Some of Shakespeare's most famous lines are from this play: 
To be, or not to be, that is the question: 
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer 
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, 
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles 
And by opposing end them? 
To die: to sleep; 
No more; and, by a sleep to say we end 
The heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks 
That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation 
Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep; 
To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub; 
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come 
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil, 
Must give us pause. 
 
Othello 
I had rather be a toad 
O curse of marriage! 
That we can call these delicate creatures ours, 
And not their appetites! I had rather be a toad 
And live upon the vapour of a dungeon 
Than keep a corner in the thing I love 
For others' uses. 
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Early Modern English 
From Paradise Lost by John Milton, 1667: 
Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, Heavenly Muse, that on the secret top 
Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire 
That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed, 
In the beginning how the Heavens and Earth 
Rose out of chaos: or if Sion hill 
Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flowed 
Fast by the oracle of God, I thence 
Invoke thy aid to my adventurous song, 
That with no middle Flight intends to soar 
Above the Aonian mount, whyle it pursues 
Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme. 
Modern English 
Taken from Oliver Twist, 1838, by Charles Dickens: 
The evening arrived: the boys took their places; the master in his cook's uniform stationed 
himself at the copper; his pauper assistants ranged themselves behind him; the gruel was 
served out, and a long grace was said over the short commons. The gruel disappeared, the 
boys whispered each other and winked at Oliver, while his next neighbours nudged him. 
Child as he was, he was desperate with hunger and reckless with misery. He rose from the 
table, and advancing, basin and spoon in hand, to the master, said, somewhat alarmed at 
his own temerity— 
"Please, sir, I want some more." 
The master was a fat, healthy man, but he turned very pale. He gazed in stupefied 
astonishment on the small rebel for some seconds, and then clung for support to the 
copper. The assistants were paralysed with wonder, and the boys with fear. 
"What!" said the master at length, in a faint voice. 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradise_Lost
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Milton
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Twist
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dickens
The History of English 
 
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"Please, sir," replied Oliver, "I want some more." 
The master aimed a blow at Oliver's head with the ladle, pinioned him in his arms, and 
shrieked aloud for the beadle. 
 
APPENDIX 4 
 
 
Chronology of Events in the History of English: 600 AD – 1100 The Pre-
English Period 
 http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/chron.htmlpre-600 A.D. 
 
THE PRE-ENGLISH PERIOD 
ca. 3000 B.C. 
(or 6000 B.C?) 
Proto-Indo-European spoken in Baltic area. 
(or Anatolia?) 
ca. 1000 B.C. 
After many migrations, the various branches of Indo-European have become distinct. Celtic 
becomes most widespread branch of I.E. in Europe; Celtic peoples inhabit what is now 
Spain, France, Germany, Austria, eastern Europe, and the British Isles. 
55 B.C. Beginning of Roman raids on British Isles. - First Roman incursions of recognition, 
under 
the command of Julius Caesar. 
43 A.D. Roman occupation of Britain. Roman colony of "Britannia" established. Eventually, 
many Celtic Britons become Romanized. (Others continually rebel). The Romans founded 
Londinium on the banks of the Thames. 
200 B.C.-200 A.D. 
Germanic peoples move down from Scandinavia and spread over Central Europe in 
successive waves. Supplant Celts. Come into contact (at times antagonistic, at times 
commercial)with northward-expanding empire of Romans. 
Early 5th 
century. 
Roman Empire collapses. Romans pull out of Britain and other colonies, attempting to shore 
up defense on the home front; but it's useless. Rome sacked by Goths. 
Germanic tribes on the continent continue migrations west and south; consolidate into ever 
larger units. Those taking over in Rome call themselves "Roman emperors" even though the 
imperial administration had relocated to Byzantium in the 300s. The new Germanic rulers 
adopted the Christianity of the late Roman state, and began what later evolved into the not-
very-Roman "Holy Roman Empire". 
ca. 410 A.D. 
First Germanic tribes arrive in England. 
410-600 
Settlement of most of Britain by Germanic peoples (Angles, Saxons, Jutes, some Frisians) 
speaking West Germanic dialects descended from Proto-Germanic. These dialects are 
distantly related to Latin, but also have a sprinkling of Latin borrowings due to earlier 
cultural contact with the Romans on the continent. 
432 AD - St. Patrick begins his mission to Christianize Ireland. 
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/chron.html
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465 AD - Alleged date of birth of the legendary King Arthur. 
Celtic peoples, most of whom are Christianized, are pushed increasingly (despite 
occasional violent uprisings) into the marginal areas of Britain: Ireland, Scotland, Wales. 
Anglo-Saxons, originally sea-farers, settle down as farmers, exploiting rich English 
farmland. 
By 600 A.D., the Germanic speech of England comprises dialects of a language distinct 
from the continental Germanic languages. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chronology of Events in the History of English: 600 AD – 1100 The Old English 
Period 
 http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/chron.htmlpre-600 A.D. 
 
 
ca. 600-1100 
THE OLD ENGLISH, OR ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD 
600-800 
Rise of three great kingdoms politically unifying large areas: Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex. 
Supremacy passes from one kingdom to another in that order. 
ca. 600 
Christianity introduced among Anglo-Saxons by St. Augustine, missionary from Rome. Irish 
missionaries also spread Celtic form of Christianity to mainland Britain. 
 
787 - 1000 AD - Attacks Scandinavians (Vikings) . 
793 
First serious Viking incursions. Lindisfarne monastery sacked. 
800 
Charlemagne, king of the Franks, crowned Holy Roman Emperor; height of Frankish power 
in Europe. Wessex kings aspire to similar glory; want to unite all England, and if possible the 
rest of mainland Britain, under one crown (theirs). 
840s-870s 
Viking incursions grow worse and worse. Large organized groups set up permanent 
encampments on English soil. Slay kings of Northumbria and East Anglia, subjugate king of 
Mercia. Storm York (Anglo-Saxon Eoforwic) and set up a Viking kingdom (Jorvik). Wessex 
stands alone as the last Anglo-Saxon kingdom in Britain. 
871 
Vikings move against Wessex. In six pitched battles, the English hold their own, but fail to 
repel attackers decisively. In the last battle, the English king is mortally wounded. His young 
brother, Alfred, who had distinguished himself during the battles, is crowned king. 
871-876 
Alfred builds a navy. The kings of Denmark and Norway have come to view England as ripe 
for the plucking and begin to prepare an attack. 
876 
Three Danish kings attack Wessex. Alfred prevails, only to be attacked again a few months 
later. His cause looks hopeless. 
878 
Decisive battle at Edington; Alfred and a large contingent of desperate Anglo-Saxons make 
a last stand (they know what awaits them if they fail). Alfred leads the Anglo-Saxons to 
decisive victory; blockades a large Viking camp nearby, starving them into submission; and 
exacts homage from the kings of Denmark and an oath that the Danes will leave Wessex 
forever. 
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/chron.html
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Under Alfred's terms of victory, England is partitioned into a part governed by the Anglo-
Saxons (under the house of Wessex) and a part governed by the Scandinavians (some of 
whom become underlords of Alfred), divided by Watling Street. 15 years of peace follow; 
Alfred reigns over peaceful and prosperous kingdom. First called "Alfred the Great". 
925 
Athelstan crowned king. Height of Anglo-Saxon power. Athelstan reconquers York from the 
Vikings, and even conquers Scotland and Wales, heretofore ruled by Celts. Continues 
Alfred's mission of making improvements in government, education, defense, and other 
social institutions. 
10th century 
Danes and English continue to mix peacefully, and ultimately become indistinguishable. 
Many Scandinavian loanwords enter the language; English even borrows pronouns 
like they, them, their. 
978 
Aethelred "the Unready" becomes king at 11 years of age. 
991 
Aethelred has proved to be a weak king, who does not repel minor Viking attacks. Vikings 
experiment with a major incursion at Maldon in Essex. After losing battle, Aethelred bribes 
them to depart with 10,000 pounds of silver. Mistake. Sveinn, king of Denmark, takes note. 
994-1014 
After 20 years of continuous battles and bribings, and incompetent and cowardly military 
leadership and governance, the English capitulate to king Sveinn of Denmark (later also of 
Norway). Sveinn sets up a Norse court at the new capital of Viking England, Jorvik (a city 
which survives as York, capital of the English county of Yorkshire). Aethelred flees to 
Normandy, across the channel. 
1014 
Sveinn's young son Cnut (or Canute) crowned king of England. Cnut decides to follow in 
Alfred's footsteps, aiming for a peaceful and prosperous kingdom. Encourages Anglo-Saxon 
culture and literature. Even marries Aethelred's widow Emma, brought over from 
Normandy. 
1050s 
After Cnut's death his sons bicker over the kingdom. When they die without issue, the 
kingdom passes back to the house of Wessex. The new king is Edward, son of Aethelred 
and Emma, who had been raised in exile in Normandy. Edward is a pious, monkish man 
called "The Confessor". 
Edward has strong partiality for his birthplace, Normandy, a duchy populated by the 
descendents of Romanized Vikings. Especially fond of young Duke William of Normandy. 
Edward is dominated by his Anglo-Saxon earls, especially powerful earl Godwin. Godwin's 
son, Harold Godwinson, becomes de facto ruler as Edward takes less and less interest in 
governing. 
1066 
January. Edward dies childless, apparently recommending Harold Godwinson as 
successor. Harold duly chosen by Wessex earls, as nearest of kin to the crown is only an 
infant. Mercian and Northumbrian earls are hesitant to go along with choice of Harold. 
William of Normandy claims that Harold once promised to support HIM as successor to 
Edward. Harold denies it. William prepares to mount an invasion. Ready by summer, but the 
winds are unfavorable for sailing. 
September. Harald Hardradi of Norway decides this is a good time to attack England. 
Harold Godwinson rushes north and crushes Hardradi's army at Stamford Bridge. 
The winds change, and William puts to sea. Harold rushes back down to the south coast to 
try to repel William's attack. Mercians and Northumbrians are supposed to march down to 
help him, but never do. They don't realize what's in store for them. 
October. Harold is defeated and killed at the battle of Hastings. 
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December. William of Normandy crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey on 
Christmas 
 
 
 
 
 
Chronology of Events in the History of English: 600 AD – 1100 The Middle English 
Period 
 http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/chron.htmlpre-600 A.D. 
 
 
ca. 1100-1500 
THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD 
1066-1075 
William crushes uprisings of Anglo-Saxon earls and peasants with a brutal hand; in Mercia 
and Northumberland, uses (literal) scorched earth policy, decimating population and laying 
waste the countryside. Anglo-Saxon earls and freemen deprived of property; many 
enslaved. William distributesproperty and titles to Normans (and some English) who 
supported him. Many of the English hereditary titles of nobility date from this period. 
English becomes the language of the lower classes (peasants and slaves). Norman French 
becomes the language of the court and propertied classes. The legal system is redrawn 
along Norman lines and conducted in French. Churches, monasteries gradually filled with 
French-speaking functionaries, who use French for record-keeping. After a while, the 
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is no longer kept up. Authors write literature in French, not English. 
For all practical purposes English is no longer a written language. 
Bilingualism gradually becomes more common, especially among those who deal with both 
upper and lower classes. Growth of London as a commercial center draws many from the 
countryside who can fill this socially intermediate role. 
1204 
William Caxton brings a printing press to England from Germany. Publishes the first printed 
book in England. Beginning of the long process of standardization of spelling. 
 
The English kings lose the duchy of Normandy to French kings. England is now the only 
home of the Norman English. 
1205 
First book in English appears since the conquest. 
1258 
First royal proclamation issued in English since the conquest. 
ca. 1300 
Increasing feeling on the part of even noblemen that they are English, not French. Nobility 
begin to educate their children in English. French is taught to children as a foreign language 
rather than used as a medium of instruction. Robert of Gloucester makes reference to 
English as a language still spoken in Britain only by " low people . " 
1337 
Start of the Hundred Years' War between England and France. 
1362 
English becomes official language of the law courts. More and more authors are writing in 
English. English is used for the first time at the opening of the English Parliament. 
ca. 1380 
Chaucer writes the Canterbury tales in Middle English. the language shows French 
influence in thousands of French borrowings. The London dialect, for the first time, begins 
to be recognized as the "Standard", or variety of English taken as the norm, for all England. 
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/chron.html
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Other dialects are relegated to a less prestigious position, even those that earlier served as 
standards (e.g. the Wessex dialect of southwest England). 
1474 
 
 
 
 
 
Chronology of Events in the History of English: 1500 The Modern English Period 
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/chron.html 
 
 
1500-1650 
Early Modern English develops. The Great Vowel Shift gradually takes place. There is a 
large influx of Latin and Greek borrowings and neologisms. 
 1516 - Henry VIII created the first postal system in England. 
 1558 - Start of the reign of Elizabeth I (daughter of Henry VIII) and the Elizabethan 
era, a period characterized by a substantial increase in English vocabulary and the 
monumental literary works of Spenser, Shakespeare and Jonson. 
 1564 - Birth of William Shakespeare. 
 1603 - Death of Elizabeth I and the end of the Elizabethan period. 
 
1611 
King James Bible published, which has influenced English writing down to the present day. 
1616 
Shakespeare dies. Recognized even then as a genius of the English language. Wove native 
and borrowed words together in amazing and pleasing combinations. 
 1620 - Pilgrims arrive in North America and established the Plymouth Colony. 
1700s 
Classical period of English literature. The fashion for borrowing Latin and Greek words, and 
coining new words with Latin and Greek morphemes, rages unabated. Elaborate syntax 
matches elaborate vocabulary (e.g. writings of Samuel Johnson). 
The rise of English purists, e.g. Jonathan Swift, who decried the 'degeneration' of English 
and sought to 'purify' it and fix it forever in unchanging form. 
17th-19th centuries 
British imperialism. Borrowings from languages around the world. 
- Industrial Revolution, which leveraged the economic power of England, allowing the 
expansion of British colonialism and therefore the English language in the 19th century 
 1776 - Declaration of Independence of the United States. 
 1890 - 1920 - The rise of the British Empire. 
Development of American English. By 19th century, a standard variety of American English 
develops, based on the dialect of the Mid-Atlantic states. 
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/chron.html
The History of English 
 
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Establishment of English in Australia, South Africa, and India, among other British colonial 
outposts. 
19th century 
Recognition (and acceptance) by linguistic scholars of the ever-changing nature of 
language. Discovery of the Indo-European language family. Late in century: Recognition 
that all languages are fundamentally the same in nature; no "primitive" or "advanced" 
languages. 
19th-20th centuries 
Scientific and Industrial Revolutions. Development of technical vocabularies. Within a few 
centuries, English has gone from an island tongue to a world language, following the 
fortunes of those who speak it. 
20th century 
Communications revolution. Spread of a few languages at the expense of many. Languages 
of the world begin to die out on a large scale as mastery of certain world languages 
becomes necessary for survival. Classification and description of non-Indo-European 
languages by linguists continues, in many cases in a race against the clock. 
1945-? 
American political, economic, military supremacy. Borrowing patterns continue. English 
has greater impact than ever on other languages, even those with more native speakers. 
Becomes most widely studied second language, and a scientific lingua franca. 
By the 1990s, preferences begin to shift in many places from British to American English as 
the selected standard for second language acquisition. The twin influences of British and 
American broadcasting media make the language accessible to more and more people. 
Hollywood and the pop music industry help make English an irresistible medium for the 
transmission of popular culture. Even long-established European cultures begin to feel 
linguistically and culturally threatened, as English comes into use in more and more 
spheres and large numbers of English borrowings enter their languages. 
 
New waves of immigrants to the U.S. Linguistic diversity increases where the newcomers 
settle, but immigrants repeat the pattern of earlier settlers and lose their language within a 
generation or two. The culture at large remains resolutely monolingual (despite the fears of 
cultural purists). But as ever, the language continues to absorb loanwords, continually 
enriched by the many tongues of the newcomers to these shores.