ABDOMINAL_TRAINING_1

Prévia do material em texto

Functional load abdominal
training: part 1
C. M. Norris
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respect to both training effectiveness, and injury
prevention, opening abdominal training to
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abdominal muscles tend to emphasize strength
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categories are shown in Box 1. The structural
and functional characteristics of the two muscle
categories make the stabilisors better equipped
may be considered as the prime movers
*c 2001 Harcourt Publishe
Original Research
B
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.
C. M. Norris
MSc MCSP,
Barkers Lane, Sale,
Cheshire M336RP,
UK
Correspondence to:
C.M.Norris.Tel.: 0161
972 0512; E-mail:
cnorris500@AOL.
com
ox 1 Muscle categories
tabilisors Mobilisors
Deeply placed . Super®cial
Aponeurotic . Fusiform
Slow twitch nature . Fast twitch nature
Active in endurance activities . Active in power activities
jects from a wider range of ®tness levels.
uscle imbalance
w concepts of muscle training
ular training programmes for the
for postural holding with an `anti gravity'
function. The mobilisors are better set up for
rapid ballistic movements and are often referred
to as `task muscles'. In the case of the
abdominal muscles (Box 2), the rectus
abdominis and lateral ®bres of external oblique
2001 Harcourt Publishers Ltd
troduction
dominal training is a popular aspect of any
ess programme. Recreational ®tness
ivities tend to emphasize the cosmetic
ects of training, seeking a `¯at stomach' or
p waist'. Sport-based programmes on the
er hand often stress the importance of a
ng mid-section to enhance sports
formance and reduce the risk of back injury.
h of these approaches hold merit for
ferent target populations. The aim of this
icle is to review abdominal training with
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s article reviews the principles of muscle imbalan
stabilisor muscle categories are described and m
mples of individual muscle tests to determine m
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doi :10.1054/ptsp.2000.0032,
Selectively weaken
Poor recruitment, may be inhibited
Activated at low resistance levels (30±40% MVC)
Lengthen
e relevant to abdominal training. Mobilisor
uscle length adaptation is discussed.
scle lengthening and muscle shortening are
integrated into abdominal training.
using the muscles as prime movers. Sit-up
ions with or without rotation, and leg raise
rcises often form the bases of many
grammes. However, one of the most
portant functions of the abdominal muscles
o stabilize the spine (Norris 1995) a feature
en neglected, especially in sport.
wing to anatomical, biomechanical and
ysiological features muscles may be
egorized into two groups, stabilisors and
bilisors (Richardson et al. 1992). The main
ferences between these two muscle
Physical Therapy In Sport (2001) 2, 29±39 29
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. Preferential recruitment
. Shorten and tighten
. Activated at higher resistance levels
(above 40% MVC)
(m
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(Miller & Medeiros 1987), and are critically
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amount of type (I) ®bre atrophy. Atrophy is
largely related to change in use relative to
normal function, with the initial percentage of
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30 Physical Thera
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Mobilisors
. Rectus abdominis
nal oblique . Lateral ®bres of external oblique
. Erector spinae
volved in stabilization (Cresswell et al. 1994,
odges & Richardson 1996).
Further categorization may be made into
rimary and secondary stabilisors. The primary
abilisors are those muscles which cannot
reate signi®cant joint movements, such as the
ulti®dus and transversus abdominis. These
uscles act only to stabilize. The secondary
abilisors, such as the internal oblique, have
xcellent stabilizing capacity, but may also
ove joints. Taking this categorization further,
obilisors could be termed `tertiary stabilisors'
that they primarily move the joint, but can
abilize in times of extreme need, an example
eing muscle spasm in the presence of pain. In
is situation, however, stability has moved on
become rigidity and does not allow normal
ovement patterns.
uscle length adaptation
uscle adaptation to reduced usage has been
xtensively studied using immobilized limbs
ppell 1990). The greatest tissue changes are
obilisors) of trunk ¯exion, while the internal
blique and transversus abdominis are the
ajor stabilizers of trunk movement in general.
hese muscles are the only two which pass
om the anterior trunk to the lumbar spine
in Sport
Box 2 Trunk muscle categorization
Stabilisors
Primary Secondary
. Transversus abdominis . Internal oblique
. Multi®dus . Medial ®bres of exter
. Quadratus lumborum
een to occur within the ®rst few days of disuse.
trength loss has been shown to be as much as
% per day for the ®rst 8 days, with minimal
ss after this period (Muller 1970). The reaction
f type (I) and (II) muscle ®bres differs
onsiderably, an important factor in the muscle
balance process. Type (I) ®bres show a
reater reduction in size and loss of total ®bre
umbers within the muscle than type (II). In
ct, the number of type (II) ®bres actually
creases demonstrating a process of selective
trophy of the type (I) ®bres (Templeton et al.
984). However, not all muscles show an equal
py in Sport (2001) 2, 29±39
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pe (I) ®bres that a muscle contains being a
ood indicator of likely atrophy pattern.
Selective changes in muscle may also occur as
result of training (Richardson & Bullock 1986).
the knee, rapid ¯exion-extension actions have
een shown to selectively increase activity in
e rectus femoris and hamstrings (biarticular)
ut not in the vasti (monoarticular). In this
articular study, comparing speeds of 758/s
nd 1958/s, mean muscle activity for the rectus
moris increased from 23.0 uV to 69.9 uV. In
ontrast, muscle activity for the Vastus medialis
creased from 35.5 uV to only 42.3 uV (Fig. 1).
he pattern of muscle activity was also
oticeably different in this study after training.
t the fastest speeds the rectus femoris and
amstrings displayed phasic (on and off)
ctivity while the vastus medialis showed a
nic (continuous) pattern (Fig. 2).
Even in the more functional closed kinetic
hain position similar changes have been found
g & Richardson 1990). A 4-week training
eriod of rapid plantar ¯exion in standing gave
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*c 2001 Harcourt Publishers Ltd
195o/sec60
50
40
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Vastus
lateralis
Rectus
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Vastus
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Lateral
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ig. 1 Changes in muscle activity with increases in speed.
eproduced from Norris 1994, with kind permission from
utterworth Heinemann.
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incorporating sit-up type actions (but not
hollowing) showed an increase in rectus
abdominis activity and a reduction in that of
the internal oblique (Fig. 3).
Stabilisor muscles tend to `weaken' (sag)
whereas mobilisors tend to `shorten' (tighten).
The length tension relationship of a muscle
dictates that a stretched muscle, where the actin
and myosin ®laments are pulled apart, can
exert less force than a muscle at normal resting
length. Where the stretch is maintained,
however, this short term response (reduced force
output) changes to a long-term adaptation. The
muscle tries to move its actin and myosin
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Functional load abdominal training
HamstringsRectus femoris
Vestus medialis
Knee angle
45o
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Fig. 2 Pattern of muscle activity during rapid alternating
knee ¯exion±extension. Biarticular muscles are phasic,
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pro
ni®cant increases in jump height re¯ecting
trocnemius activity (mobilisor) but also
ni®cant losses of static function of the soleus
bilisor).
n the trunk, recruitment patterns of the
ominal muscles have also been shown to
nge depending on the type of training used
Sullivan et al. 1998). Subjects followed a
week training programme involving either
ominal hollowing or gym exercise including
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noarticular muscles are tonic. Reproduced from Norris
4, with kind permission from Butterworth
nemann.
up type activities. In the hollowing group
G activity for the internal oblique increased,
ile that of rectus abdominis remained
tively unchanged. Those subjects
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First block of each muscle group 
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3 First block of each muscle group shows Emg activity bef
gramme.
ments closer together, and to do this, it must
more sarcomeres to the ends of the muscle
g. 4). This adaptation, known as an increase
serial sarcomere number (SSN), changes the
ure of the length tension curve itself.
ong-term elongation of this type causes a
scle to lengthen by the addition of up to 20%
re sarcomeres (Gossman et al. 1992). The
gth±tension curve of an adaptively
gthened muscle moves to the right (Fig. 5).
e peak tension such a muscle can produce in
laboratory situation is up to 35% greater
n that of a normal length muscle (Williams
oldspink 1978). However, this peak tension
urs at approximately the position where the
scle has been immobilized (point A, Fig. 5).
he strength of the lengthened muscle is
ted with the joint in mid-range or inner-
ge (point B, Fig. 5), as is common clinical
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Physical Therapy In Sport (2001) 2, 29±39 31
available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
shows Emg activity before
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32 Physical Thera
Physical Therapy
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ig. 4 Muscle length adaptation. (A) Normal muscle
ngth. (B) Stretched muscle-®laments move apart and
ractice, the muscle cannot produce its peak
nsion, and so the muscle appears `weak'.
In the laboratory situation the lengthened
uscle will return to its optimal length within
pproximately 1 week if placed in a shortened
osition once more (Goldspink 1992).
linically, restoration of optimal length may be
chieved by either immobilizing the muscle in
s physiological rest position (Kendall et al.
993), and/or exercising it in its shortened
nner range) position Sahrmann 1990).
nhancement of strength is not the priority in
is situation, indeed the load on the muscle
ay need to be reduced to ensure correct
lignment of the various body segments and
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uscle loses tension. (C) Adaptation by increase in serial
rcomere number (SSN), normal ®lament alignment
stored, muscle length permanently increased.
eproduced from Norris 1994 with kind permission from
utterworth Heinemann.
A
B
Shortened
Control
Lengthened
10
8
6
4
2
80 90 100 110
% Muscle belly length of control
A
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te
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(g
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ig. 5 Effects of immobilizing a muscle in shortened and
ngthened positions. The normal length±tension curve
ontrol) moves to the right for a lengthened muscle,
iving it a peak tension some 35% greater than the
ntrol (point A). When tested in an inner range position
owever (point B), the muscle tests weaker than normal.
eproduced from Norris 1994, with kind permission from
utterworth Heinemann.
orrect performance of the relevant movement
attern.
Serial sarcomere number (SSN) may be
sponsible partly for changes in muscle
trength without parallel changes in
ypertrophy (Koh 1995). SSN exhibits marked
lasticity and may be in¯uenced by a number
f factors. For example, immobilization of
bbit plantar¯exors in a lengthened position
howed an 8% increase in SSN in only 4 days,
hile applying electrical simulation to increase
uscle force showed an even greater increase
illiams et al. 1986). Stretching a muscle
ppears to have a greater effect on SSN than
oes immobilization in a shortened position.
ollowing immobilization in a shortened
osition for 2 weeks, the mouse Soleus has been
hown to decrease SSN by almost 20%
illiams 1990). However, stretching for just
h per day in this study not only eliminated
e SSN reduction, but actually produced
early a 10% increase in SSN. An eccentric
imulus appears to cause a greater adaptation
f SSN than a concentric stimulus. Morgan and
ynn 1994 subjected rats to uphill or downhill
unning, and showed SSN in the vastus
termedius to be 12% greater in the eccentric
ained rats after 1 week. It has been suggested
at if SSN adaptation occurs in humans,
trength training may produce such a change if
were performed at a joint angle different from
at at which the maximal force is produced
uring normal activity (Koh 1995).
Rather than being weak, the lengthened
uscle lacks the ability to maintain a full
ontraction within inner range. This shows up
linically as a difference between the active and
assive inner ranges. If the joint is passively
laced in full anatomical inner range, the
ubject is unable to hold the position.
ometimes the position cannot be held at all,
ut more usually the contraction cannot be
ustained, indicating a lack in slow twitch
ndurance capacity.
Clinically, reduction of muscle length is seen
s the enhanced ability to hold an inner range
ontraction. This may or may not represent a
duction in SSN, but is a required functional
provement in postural control. Muscle
hortening has been shown in the dorsi¯exors
f horseriders. Clearly this position is not held
ermanently as with splinting, but rather shows
*c 2001 Harcourt Publishers Ltd
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muscle (Fig. 7). This alteration in alignment
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ertically aligned to the pubis (Fig. 8). In the
rdotic posture, the pelvis tilts forwards, an
ignment which is associated with lengthening
f the abdominal muscles (especially rectus
dominis) and gluteals combined with
ortening of the hip ¯exors, the so called
elvic crossed syndrome' (Janda & Schmid
80). Individual muscle tests are used to assess
e degree of muscle length change. The
homas test may be used to measure hip ¯exor
ghtness (Fig. 9) while inner range holding of
e gluteals in this case is used to assess
rcomere adaptation of these muscles (Fig. 10).
Imbalance also leads to a lack of accurate
segmental control. The combination of stiffness
ypo¯exibility) in one body segment and
xity (hyper¯exibility) in an adjacent body
gment leads to the establishment of relative
exibility (White & Sahramann 1994). In a chain
f movement, the body seems to take the path
f least resistance, with the more ¯exible
gment always contributing more to the total
*c 2001 Harcourt Publishe
g.
o
ows weight bearing stress onto a smaller
ion of the joint surface increasing pressure
unit area ( focal loading).Further, the inert
ues on the shortened (closed) side of the
t will contract over time. These alignment
nges are highlighted during the assessment
static posture in standing and sitting
ecially. Taking pelvic alignment during
(h
la
se
¯
o
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se
raining response. Following pregnancy, SSN
reases in the rectus abdominis in
bination with diastasis. Again, length of the
scle gradually reduces in the months
lowing childbirth. Inner range training then
ikely to shorten a lengthened muscle
ldspink 1996).
sessment and correction of muscle
balance
uctural and functional alterations of muscles
ich occur as part of the imbalance process
w as three important signs (Fig. 6). Firstly,
tening of the mobilisor (two joint) muscles
secondly, loss of endurance (holding) within
er range for the stabilisor (single joint)
scles. These two changes are used as tests
the degree of muscle imbalance present.
he combination of length and tension
nges alters muscle pull around a joint and
may draw the joint out of alignment.
anges in body segment alignment and the
lity to perform movements which dissociate
body segment from another forms the bases
the third type of test used when assessing
scle imbalance.
he mixture of tightness and weakness seen
the muscle imbalance process alters body
ment alignment and changes the
ilibrium point of a joint. Normally, the
al resting tone of agonist and antagonist
scles allows the joint to take up a balanced
ting position where the joint surfaces are
nly loaded and the inert tissues of the joint
not excessively stressed. However, if the
scles on one side of a joint are tight and the
osing muscles are lax, the joint will be
lled out of alignment towards the tight
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nding as an example which is highly relevant
abdominal training, the lordotic posture is
which combines muscles lengthening and
rtening. In an optimal posture (Kendal et al.
mo
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doi :10.1054/ptsp.2000.0032,
3) the pelvis should be level such that the
erior superior iliac spine is horizontally
ned to the posterior superior iliac spine and
Functional load abdominal training
Tightness
(mobilisor muscles)
Poor inner range endurance,
leading to lengthening
(stability muscles)
Change in body segment alignment
(owing to muscle imbalance)
6 Muscle alteration as part of the imbalance
cess.
vement range.
igure 11 shows a toe touching movement.
e two areas of interest with relation to
tive ¯exibility are the hamstrings and
Physical Therapy In Sport (2001) 2, 29±39 33
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34 Physical Thera
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mbar spine tissues. As we ¯ex forwards,
ovement should occur through a combination
f anterior pelvic tilt and lumbar spine ¯exion.
S
m
b
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will always occur at the lumbar spine. Relative
¯exibility in this case makes the toe touching
e
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ig. 7 Muscle imbalance altering joint mechanics: (A) symmet
mbalance) ± joint alignment poor; (C) joint surface degener
999), The Complete Guide to Stretching, published by A &
shoulder
joint
through ear
cervical vertebrae
lumbar vertebrae
centre of knee joint
ankle bone
(lateral malleolus)
pelvic
crest
pubis
hip joint
ig. 8 Optimal postural alignment. Reproduced with kind
ermission from Norris (1999), The Complete Guide to
tretching, published by A & C Black Ltd.#A & C Black Ltd.
xercise ineffective as a hamstring stretch unless
e trunk muscles are tightened to stabilize the
mbar spine at the same time.
runk stability
ack of stability (instability) of the lumbar spine
ust be contrasted with hypermobility. In both
onditions the range of motion is greater than
ormal. However, instability is present when
ubjects often have tight hamstrings and far
ore lax lumbar tissues due to excessive
ending (lumbar ¯exion) as part of everyday
ctivities. During this ¯exion action, greater
ovement and, therefore, greater tissue strain
rical muscle tone ± normal joint; (B) unequal muscle pull
ation. Reproduced with kind permission from Norris
C. Black Ltd. # A & C Black Ltd.
ere is `an excessive range of abnormal
ovement for which there is no protective
uscular control'. With hypermobility, stability
provided because the `excessive range of
ovement . . . has complete muscular control'
aitland 1986). The essential feature of
tability is, therefore, the ability of the body to
ontrol the whole range of motion of a joint, in
is case the lumbar spine.
When the lumbar spine demonstrates
stability, there is a failure to maintain correct
ertebral alignment. The unstable segment
hows decreased stiffness (resistance to
ending) and as a consequence movement is
creased even under minor loads. Both the
uality and quantity of motion is therefore
ltered. Clinically, with reference to the lumbar
pine, this description of instability means that
ere is no damage to the spinal cord or nerve
*c 2001 Harcourt Publishers Ltd
roots, and no incapacitating deformity.
However, because movement is excessive, pain
sensitive structures may be either stretched or
compressed and in¯ammation may occur
(Kirkaldy-Willis 1990, Panjabi 1992).
To maintain spinal stability, three interrelated
systems have been proposed (Fig. 12). Passive
support is provided by inert tissues, while
active support is from the contractile tissues.
Sensory feedback from both systems provides
coordination via the neural control centres
(Panjabi 1992). Importantly, where the stability
*c 2001 Harcourt Publishers Ltd
doi :10.1054/ptsp.2000.0032,
Functional load abdominal training
Fig. 9 The Thomas test. The subject is positioned at the
end of the treatment couch. His / her spine is passively
¯exed by bringing the knees to the chest. One knee is
held to the chest to maintain the pelvic position while
the other is lowered. Optimal alignment occurs when the
femur is horizontal and tibia vertical (A). If the femur is
held above the horizontal, hip ¯exor tightness is
indicated. Extending the knee will take the stretch off
rectus femoris (B), if the knee then drops down, tightness
in the iliopsoas is present. The position of the tibia in the
frontal plant indicates the presence of hip rotation
requiring further examination (C). Reproduced from
Norris 1994, with kind permission from Butterworth
Heinemann.
Fig.
full
hol
the
seco
awa
End
ma
len
(A),
me
per
10 Inner range holding tests. The limb is taken to
passive inner range and the subject is instructed to
d this position. Optimal endurance is indicated when
full inner range position can be held for 10±20
nds. Muscle lengthening is present if the limb drops
y from the inner range position immediately.
urance is poor if the inner range position is
intained for less than 10 seconds. Tests for possible
gthened muscles around the hip include the illopsoas
Physical Therapy In Sport (2001) 2, 29±39 35
available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
gluteus maximus (B), and posterior ®bres of gluteus
dius (C). Reproduced from Norris 1994 with kind
mission from Butterworth Heinemann.
p
sy
o
to
th
g
pain and improve function by restoring back
stability through exercise. Such improvement
may be accomplished by augmenting both the
active and neural control systems. Simply
developing muscle strength is insuf®cient.
Moreover, many popular strength exercises for
th
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36 Physical Thera
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ig. 11 Relative ¯exibility in the body. (A) Tighter
amstrings, more lax spinal tissues. (B) Forward ¯exion
ould combine pelvis tilt and spinal ¯exionequally. (C)
ight hamstrings limit pelvic tilt, throwing stress on the
rovided by one system reduces, the other
stems may compensate. Thus, the proportion
f load taken by the active system may increase
minimize stress on the passive system
rough load sharing (Tropp et al. 1993). This
ives the individual the opportunity to reduce
th
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ore lax spinal tissues. Reproduced from Norris (1994),
ith kind permission from Butterworth Heinemann.
Control
(neural)
Passive
(spinal column)
Active
(muscular)
ig. 12 The spinal stabilizing system consists of three
terrelating sub-systems. Reproduced from Norris
994), with kind permission from Butterworth
einemann.
Control
SEMG
(root mean
squared)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
ig. 13 Abdominal muscle activation in chronic low back pai
e trunk actually increase mobility in this
gion to dangerously high levels (Norris 1993,
994). Rather than improving stability, exercises
f this type may reduce it and could therefore
crease symptoms, especially those associated
ith in¯ammation.
In terms of spinal stabilization, rather than
e strength of the abdominal muscles, it is the
peed with which they contract in reaction to a
rce tending to displace the lumbar spine
hich is important (Saal & Saal 1989).
dditionally, the ability of a patient to
issociate deep abdominal function from that of
e super®cial abdominals is also vital, as it is
e deep abdominals which have the more
igni®cant stabilizing function. An abdominal
ollowing action rather than a sit-up movement
as been shown to work the transversus
bdominis and the internal oblique (stabilisors)
ther than the rectus abdominis and the
xternal oblique (Richardson et al. 1992).
atients with chronic low back pain (CLBP)
ave been shown to be poorer at using the
ternal oblique than the rectus abdominis and
xternal oblique, re¯ecting a shift in the pattern
f motor activity (O'Sullivan et al. 1997a,
997b). As an abdominal hollowing action is
ttempted, there is a substitution of the
uper®cial muscles which override the deep
bdominals (Fig. 13). When expressed as a ratio
f internal oblique over rectus abdominis (IO/
A) the value from the control group (non-LBP)
as 8.74, while the CLBP group had a ratio of
nly 2.41 indicating a much larger proportional
Rectus
abdominus
Internal
oblique
*c 2001 Harcourt Publishers Ltd
CLBP
n. (Data adapted from O'Sullivan et al. 1997).
con
obl
inh
alte
stra
(O'
mu
mu
T
app
inv
por
wh
gre
is h
199
B
mu
not
but
mo
act
tru
tru
mu
in
wo
sho
mu
the
I
ext
one
act
the
tas
the
in
abd
dir
pre
mu
W
the
bod
acc
sta
the
sho
ele
ass
sho
ansversus abdominis and internal oblique
ntracted before the shoulder muscles by as
uch as 38.9 msec. The reaction time for the
eltoid was on average 188 msec, with the
dominal muscles, except transversus,
llowing the deltoid contraction by 9.84 msec.
ith subjects who had a history of lower back
*c 2001 Harcourt Publishe
50
0
-50
-100
-150
E
m
g 
tim
in
g
Flexion
Abduction
Extension
g. 14 Activity of transversus abdominis muscle during
oulder movements. Note that subjects with back pain
d a longer transversus reaction time. 0 emg timing
presents the onset of shoulder movement. (Data from
odges and Richardson 1996.)
tribution to hollowing by the internal
ique in the normal group. It seems that pain
ibition in these subjects may have lead to
red muscle recruitment and compensatory
tegies when performing motor tasks
Sullivan et al. 1997a, 1997b). The ratio of
scle activity rather than the intensity of
scle activity is therefore relevant.
he rectus abdominis will ¯ex the trunk by
roximating the pelvis and ribcage. EMG
estigation has shown the supraumbilical
tion to be emphasized by trunk ¯exion,
ile activity in the infraumbilical portion is
ater in positions where a posterior pelvic tilt
eld (Lipetz & Gutin 1970, Guimaraes et al.
1).
y assessing EMG activity of the trunk
scles it has been shown that the muscles do
simply work as prime movers of the spine,
show antagonistic activity during various
vements. The oblique abdominals are more
ive than predicted, to help to stabilize the
nk (Zetterberg et al. 1987). During maximum
nk extension, activity of the abdominal
scles varied from 31% to 68% of the activity
longissimus. In resisted lateral ¯exion, as
uld be expected, the ipsilateral muscles
wed maximum activity, but the contralateral
scles were also active at about 10±20% of
se maximum values (Zetterberg et al. 1987).
n maximum voluntary isometric trunk
ension, transversus abdominis is the only
of the abdominal muscles to show marked
ivity. The coordinated patterns seen between
abdominal muscles have been shown to be
k speci®c, with transversus abdominis being
muscle most consistently related to changes
IAP (Cresswell et al. 1992). The transversus
ominis not only contracts with multi-
ectional trunk activities, its activity also
cedes the contraction of the other trunk
scles (Cresswell et al. 1994).
here repeated movements are concerned
onset of the load is predictable, and so the
y anticipates the load and braces the muscles
ordingly. This action is commonly seen in
nce, but has also been found to occur with
transversus abdominis during rapid
tr
co
m
d
ab
fo
W
Fi
sh
ha
re
H
ulder movements. Using ®ne wire
ctrodes, Hodges and Richardson (1996)
essed abdominal muscle action during
ulder movements. They found that
pai
pre
tha
sta
rs Ltd
doi :10.1054/ptsp.2000.0032,
Functional load abdominal training
Non-back pain Back pain
150
100
n, however, none of the abdominal muscles
ceded contraction of the deltoid, indicating
t they had lost the anticipatory nature of
bility (Fig. 14).
Physical Therapy In Sport (2001) 2, 29±39 37
available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
th
h
e
(F
th
s
c
a
e
re
li
o
C
m
li
tr
d
b
th
st
Im
a
A number of important points concerning
im
re
a
s
to
th
e
m
a
a
b
a
a
le
b
m
a
B
m
ra
¯
a
s
st
C
s
m
a
m
s
(i
ty
N
R
A
A
C
C
F
G
G
G
G
H
the upper and lower limb. In: Proceedings of the 6th
International Conference of the International Federation
H
Ja
38 Physical Thera
Physical Therapy
balance and muscle adaptation have direct
levance to improving the standard of
bdominal training. Firstly, rapid movement
peeds and higher resistances have been shown
selectively recruit mobilisor muscles, and in
e case of the abdomen, the rectus abdominis
specially. To reduce the recruitment of this
uscle and increase the work on transversus
bdominis and internal oblique, lower resistances
nd slow movements should be used.
Secondly, eccentric actions have been shown to
e better suited for reversal of serial sarcomere
daptation. In the lordotic posture, the pelvis is
nteriorly tilted, and the rectus abdominis
ngthened. A signi®cant relationship exists
etween angle of pelvis tilt and abdominal
uscle length, but not between pelvic tilt and
bdominal muscle strength (Toppenberg &
ullock 1990). To modify the abdominal
uscles in a lordotic posture, therefore, inner
nge movements should be used ( full lumbar
exion combined with posterior pelvic tilt) with
Contraction of the abdominal muscles before
e initiation of limb movement has been
ighlighted by a number of authors, as an
xample of a feed forward postural reaction
riedli et al. 1984, Aruin & Latach 1995). In
ese cases, as would be expected, the erector
pinae and the external oblique are seen to
ontract before arm ¯exion while the rectus
bdominis contracts before arm extension. In
ach case, the trunk musclesact to limit the
active body movement towards the moving
mb. Contraction of the transversus before the
ther abdominal muscle has been described by
resswell et al. (1994) in response to trunk
ovements, but anticipatory contraction during
mb movements is a newer ®nding. The
ansversus abdominis seems to be contracting
uring posture, not simply to bring the body
ack closer to the posture line, but to increase
e stiffness of the lumbar region and enhance
ability (Hodges et al. 1996).
portance of imbalance for functional
bdominal training
in Sport
n emphasis on eccentric training initially. This
hould be combined with hip ¯exor muscle
retching to allow full posterior pelvic tilt.
learly to determine whether muscle
K
K
py in Sport (2001) 2, 29±39
of Orthopaedic Manipulative Therapists (IFOMT).
Lillehammer, Norway
odges P, Richardson C, Jull G 1996 Evaluation of the
relationship between laboratory and clinical tests of
transversus abdominis function. Physiotherapy Research
International 1 (1): 30±40
nda V, Schmid H J A 1980 Muscles as a pathogenic factor
in backpain. Proceedings of the International Federation
of Orthopaedic Manipulative Therapists. 4th Conference.
New Zealand, pp 17±18
hortening or muscle lengthening is required, a
uscle imbalance assessment should be made to
ssess static posture and then individual
uscles tests used to determine muscle
hortening (range of motion) or lengthening
nner range holding). Full details of tests of this
pe are described elsewhere (Norris 1998,
orris 2000).
eferences
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resswell A G, Grundstrom H, Thorstensson A 1992
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resswell A G, Oddsson L, Thorstensson A 1994 The
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Physical Therapy In Sport (2001) 2, 29±39 39
available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
	Functional load abdominal training: part 1
	Introduction
	Muscle imbalance
	New concepts of muscle training
	Muscle length adaptation
	Assessment and correction of muscle imbalance
	Trunk stability
	Importance of imbalance for functional abdominal training
	References
	Figures
	Figure1
	Figure2
	Figure3
	Figure4
	Figure5
	Figure6
	Figure7
	Figure8
	Figure9
	Figure10
	Figure11
	Figure12
	Figure13
	Figure14
	Boxes
	Box1
	Box2