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REVIEW ARTICLE
A systematic literature review of project-based
learning in secondary school physics: theoretical
foundations, design principles, and implementation
strategies
Fathiya Al-Kamzari 1 & Norlidah Alias 1✉
Project-Based Learning (PjBL) is a widely recognized pedagogical approach that has gained
popularity for its capacity to enhance students’ critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and
communication skills. PjBL is characterized by its incorporation of key elements and teaching
practices that support and facilitate these outcomes. Despite its increasing use, there remains
a limited comprehensive understanding of PjBL’s theoretical foundations, design principles,
and implementation in secondary school physics education. This study employed a sys-
tematic literature review (SLR) to investigate these aspects within this educational setting.
Following the PRISMA 2020 checklist, the review analyzed papers sourced from Scopus and
Web of Science. The examination of 27 SLR records indicated that 85% of the studies (23)
did not address the theoretical foundations of PjBL. Approximately 48% of the studies (13)
incorporated all seven core elements of PjBL. Critique and revision were present in 55.6% of
the studies (15), while 29.6% (8) did not include student voice and choice. Additionally, 37%
of the studies (10) applied all recommended PjBL teaching practices, with consistent
implementation observed in designing and planning, managing activities, and scaffolding
student learning. About 96% of the studies (26) utilized various assessment tools throughout
the PjBL process, but only 37% (10) included the development of a supportive culture as part
of the PjBL strategy. Moreover, 74% of the studies (20) were conducted in face-to-face
settings. The implications of this study highlight the potential of PjBL to improve student
engagement, curiosity, creativity, critical thinking, and scientific skills in secondary school
physics. By developing effective PjBL frameworks and integrating advanced technologies,
educators can enhance learning outcomes and conceptual understanding. In light of the
global shift towards blended learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the review suggests
that future applications of PjBL should incorporate blended learning strategies to improve
effectiveness.
https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04579-4 OPEN
1 Department of Curriculum and Instructional Technology, Faculty of Education, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. ✉email: drnorlidah@um.edu.my
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Introduction
Project-based learning (PjBL) has been a well-regarded
teaching method for years, but its appeal has grown
recently due to its success in boosting students’ skills and
career readiness. PjBL also aligns with curriculum goals that
emphasize the development of 21st-century skills and higher-
order thinking abilities (Fadilah, 2019). It encourages student
creativity in learning and can generate interest in learning (Rahim
et al. 2019). The design of PjBL interventions was influenced by
constructivist philosophy, according to Blumenfeld et al. (1994).
The PjBL learning paradigm is based on the constructivist phi-
losophy of education, which encourages students to actively
participate in their education by creating meaning via experience
rather than passively receiving it as in traditional textbook-based
instruction. PjBL relies on two main classifications of con-
structivism theory: cognitive constructivism and social con-
structivism (Vygotsky, 1997; Dewey, 1986; Piaget, 1954). Project-
based learning is rooted in two key branches of constructivism
theory: cognitive constructivism and social constructivism. Cog-
nitive constructivism, associated with Piaget, focuses on how
learners build understanding through individual experiences.
Social constructivism, championed by Vygotsky and Dewey,
emphasizes learning through social interactions and collabora-
tion, highlighting the importance of community and commu-
nication in knowledge construction. Constructivism theory is
applied to this study “A Systematic Literature Review of Project-
Based Learning in Secondary School Physics” by examining how
PjBL fosters active learning through student-centered approaches.
Cognitive constructivism informs the design principles by
emphasizing hands-on experimentation and inquiry, allowing
students to construct knowledge through personal experiences.
Social constructivism underpins the implementation strategies,
promoting collaborative learning and peer interactions, essential
for conceptual understanding and skill development in physics.
This theoretical framework guides the review’s analysis of PjBL’s
effectiveness and best practices in secondary school physics
education.
In physics education, PjBL would encourage students to par-
ticipate in activities such as conducting or developing scientific
studies, solving issues, and building prototypes, among other
things (Hasni et al. 2016). The PjBL paradigm involves students
creating products as part of their physics practice, and it is
effective in secondary school settings. Physics is a crucial subject
for comprehending various natural phenomena and serves as a
foundational element for STEM (Science, Technology, Engi-
neering, and Mathematics) disciplines. The use of the PjBL
paradigm in secondary school is strongly advocated in teaching
several physics topics. For example, the PjBL model affects the
critical thinking abilities of high school students on energy sub-
jects and static fluid learning material (Hamdani, 2020). Students
were encouraged to use their curriculum knowledge of optics and
electromagnetic waves to address real-world problems when PjBL
was implemented (Makkonen et al. 2021). After employing
learning tools with a PjBL model based on the process skills
approach to the material of momentum and impulse, students’
critical thinking skills improved (Astra et al. 2019). Furthermore,
Emafri et al. (2020) developed a physics curriculum based on the
Sianok National Canyon, utilizing a PjBL model. The initial
design, referred to as prototype 1, required a thorough validity
analysis through expert reviews, one-on-one evaluations, and
small group assessments. Finally, a field test was conducted to
produce textbooks that are both practical and effective.
Several suggestions have been made by scholars to improve
PjBL in teaching secondary school physics. For example, while
PjBL is well-suited for classes with a large number of physics
students, it is also necessary to examine the impact of PjBL when
supported by additional media, such as virtual laboratories or
audio-visual tools (Fadilah, 2019). Additionally, air quality
experiment instruments should be incorporated into PjBL (Rah-
mad et al. 2019). However, the current situation reveals a sig-
nificant gap in the availability of practical PjBL modules
specifically designed for physics education. This shortage means
that students often lack the necessary resources and structured
guidance to conduct physics experiments and projects autono-
mously. Consequently, they may struggle to apply theoretical
concepts in practical settings and miss out on valuable opportu-
nities to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills
essential for mastering physics. Addressing this gap is vital to
ensure that students can fully benefit from the PjBL approach and
achieve greater proficiency in their scientific studies (Rahmad
et al. 2019). This study involved conducting a systematic litera-
ture review (SLR) guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for
Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 checklist.
The main goal of synthesizing the SLR findings is to investigate
the theoretical foundations, design, and implementation of
Project-Based Learning (PjBL) in secondary school physicsuniversally.
These publications’ outstanding significance to the research topic
justifies their inclusion in the collection. Additionally, perhaps
several factors could be taken into consideration in future
research that have increased the focus of research in this nation
on the pertinent topic. Despite the narrow geographic focus, the
concepts and findings described in these articles are significant
and universal value.
The findings suggest that PjBL is closely associated with
Indonesia, primarily due to its widespread adoption and
significant educational support and reforms. This relationship is
facilitated by government endorsement, cultural alignment, and
collaborative efforts among educators and researchers (Kusuma-
ningtyas et al. 2020). Recently, the Indonesian Ministry of
Education mandated that all educational institutions, from early
childhood to higher education, incorporate PjBL into their
curricula. The commitment stems from Indonesia’s PISA scores,
with the Ministry emphasizing the approach’s potential to
enhance students’ understanding of key concepts and foster
critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity (Pratami et al.
2024). Additionally, PjBL workshops have had a notable impact
on Indonesian teachers, equipping them with a deeper under-
standing of the principles and processes underlying this teaching
method.
In terms of publication years, the majority of the studies were
published in 2023 (33.3%), with fewer publications in 2015
(3.7%). This temporal distribution reflects the evolving interest
and research efforts in PjBL over recent years, indicating a
growing body of literature addressing its theoretical foundations,
practical applications, and pedagogical implications. Regarding
the learning environment, most studies were conducted in
traditional school settings, with PjBL implemented in face-to-
face classrooms (74%). However, seven studies adopted a blended
learning approach (26%), integrating both face-to-face and online
learning modalities, highlighting the adaptability of PjBL to
different instructional contexts and technological advancements.
While delivering PjBL in a blended learning environment has its
benefits, it’s crucial to consider how well the educational goals,
infrastructure, and support systems are all in sync. When used
properly, blended learning, which combines the advantages of
both online and in-person learning, can improve the PjBL
experience. The choice should be based on the context and
objectives of the educational program because there isn’t a one-
size-fits-all option.
Study designs varied, with the majority employing mixed-
methods approaches (51.9%) to comprehensively investigate the
multifaceted nature of PjBL implementation and its impact on
student learning outcomes. Data collection methods included
questionnaires, observations, and interviews, enabling researchers
to triangulate findings and capture diverse perspectives. Notably,
22.2% of the studies featured sample sizes greater than 100
participants. Conversely, around 63% of the studies included
sample sizes of less than 100 participants, providing a broader
spectrum of PjBL experiences and outcomes. This variability in
sample sizes reflects the practical challenges and constraints
inherent in conducting empirical research in educational settings,
underscoring the importance of rigorous methodological
approaches to ensure the validity and generalizability of findings.
The synthesis of findings from the SLR studies reveals several
common themes and trends emerging from the literature. These
include the positive impact of PjBL on student engagement,
motivation, and conceptual understanding of physics concepts.
Moreover, the effectiveness of PjBL was attributed to its emphasis
on authentic, inquiry-based learning experiences, collaborative
problem-solving, and real-world application of knowledge.
Challenges and limitations associated with PjBL implementation
were also identified, including concerns related to curriculum
alignment, teacher preparation, assessment practices, and
resource constraints. Additionally, the role of technology in
facilitating PjBL and its implications for instructional design and
student learning outcomes were explored. Overall, the contextual
characteristics of the reviewed studies provide valuable insights
into the current state of PjBL research in secondary school
physics education, highlighting key trends, challenges, and
opportunities for future inquiry and practice. These findings
contribute to the ongoing dialogue surrounding effective
pedagogical approaches to enhance student learning experiences
and outcomes in physics education.
The findings from the various studies highlighted underscore
the multifaceted benefits of implementing PjBL in secondary
school physics education. For example, Khaeruddin et al. (2023)
claimed that the PjBL model contributes to increasing the Higher
Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) in Physics. Furthermore, Makko-
nen and colleagues (2021) provided valuable insights into the
advantages and disadvantages of PjBL among gifted physics
students. Their findings emphasized that PjBL effectively met the
preconditions for engaging students in physics learning, including
challenge, competence, and curiosity. This suggests that PjBL can
serve as a stimulating and effective pedagogical approach for
fostering student engagement and achievement in physics
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education. Similarly, Emafri et al. (2020) demonstrated the
potential of a PjBL model in the form of a Physics Edupark book
to enhance student learning creativity. This innovative approach
suggests that incorporating PjBL principles into instructional
materials can promote student-centered, inquiry-based learning
experiences that stimulate creativity and deeper conceptual
understanding. Hamdani (2020) further emphasized the impor-
tance of developing teaching materials, specifically practical
textbooks based on PjBL models, to enhance students’ scientific
skills. This highlights the practical implications of integrating
PjBL strategies into curriculum design and instructional practices
to support student learning and skill development. Furthermore,
studies by Astra et al. (2019) and Fadilah (2019) demonstrated
the positive impact of using PjBL strategies with student
worksheets on enhancing critical thinking skills in physics
learning. These findings suggest that structured PjBL activities,
coupled with appropriate instructional materials, can foster
higher-order thinking skills and problem-solving abilities among
students. Rahmad et al. (2019) addressed the practical need for
experiment tools in PjBL, particularly for air quality detection
experiments. This underscores the importance of providing
adequate resources and support to facilitate hands-on, inquiry-
based learning experiences within a PjBL framework. Moreover,
Rahim et al. (2019) and Bonanno et al. (2018) highlighted the
potential of PjBL to facilitate a deeper understanding and
relevance of physics topics, such as momentum and impulse
and the relationship between light’s physical and perceptual
qualities, respectively. Langbeheim (2015) revealed that PjBL
promotes student interest in science and improves understanding
of scientific content. These findings suggest that PjBL can provide
students with authentic, real-world contexts to explore and apply
physics concepts, thereby enhancing their learning experiences
and outcomes. Overall, the collective findings from these studies
contribute to our understanding of the diverse benefits and
applications of PjBL in secondary school physics education. By
leveraging PjBL principles and approaches, educators can create
engaging, meaningful learning experiences that promote student
curiosity,creativity, critical thinking, and scientific skills,
ultimately fostering a deeper understanding and appreciation of
physics concepts.
Elements of physics project-based learning. In light of the third
research question which is related to the elements of physics PjBL
was utilized in the reviewed studies. The essence of Gold Standard
PjBL lies in its seven essential design elements, as delineated by
Larmer et al. (2015). These elements - a challenging problem or
question, sustained inquiry, authenticity, student voice and
choice, reflection, critique and revision, and a public product -
serve as the guiding principles for designing and implementing
effective PjBL experiences. However, as observed in Table 7, the
incorporation of these elements varies across the reviewed studies.
52% of the studies fully applied all seven key elements of PjBL,
demonstrating a comprehensive alignment with the Gold Stan-
dard framework (Al-Kamzari and Alias, 2024; Makkonen et al.
2021; Hamdani, 2020; Fadilah, 2019; Lou et al. 2017). This sug-
gests a rigorous adherence to the principles of inquiry-based
learning, authenticity, student empowerment, and iterative
improvement in these instances. It’s important to recognize that
effective PjBL can take diverse forms, and the emphasis on
individual components may shift depending on project goals,
student needs, and contextual factors. The implementation of
PjBL can also represent a journey for educators, with practices
evolving as they refine their approaches and strategies. All the
SLR studies incorporated two key elements of PjBL: a challenging
problem or question and authenticity. This indicates that these
components form the core framework for PjBL, making learning
more meaningful for students by giving them a purpose beyond
rote memorization. By focusing on a specific topic or inquiry,
students not only acquire new knowledge but also learn when and
how to apply it effectively. Critique and revision were imple-
mented in 55.6% of the studies, while only 29.6% of the studies
did not include the element of student voice and choice. Critique
and revision play a vital role in fostering metacognitive skills,
collaboration, and continuous improvement among students. To
uphold the standards of PjBL, students are expected to express
their ideas and make decisions throughout the project. Student
voice and choice, another essential element, were present in 70%
of the studies. This emphasizes the importance of empowering
students to take ownership of their learning, make meaningful
decisions, and exercise critical thinking skills throughout the PjBL
process. Incorporating all aspects into PjBL practices can be
challenging due to factors like limited time, assessment demands,
and the need for teacher training. Although the Gold Standard
framework offers a solid base for designing PjBL, effective
implementation depends on careful contextual consideration,
continuous reflection, and ongoing professional development. By
adopting the essential principles of PjBL and tackling these
implementation hurdles, educators can foster engaging, autono-
mous learning experiences that deepen students’ understanding
of physics concepts.
In examining the links between the components of PjBL and
their influence on learner performance, each component plays a
crucial role. The challenging problem component fosters critical
thinking by requiring students to navigate complex, real-world
issues, thus enhancing problem-solving skills. Sustained inquiry
encourages active engagement, allowing learners to delve deeply
into topics, which boosts their analytical abilities. Authenticity
connects learning to real-life contexts, increasing motivation and
engagement. Allowing student voice and choice fosters auton-
omy, leading to greater investment in learning. Reflection
enhances metacognitive skills, while critique and revision
encourage a growth mindset by promoting learning from
feedback. Finally, producing a public product motivates students
to improve their work quality and develop communication skills.
Collectively, PjBL components significantly enhance learner
performance, and future research should explore their imple-
mentation across diverse educational contexts to further validate
these links.
Project-based physics teaching practices. In terms of the fourth
research question related to teaching practices used for physics
PjBL, the incorporation of teaching practices is essential for the
successful implementation of Gold Standard PjBL, as outlined by
Larmer et al. (2015). These practices - design, and plan, align to
standards, build the culture, manage activities, scaffold student
learning, assess student learning, and engage and coach - serve as
pillars for effective instructional design and facilitation within a
PjBL framework. However, as observed in the reviewed studies,
the extent to which these practices are applied varies. Remarkably,
37% of the studies fully applied all seven teaching practices of
PjBL, highlighting a comprehensive approach to instructional
design and facilitation. This suggests meticulous attention to
detail and alignment with best practices in PjBL pedagogy.
However, three particular practices were consistently imple-
mented across all studies: designing and planning, managing
activities, and scaffolding student learning. These foundational
practices emphasize the importance of careful preparation and
organization in PjBL implementation, ensuring that projects are
purposeful, coherent, and effectively managed to optimize student
learning experiences. Additionally, using diverse instructional
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techniques to scaffold student learning highlights the need for
proper support and guidance during PjBL. This approach helps
students develop critical thinking skills and a deeper conceptual
understanding. Furthermore, there were variations in the utili-
zation of other teaching practices across studies, For instance
around 96% of the studies employed different tools to assess
students during PjBL. In contrast, only 37% of the studies
included building culture as a component of the PjBL teaching
approach. Building a supportive and collaborative learning cul-
ture is essential for creating an environment conducive to inquiry,
exploration, and innovation. In conclusion, while the Gold
Standard framework provides a comprehensive set of teaching
practices for PjBL, their successful implementation requires
careful consideration of context, instructional goals, and student
needs. By embracing and adapting these practices to their specific
educational contexts, educators can create enriching learning
experiences that promote student engagement, autonomy, and
deep understanding of physics concepts. Continued exploration
and refinement of these practices will contribute to ongoing
improvements in PjBL pedagogy and student learning outcomes.
Choosing the period from 2015 to 2024 for applying the
PRISMA protocol in the (SLR) is crucial for capturing recent
developments and emerging trends. This timeframe helps identify
contemporary research gaps and provides an updated view of the
field’s current state, as noted by Hart (2018). However, limiting
the SLR to the last decade resulted in a relatively small number of
reviewed studies (27), which raised concerns about the range of
learning theories, contexts, key elements, and teaching practices
examined. Despite this limitation, this period is particularly
significant due to its overlap with major global events, such as the
COVID-19 pandemic, which have had substantial effects on
education systems worldwide.
Comparing the findings of the current PjBL study with those of
similar studies reveals distinct differences in focus and contribu-
tions. Salas-Pilco(2021) conducted SLR in K-12 schools, across
various educational levels, however, this study is more narrowly
focused on the application of PjBL in secondary school physics.
The PjBL study critically examines the current application of
PjBL, identifying gaps and underutilization of key practices,
whereas Salas-Pilco’s review highlights the broader achievements
and challenges of STEAM education without deeply exploring
theoretical gaps. Ilma et al. (2023) also conducted a systematic
review, focusing on STEM education in Indonesia and its role in
developing 21st-century skills. Compared to this study, Ilma
et al.‘s work provides a broader overview of STEM education
trends and challenges, emphasizing the need for empirical
research. Similarly, Merritt et al. (2017) explored the effectiveness
of problem-based learning PBL and project-based learning PjBL
in K-8 mathematics and science classrooms, focusing on practical
outcomes. In contrast, this study emphasizes the need for deeper
theoretical engagement and future research directions within
secondary school physics education.
Several suggestions were recommended for further SLR studies
on the development of PjBL in secondary school physical
education. This SLR included studies from two databases: Scopus
and WoS, however, additional databases, such as EBSCO, JSTOR,
and ERIC could be used for future research on the PjBL
development. Furthermore, all reviewed studies in this paper were
published in English Language, other languages are likely to have
been overlooked in the future. In addition, it’s critical to examine
the influence of PjBL with the addition of other media like virtual
laboratories, visual media, or other audio-visual media (Fadilah,
2019). Future PjBL research should explore the impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic on the transition of secondary schools to
remote or blended learning. This shift has been driven by the
adoption of Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies, including
artificial intelligence (AI), Web3, and the Internet of Things
(IoT). The educational landscape has changed because of the
COVID-19 issue, supporting resilience and making PjBL more
relevant and important than ever. Educators and policymakers
can enhance PjBL in secondary school physics by revising
curricula to include hands-on projects, providing professional
development for teachers, and fostering stakeholder collabora-
tion. Allocating resources for materials and technology, such as
virtual labs and AR, is crucial. New assessment methods, like
reflective journals and project rubrics, should be employed to
evaluate student progress. To strengthen connections to broader
educational issues, emphasize PjBL’s alignment with standards,
support for diverse learners, preparation for 21st-century skills,
technology integration, and implications for teacher professional
development. Furthermore, to enhance the research’s global
relevance, it is recommended to consider integrating articles from
diverse educational systems. This approach will provide a broader
perspective on the application of PjBL across various contexts,
allowing for a richer understanding of its effectiveness and
adaptability in secondary school physics education worldwide.
Conclusion and recommendations
Implementing SLRs on PjBL for teaching secondary school
physics can provide valuable insights into effective teaching
strategies, learning outcomes, and gaps in the research. The SLR
revealed that PjBL in secondary school physics significantly
enhances student learning by fostering creativity, critical thinking,
and problem-solving skills. Given these findings, it is recom-
mended to prioritize the development of robust PjBL frameworks
by involving stakeholders and educators. Researchers and edu-
cators are encouraged to utilize Development and Design
Research (DDR) or the ADDIE model (Analysis, Design, Devel-
opment, Implementation, Evaluation). These frameworks provide
systematic approaches for developing and refining PjBL in blen-
ded learning, effectively addressing theoretical gaps and offering
practical strategies to enhance PjBL practices. This collaborative
approach ensures that PjBL is effectively integrated into sec-
ondary school physics education, tailoring it to meet diverse
educational needs and contexts. Although the number of studies
and the quality of this SLR were smaller than expected, the results
still offer valuable guidance for researchers and educators
studying PjBL globally. The identified benefits of PjBL in
enhancing student engagement and skill development highlight
its potential for broader application. Integrating PjBL with up-to-
date technologies, such as virtual laboratories, augmented reality,
and artificial intelligence, could revolutionize secondary school
physics education. Considering the potential for future quanti-
tative research, it is recommended that researchers consider
conducting a meta-analysis to synthesize findings related to PjBL
and its elements in secondary school physics education. Such a
meta-analysis could provide robust evidence of the effectiveness
of PjBL in enhancing student engagement, understanding, and
performance in physics. The findings and recommendations from
this SLR study are valuable for stakeholders and decision-makers
aiming to transform secondary school physics instruction and
improve students’ educational outcomes.
To address the theoretical gap identified in the current body of
PjBL research, future studies should consider integrating frame-
works such as constructivist theory or the experiential learning
model. These theories can offer valuable insights into the pro-
cesses through which PjBL fosters critical thinking, problem-
solving, and collaboration among students, providing a stronger
basis for understanding its impact on learner outcomes. Fur-
thermore, the small number of 27 studies limits the general-
izability of the findings in this review. While strict inclusion
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criteria ensured relevance and quality, the sample may not fully
reflect the diversity of approaches within Project-Based Learning
(PjBL) in secondary physics education. Future research should
address this by expanding the search to include a larger pool of
studies across multiple databases or conducting cross-cultural
comparisons to capture a broader range of educational contexts
and outcomes. This would provide a more comprehensive
understanding of PjBL’s effectiveness across different educational
settings.
The absence of non-English research introduces biases.
Future studies should expand their scope to include non-
English literature, capturing diverse educational contexts and
enhancing the comprehensiveness of Project-Based Learning
analyses. In addition, to deepen the practical understanding of
Project-Based Learning (PjBL) and its impact on learner per-
formance, future studies should adopt several theoretical
models. The constructivist theory emphasizes the active role of
learners in constructing knowledge through experiences,
making it valuable for exploring how PjBL environments foster
collaboration and problem-solving, enhancing student
engagement. Sociocultural theory highlights the significance of
social interactions and cultural contexts, prompting research
into how collaborative PjBL activities promote social learning
and cultural responsiveness in physics education. Experiential
learning theory, which focuses on learning through authentic
experiences, can guide studies examining how practical PjBL
projects lead to deeper understanding and retention of scien-
tific concepts. Additionally, situated learning theory suggests
that learning is most effective in context, while transformative
learning theory encourages critical reflection and personaltransformation. By integrating these practical frameworks,
future research can offer a nuanced understanding of how PjBL
influences learner outcomes and addresses diverse educational
contexts. In conclusion, the components of Project-Based
Learning (PjBL) collectively play a vital role in enhancing
learner performance. Future research should investigate their
implementation across various educational contexts to further
substantiate these connections.
Limitation. A limitation of this study is its restricted information
access, as it relied solely on Scopus and Web of Science to identify
publications. Future research should consider incorporating a
wider range of databases to provide a more comprehensive ana-
lysis and potentially reveal new perspectives or findings. Future
PjBL research should also reflect on the lasting effects of the
global COVID-19 pandemic on educational systems. The tran-
sition to remote and hybrid learning has created opportunities for
new approaches to PjBL that accommodate these changes
effectively.
The findings of this review underscore the need for future
research to place greater emphasis on theoretical frameworks
when studying PjBL in secondary physics education. Addres-
sing this gap will not only strengthen the academic rigor of the
field but also provide more practical insights for educators and
policymakers. To advance research on Project-Based Learning
in secondary physics education, future studies should prioritize
addressing the limitations noted in this review, particularly
with regard to the number of studies and methodological rigor.
Expanding the scope of research to include larger, more diverse
samples and applying more rigorous quality evaluation
frameworks will significantly enhance the reliability and
applicability of future findings. Additionally, the absence of
non-English research introduces biases, as these studies could
provide valuable perspectives. Future research should not only
aim for a larger pool of studies across multiple databases but
also include non-English literature to capture a broader range
of educational contexts and enhance the comprehensiveness of
PjBL analyses.
Data availability
All data analysed during this study are included in this published
article.
Received: 17 November 2022; Accepted: 19 February 2025;
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Author contributions
The authors contributed equally to this work.
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The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical approval
Ethical approval was not required as the study did not involve human participants.
Informed consent
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cation. The review aims to provide valuable insights for stake-
holders and educators on the advantages of integrating PjBL into
secondary physics instruction. This SLR addresses the following
research questions:
RQ1: What are the learning theories or frameworks discussed
in the reviewed studies?
RQ2: What is the context of the reviewed studies?
RQ3: What are the elements of physics project-based learning
utilized in the reviewed studies?
RQ4: What are the project-based physics teaching practices
utilized in the reviewed studies?
The methodology used is explained in the following section of
this paper. The third section summarizes the findings of the
reviewed papers about the research questions. Finally, in the
discussion part, practical applications and future research direc-
tions were suggested.
Literature review
Project-based learning (PjBL) definitions. PjBL is a student-
centered and collaborative instructional approach that promotes
students to solve a problem by creating an end product. Galvan
and Coronado (2014) describe PjBL as an instructional strategy
wherein students collaborate over an extended period to produce
a tangible, substantial product. According to Tseng et al. (2013),
PjBL is an approach that emphasizes organizing self-directed
learning within an empirical project. In other words, PjBL
encourages self-directed learning, as students take initiative and
responsibility for their learning process. Markham (2012) defines
PjBL as an extended learning process that utilizes inquiry and
challenge to foster skill development and mastery. In contrast to
traditional classroom instruction, which often involves passive
presentation of material, PjBL actively engages students in the
learning process (Harris et al. 2015).
(PjBL) theoretical frameworks. The origins of the PjBL approach
can be traced back to the early 20th century, rooted in the
principles of progressivism. Key contributions to the development
of PjBL include John Dewey’s emphasis on experiential educa-
tion, Kilpatrick’s project method, Bruner’s discovery learning
framework, and Thelen’s group investigation model. These
foundational theories collectively shaped the evolution of the
PjBL approach. There are various models, components, and fra-
meworks for PjBL. Markham (2012) provides a detailed, step-by-
step process for designing PjBL lessons and rubrics, serving as a
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guide for planning, implementing, and evaluating PjBL lessons,
and offering resources and templates for practitioners.
PjBL is essentially a synthesis of various instructional
components and approaches. Key components include the
creation of rubrics, 21st-century skills, inquiry-based learning,
problem-based learning, cooperative learning, and authentic
learning. The Buck Institute for Education identifies eight
essential components of PjBL: key knowledge, understanding,
and success skills; a challenging problem or question; sustained
inquiry; authenticity; student voice and choice; reflection; critique
and revision; and a public product. These components form the
fundamental engagement elements of the PjBL process. Accord-
ing to Larmer et al. (2015), the extent to which a project adheres
to the principles of the Gold Standard PjBL framework depends
on the presence and integration of these design elements.
(PjBL) implementation for secondary school physics. PjBL
requires students to apply their knowledge of electromagnetic
waves and optics to solve real-world problems (Makkonen et al.
2021). Implementing PjBL in topics like momentum and impulse
enhances critical thinking skills (Suastra et al. 2019). Rahmad
et al. (2019) recommend integrating air quality experiment
instruments, with instructions and digital data, into PjBL for
improved educational outcomes. Rahmad et al. (2019) emphasize
the need for practical PjBL modules to strengthen scientific skills.
Fadilah, (2019) reports PjBL’s effectiveness in large classrooms,
though further investigation is needed on the impact of additional
media, such as virtual labs and visual tools. Research confirms
PjBL’s efficacy in advancing students’ understanding of physics
(Emafri et al. 2020). The approach notably improves critical
thinking across various physics topics, including energy and static
fluids (Fadilah, 2019; Hamdani, 2020). Rizki et al. (2024)
described the Renewable Energy Learning Project (RELP) pro-
gram and analyzed the influence of (RELP) on students’ project
design, communication, and critical thinking skills. Suastra et al.
(2019) concluded secondary schools are encouraged to adopt the
PjBL paradigm. Implementing PjBL in secondary school physics
enhances students’ conceptual understanding and critical think-
ing abilities. It involves students in solving real-world problems,
making intricate subjects more understandable and pertinent.
Method
This section explores the methodology for identifying global
publications on the implementation of PjBL in secondary school
physics classes. The reviewers applied the PRISMA framework,
leveraging databases such as Scopus and Web of Science to carry
out a Systematic Literature Review (SLR). The process involved
setting eligibility and exclusion criteria, progressing through the
review stages (identification, screening, eligibility), and conduct-
ing data extraction and analysis.
Prisma 2020. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic
Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 checklist has been
used to conduct the SLR and address research questions. PRISMA
2020 is a published standard for conducting SLR that has been
revised (Page et al. 2021). As a result, the PRISMA 2020 checklist
served as a reference for this research.
Systematic searching strategies. In this SLR, there are three main
phases involved which are the identification phase, screening
phase, and eligibility phase.
Identification phase. Web of Science and Scopus were chosen as
the main databases for this study. These reliable sources cover
research across more than 256 fields, including social sciences
(Chadegani et al. 2013). The Web of Science, the oldest citation
database, offers extensive coverage starting from 1990, with the
majority of its journals published in English. Scopus, introduced
by Elsevier in November 2004, encompasses a wide array of
journals and scholarly literature across various disciplines (Cha-
degani et al. 2013).
As stated in Table 1, the articles were identified using similar
keywords in the search strings. In this study, the term “design-
based learning” (DBL) is included in the search strings as a
synonym for “project-based learning” (PjBL) because authors
often use the terms interchangeably. Design-based learning (DBL)
and project-based learning (PjBL) are often used interchangeably
due to their focus on student-centered approaches, real-world
relevance, collaboration, and interdisciplinary learning. While
both promote active engagement, DBL emphasizes the design
process, whereas PjBL focuses on project objectives. There is also
practical overlap between the two approaches, as indicated by the
research questions for the review (Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Kolodner
et al. 2003). The problem-based learning (PBL) viewpoints of
Hmelo-Silver and Kolodner place special emphasis on pedago-
gical techniques like scaffolding and collaborative learning, which
are essential for incorporating physics concepts into PjBL. This
study aims to address a gap in the literature by identifying and
synthesizing the existing research on PjBL in Secondary School
Physics. While PjBL has been widely recognized for its
effectiveness in enhancing student engagement and learning
outcomes, there is a lack of structured PjBL modules specifically
designed for physics education. This gap limitsstudents’ ability to
apply theoretical concepts through hands-on experimentation,
thereby affecting their development of critical thinking and
problem-solving skills. To bridge this gap, the study system-
atically reviews the theoretical foundations, design principles, and
implementation strategies of PjBL in secondary school physics.
This review may offer insights for educators and stakeholders on
effectively integrating PjBL into secondary school physics,
ensuring structured and well-supported learning.
To cover all papers linked to PjBL in teaching secondary school
physics, all synonyms related to this subject have been
incorporated into the search strings. Most crucially, the first step
of the systematic review process gathered a total of 123
publications.
Screening. The screening process aims to eliminate duplicate or
irrelevant articles. During the initial stage, ten publications were
removed using EndNote software. In the second stage, 113 arti-
cles were reviewed according to the researchers’ inclusion and
exclusion criteria, as detailed in Table 2. Mohamed Shaffril et al.
(2020) recommended setting a time limit for the articles, as it is
impractical for academics to examine every previously published
work. The study focused on the last decade (2015–2024) for its
timeline. It is important to consider this period when conducting
a systematic literature review (SLR) on the use of PjBL in teaching
Table 1 Search strings.
Databases Keywords
Scopus
WoS
((“project-based learning” OR PjBL OR “project-based instruction*“ OR “design-based learning” OR DBL) AND (“secondary school*“ OR
“high school*“ OR “middle school*“ OR “preparatory school*“) AND (physics))
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secondary school physics. This timeframe is particularly rele-
vant due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which has impacted
educational systems globally and led institutions to adopt
remote or hybrid learning approaches. By examining this per-
iod, any gaps in the PjBL literature can be identified, especially
in relation to the pandemic’s influence on education and the
resulting changes in teaching and learning practices. For
instance, it can be found that there are fewer studies on the use
of PjBL in a remote or hybrid setting, or that there are specific
challenges or benefits associated with using this approach
during the pandemic.
The second criterion was the type of literature, with the
researchers selecting journal articles as the principal source of
empirical data besides conference papers as frequently published
for physics education. As a result, publications in the form of
systematic reviews, reviews, meta-analyses, meta-synthesis, book
series, books, and chapters in books were excluded from the
current study. Both WoS and Scopus platforms have several main
citation indexes including scientific publications, conference
proceedings, and books (Chadegani et al. 2013). Two types of
publications have been selected for this study: journal articles and
conference papers. However, it’s important to note that this may
vary depending on the discipline and the specific conference or
paper in question. For example, empirical studies, particularly
those that offer a more thorough overview of a specific area of
physics education, can also offer insightful information about
teaching physics (Burkholder et al. 2020). Conference papers,
however, are generally thought to be a more current, concen-
trated, and peer-reviewed source of knowledge on instructing
secondary school physics, which might be very helpful for SLR,
using the PRISMA protocol on this topic. For this study, the
conference papers in the references are Journal of Physics:
Conference Series and AIP Conference Proceedings, both indexed
in both Scopus and Web of Science indicating that it is a well-
regarded and influential publication in the field of physics and
related disciplines. Several references suggest that conference
papers can be considered primary sources in the field of physics
education research, depending on the specific context and
purpose of the research. For example, Hu and Rebello (2013),
built their research titled (Understanding student use of
differentials in physics integration problems) on a conference
proceedings paper.
It should also be noted that the review only focused on
articles that were published in English to avoid misinterpreta-
tion and prevent misunderstanding, Moreover, articles were
included in the form of full-text articles and published articles.
Other than that, only studies conducted at the education level
of secondary school were selected because they are in line with
the objective of the review. Moreover, to meet the research
objectives, only articles published within the scope of PjBL,
Physics subject, and Secondary School level were selected (see
Table 2). The screening process resulted in 60 articles being
excluded as they did not satisfy the inclusion criteria for this
SLR ‘s research questions about teaching physics by imple-
menting PjBL in high school.
Eligibility. The articles were analyzed and checked for eligibility
during this phase. The papers must meet the Table 2 inclusion
and exclusion criteria. Restricted articles were removed from the
study since the full text was downloaded. In other words, the
selection of articles should be geared to answer the research
questions. As a result, both inclusion and exclusion criteria were
critical in the development of high-quality research. For the third
step, known as eligibility, a total of 53 articles were prepared. On
a more crucial point, the titles, abstracts, and primary contents of
all the articles were checked at this stage to ensure that they met
the inclusion criteria and were suitable for use in the current
study to meet the research objectives. As a result, 26 records were
excluded since they did not focus on secondary school as the
educational level. Finally, a total of 27 studies are ready to be
reviewed (see Fig. 1).
To mitigate selection bias, comprehensive searches were
conducted across Scopus and Web of Science to ensure a broad
and representative sample of studies. Reporting bias was
addressed by strictly adhering to PRISMA guidelines and
thoroughly extracting and analyzing all relevant data from
included studies. The inclusion and exclusion criteria were
carefully chosen to align with the review’s specific objectives.
Only studies conducted at the secondary school level were
included, focusing on the implementation of PjBL in secondary
school physics. This ensures the review remains relevant and
insightful for educators and researchers, providing a coherent
synthesis of existing literature in this context.
It is crucial to develop and validate search strings that capture
all relevant studies comprehensively and accurately. The initial
step involved identifying relevant keywords and phrases related to
PjBL, educational levels, and the subject of physics. Key terms
included “project-based learning,” “PjBL,” “project-based instruc-
tion,” “design-based learning,” and “DBL” for the teaching
methodology. For the educational level, terms like “secondary
school,” “high school,” “middle school,” and “preparatory school”
were selected. The subject term was simply “physics.”
A coding framework was developed to systematically extract
and categorize data from the included studies. The key variables
included study characteristics, such as author(s), publication year,
country, and study type (e.g., empirical or theoretical). Theore-
tical foundations were also examined, focusing on the underlying
theories and models of PjBL. Additionally, design principles were
identified, detailing specific instructional strategies and design
elements used in PjBL. Finally, implementation strategieswere
analyzed, considering the various contexts and methods for
implementing PjBL.
Conflicts of interest were managed through disclosure proto-
cols, ensuring that reviewers’ affiliations or personal interests did
not unduly influence the selection or interpretation of literature.
Additionally, ethical guidelines were followed in data synthesis
and analysis, maintaining objectivity and reliability in presenting
conclusions. These measures safeguarded the review’s credibility
and upheld ethical standards in academic research, fostering
trustworthiness in the assessment of PjBL’s efficacy in secondary
school physics education.
Table 2 The inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Criteria Inclusion Exclusion
Timeline 2015–2024study design, and sample
size. The second category summarizes the findings synthesized
from the SLR studies.
Type, country, year, learning environment, study design, and
sample size. In terms of the type of publication, the distribution of
Table 3 Theoretical foundation or framework employed in the reviewed studies.
Studies Theoretical foundation or framework
1 Bloom’s taxonomy and Vygotsky’s socio-constructivist theory
2 Constructivist learning theory, Self-directed learning readiness scale (SDLRS) and the online learning readiness scale (OLRS)
3 Research and Development (R&D) approach in education
4 Project-Based Learning (PBL) approach with educational robotics
5 Educational Robot (ER) called “EducThermoBot”
6 Student Worksheets (LKPD) and Concept Understanding Instruments (PAT)
7 Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)-oriented learning model
8 (R&D) with ADDIE (Analyze, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation)
9 ‘The Enigma of Aerodynamic Lift’ (an article recently published in Scientific American 322, 2020)
10 Integrated STEM education based on the principles of neuroscience in the form of interdisciplinary approach through PjBL and socio-
constructivist principles of PjBL
11 Integrated STEM PBL physics module by using ADDIE instructional design model
12 ADDIE development model
13 An educational robotics project based on constructionist learning called Underwater Robotics Workshop
14 Comparing the implementation of PjBL and PBL in physics teaching
15 Cognitive evaluation theory, self-determination theory and six lessons of Basic Newtonian mechanics PBL designed module
16 First prototyping phase Plomp’s model used for Several physics topics
17 Physics practicum module (practical textbook)
18 Project-based learning model assisted by student worksheets
19 Development of learner-based worksheets (LKPD) with a 4D model which has four stages, namely define, design, development, and
disseminate
20 ADDIE model (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation)
21 Pre-experiment design research using the One-Shot Case Study Design research design (XO), using learning tools with a project-based
learning model (worksheets LKPD)
22 Present a hands-on learning sequence, inspired by the PjBL activities within a real working context
23 Paul-Elder Framework for Critical Thinking
24 PjBL in the Secondary School Physics Curriculum (SSPC)
25 CaC2 Steamship-derived STEM Project-based Learning based on Constructivist teaching theory and 4 P theory of creativity
26 PjBL Multi Life Skill for Collaborative Skills and Technological Skills
27 PjBL for teaching Newton’s laws for talented eighth-grade students
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research findings reveals that 17 publications were published in
peer-reviewed journals, emphasizing scholarly rigor and academic
validity. Conversely, ten publications were disseminated through
conference proceedings, facilitating the timely exchange of PjBL
practices and ideas. Conference publications offer access to
emerging research, while journal publications contribute to
ongoing discourse and advancement in secondary school physics
education. This distribution underscores the interdisciplinary
appeal and scholarly significance of PjBL research, shaping ped-
agogical practices worldwide, see Fig. 2.
Based on their location, the examined studies were distributed
according to their countries of implementation. As indicated in
Fig. 3, 48% of the investigations were conducted in Indonesia.
The reviewed studies reveal the global implementation of PjBL,
with notable investigations in different countries, for example,
Spain, Turkey, USA, Finland, and predominantly Indonesia.
These diverse contexts provide insights into the effectiveness and
adaptability of PjBL across different educational systems and
cultural settings. Findings from Finland, Spain, and Italy offer
insights into PjBL integration within European educational
frameworks, while studies in Indonesia and Rwanda highlight
its application in a developing country context. Understanding
PjBL’s impact across these regions informs the development of
effective educational strategies tailored to local needs and
challenges. The geographic distribution underscores PjBL’s global
relevance and its potential to enhance student engagement and
learning outcomes worldwide.
In terms of publication years, most of the studies (33.3%) were
published in 2023, indicating a peak in scholarly interest and
activity surrounding PjBL implementation and evaluation. This
concentration suggests a pivotal year for advancements in PjBL
research, possibly driven by emerging educational trends and
priorities. In 2017, three research were published, and only one
study was published in 2015 as shown in Fig. 4. Additionally, the
inclusion of studies from 2015 to 2024 underscores the continued
evolution and relevance of PjBL practices over time. It’s
important to mention that the year 2024 has been selected for
this study, even though it hasn’t been concluded, to incorporate
the latest research findings.
These findings highlight the ongoing commitment to exploring
PjBL’s efficacy and effectiveness in enhancing student learning
outcomes in secondary school physics education.
Regarding the learning environment, the distribution of studies
sheds light on the predominant setting for PjBL implementations.
A significant finding is that most studies occurred in traditional
Table 5 The sample size of reviewed studies.
Sample size No of studies
200 2
Table 4 Reviewed studies on the project-based physics learning context.
No Author(s) and year Country Learning environment Study Design Sample Size
1 Rizki et al. (2024) Indonesia Face-to-face learning Qualitative method 37 students
2 Al-Kamzari and Alias (2024) Oman Blended Learning (Hybrid) Quantitative method 383 students
3 Paminto et al. (2023) Indonesia Blended Learning Quantitative method -
4 Gasana et al. (2023) Rwanda Face-to-face learning Quantitative method 78 students
5 Omari et al. (2023) Morocco Blended Learning Quantitative method 90 students
6 Martawijaya et al. (2023) Indonesia Face-to-face learning Mixed methods 51 students
7 Khaeruddin et al. (2023) Indonesia Face-to-face learning Quantitative method 114 students
8 Astra and Kartini (2023) Indonesia Blended learning Mixed methods 69 students
And 2 physics teachers
9 Pujante-Martínez et al. (2023) Spain Face-to-face learning Mixed methods -
10 Uden et al. (2023) Malaysia and South Korea Face-to-face learning Quantitative method 77 students
11 Sulaiman et al. (2023) Malaysia and South Korea Face-to-face learning Quantitative method 154 students
12 Solihin et al. (2022) Indonesia Blended learning Quantitative method -
13 El-Fakdi and Cufí (2022) Spain Face-to-face learning Quantitative method 800 students
14 Kan and Zeki Saka (2021) Turkey Face-to-face learning Mixed methods 48 students
15 Makkonen et al. (2021) Finland Blended learning Mixed methods 76 students
16 Emafri et al. (2020) Indonesia Face-to-face learning Quantitative
method
-
17 Hamdani (2020) Indonesia Face -to -face
learning
Mixed methods
study
66 students
18 Astra et al .(2019) Indonesia Face -to -face
learning
Mixed methods
study.
31students
19 Fadilah (2019) Indonesia Face -to -face
learning
Quantitative method -
20 Rahmad et al. (2019) Indonesia Face -to -face
learning
Mixed-methods study 37students and 2 teachers
21 Rahim et al. (2019) Indonesia Face -to -face
learning
Mixed methods study 48 students
22 Bonanno et al. (2018) Italy Face-to-face learning Mixed methods study 23 students
23 Mutakinati et al. (2018) Japan Face-to-face learning Mixed-methods study 160 students
24 Kavcar and Erdem (2017) Turkey Face-to-face learning Mixed-methodsstudy 10 students
25 Lou et al. (2017) Taiwan Face-to-face learning Mixed-methods study 60 students
26 Ardhyani and Khoiri (2017) Indonesia Blended learning Quantitative method 64 students
27 Langbeheim (2015) USA Face-to-face learning Mixed-methods study 19 students
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school settings (74%), emphasizing face-to-face interactions
between students and teachers as shown in Fig. 5. This
underscores the widespread adoption of PjBL within conventional
educational contexts, where physical classrooms serve as the
primary venue for collaborative learning experiences. However, a
noteworthy deviation is observed in seven studies (25.9%), which
explored PjBL within a blended learning environment. This
innovative approach integrates face-to-face instruction with
online learning platforms, presenting opportunities to enhance
flexibility, accessibility, and student engagement. This finding
highlights the potential for implementing technology-driven PjBL
initiatives, emphasizing hybrid learning’s role in enhancing
secondary school physics education.
In terms of study design, the distribution of research
methodologies offers valuable insights into the diverse approaches
employed to investigate PjBL in secondary school physics
education. A significant finding is the prevalence of mixed-
methods studies, comprising around 52% of the reviewed
research as shown in Fig. 6. These studies utilize a combination
of qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques,
including questionnaires, observations, and interviews. This
holistic approach enables researchers to gain comprehensive
insights into the multifaceted aspects of PjBL implementation,
exploring both qualitative nuances and quantitative trends.
Approximately 44% of the studies utilized exclusively quantitative
methods, with questionnaires serving as the main tool for data
collection. Although these studies provide important statistical
insights, they may fall short in capturing the detailed qualitative
nuances of PjBL experiences, which were represented in about 4%
of the SLR studies. This distribution underscores the importance
Fig. 2 Types of publication.
Fig. 3 The countries of the studies.
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of employing diverse research methodologies to comprehensively
understand the effectiveness and impact of PjBL practices in
secondary school physics education.
Regarding sample size, the distribution of participants in the
SLR offers insights into the scale and scope of PjBL research
within secondary school physics education. Notably, six SLR
studies involved a sample size exceeding 100 participants, as
highlighted in Table 5. This indicates a concentrated investigation
into PjBL practices, allowing researchers to explore specific
contexts or phenomena in greater detail. On the other hand, 17
studies had sample sizes of fewer than 100 participants, offering a
more diverse representation of PjBL experiences and outcomes.
This distribution underscores the importance of considering
sample size variability in interpreting the reliability and general-
izability of PjBL research findings within secondary school
physics education. Larger sample sizes enhance the reliability
and generalizability of findings in PjBL research, allowing for
accurate insights, while smaller samples may introduce variability,
limiting the stability and applicability of results.
Findings: Al-Kamzari and Alias (2024) explored the readiness of
high school physics students for project-based hybrid learning in
the Sultanate of Oman. Gasana et al. (2023) found students who
were taught through PjBL had more motivation toward learning
linear motion and conceptualized better linear motion. Makko-
nen and his colleagues (2021) investigated the advantages and
disadvantages of PjBL among gifted physics students. They dis-
covered that PjBL satisfied the preconditions for engaging stu-
dents in physics learning (challenge, competence, and curiosity).
Another study found PjBL model in the form of a Physics Edu-
park book can enhance student learning creativity (Emafri et al.
2020). Similarly, Hamdani (2020) revealed it is important to
develop teaching materials in the form of practical textbooks
based on PjBL models to improve students’ scientific skills. The
use of a PjBL strategy with student worksheets has a positive
impact on physics learning (Astra et al. 2019; Fadilah, 2019).
According to Astra et al. (2019), students who were taught using a
PjBL model supported by student worksheets demonstrated
higher critical thinking skills compared to those taught using a
direct learning model. Furthermore, Fadilah (2019) emphasized
the need to develop Tracker-based student worksheets for
teaching static fluid concepts within the PjBL framework.
Tracker-based worksheets utilize Tracker software, a video ana-
lysis tool in physics education, enabling students to analyze object
motion in videos and enhance their understanding of kinematics,
dynamics, and energy through guided experiments. Rahmad et al.
(2019) researched to determine the requirement for an air quality
detection experiment that can be utilized in PjBL. He concluded
that teachers and students require experiment tools for air quality
detection in PjBL. After employing learning tools with a PjBL
model based on the process skills approach to material momen-
tum and impulse, critical thinking abilities improved (Rahim
et al. 2019). The PjBL path could help students learn more about
the topics in a more relevant way, especially when it comes to the
relationship between light’s physical and perceptual qualities
(Bonanno et al. 2018). Kavcar and Erdem (2017) revealed most of
the educational gains in the 10th and 11th-grade physics text-
books were supported with experimental activities; however,
project-based assignments are needed. See Table 6.
(PjBL) design elements. Gold Standard Project-Based Learning
(PjBL) refers to a set of research-based, high-quality instructional
Fig. 4 The year of publication. Fig. 5 Learning environment.
Fig. 6 Study design.
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Table 6 Summary of findings for the selected SLR studies.
No Title Aim Findings
1 Renewable Energy Learning Project RELP in
Physics Classroom: Achieving Education for
Sustainable Development
To describe the RELP program and analyze
the influence of RELP on students’ project
design, communication, and critical thinking
skills.
Provide positive implications that RELP can be
implemented successfully in secondary schools
as a response to the problem of fossil energy
reserves and the challenges of future
renewable energy sources.
2 Exploring the readiness of high school physics
students for project-based hybrid learning in the
Sultanate of Oman
To investigate the preparedness of school
students in grades 9–12 to engage in physics
project-based hybrid learning within the
Sultanate of Oman
Indicate a generally moderate level of readiness
among school physics students (grades 9–12)
for engaging in project-based hybrid learning
3 Development of PJBL-Based Physics Edu Media
to Improve The 21st Century Learning Skills of
High School Students
To create physics teaching resources that
would enhance students ‘ 21st-centuryskills
in renewable energy
PjBL-Based Physics Edu learning materials
could serve as a reliable instructional tool for
teaching renewable energy topics with
moderate effectiveness
4 Effect of robotics-enhanced project-based
learning approach on students’ conceptual
understanding and motivation in linear motion in
physics in selected Rwandan Secondary School
To find out the effect of the Project-Based
Learning (PBL) approach with educational
robotics on senior students’ conceptual
understanding of linear motion and learning
motivation
Students who were taught through PBL had
more motivation toward learning linear motion
and conceptualized better linear motion
5 Investigating the Effect of a Proposed
Educational Robot on Students‘ Motivation and
Learning of Thermodynamic Concepts
To identify the effect of using educational
robotics on middle school students’
motivation and learning of physics concepts,
particularly regarding the concept of
temperature
Show the positive effect of educational robotics
on students‘ motivation and learning of
physical concepts, in particular temperature
6 THE EFFECT OF APPLYING THE ETHNO-STEM-
PROJECT-BASED LEARNING MODEL ON
STUDENTS’ HIGHER-ORDER THINKING SKILL
AND MISCONCEPTION OF PHYSICS TOPICS
RELATED TO LAKE TEMPE, INDONESIA
To determine the effect of applying the Ethno-
STEM-Project Based Learning model about
the concept of physics related to Lake Tempe
on students’ conceptual understanding of
physics
Using the Ethno-STEM-PjBL model affected the
understanding of physics concepts. It was
marked by increases in higher-order thinking
skills and decreases in misconceptions on
several physics topics related to students’
activities around Lake Tempe.
7 An Analysis of Students’ Higher Order Thinking
Skills Through the Project-Based Learning Model
on Science Subject
To facilitate students in solving problems and
higher-order thinking processes, describing
students’ higher-order thinking skills through
a project-based learning model
Project-based learning model contributes to
increasing the Higher Order Thinking Skills
(HOTS) in Physics
8 E-learning based on PjBL integrated to STEM
using microsoft sway on parabol motion
materials to improve critical thinking ability of
high school class X students
To produce e-learning based on PjBL products
assisted by integrated Microsoft Sway STEM
E-learning based on PjBLintegratded to STEM
products using Microsoft sway on parabolic
motion material can improve students’ critical
thinking
9 Learning fluid dynamics and the principles of
flight: from primary school to STEM degrees
To increase students’ motivation in the topics
of mathematics and physics, showing
students that the theoretical concepts that
they learn in class can be applied to solve
real-life problems
Students have acquired new complex
knowledge and at the same time their
motivation in scientific subjects has increased,
helping students to understand that the
theoretical concepts they learned physics
10 Integrated science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics project-based learning for physics
learning from neuroscience perspectives
To help students learn physics Has a more positive shift in belief about
physics and learning physics than the
traditional group
11 THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE INTEGRATED
STEM PBL PHYSICS MODULE ON STUDENTS’
INTEREST, SENSE MAKING AND EFFORT
To study the effectiveness of the STEM-
Project Based learning module in physics on
students’ personal interest and sense making
and effort
The integrated STEM-PBL physics module
significantly improved students’ interest, and
sense making and effort after the intervention
12 Development of Mobile Learning Applications
(MLA) Electromagnetic Induction Based on PjBL
to Improve Students’ Critical Thinking Skills
To develop Mobile Learning Applications
(MLA) Electromagnetic Induction Based on
PjBL and improve the physics critical thinking
skills of high school students
Was valid for physics learning in high school
and could improve the critical thinking skills of
high school students
13 An Innovative Low Cost Educational Underwater
Robotics Platform for Promoting Engineering
Interest among Secondary School Students
To promote engineering interest among
students and motivate them to direct their
future studies towards engineering degrees
Was a successful way to promote research in
underwater robotics and encouraged
engineering studies among secondary school
students.
14 The Comparison of Problem Based and Project
Based Learning Methods in Physics Teaching
To compare the Project Based Learning (PjBL)
and Problem Based Learning (PBL)
applications used in physics teaching
according to the students’ academic
achievement development, Problem Solving
Skills (PSS) development and analysis of
application environments
The applications based on the PjBL method are
more effective than the applications based on
the PBL method. In addition, both methods
contribute to increasing students’ academic
success, their interest in physics and their
responsibilities toward learning physics
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practices designed to ensure the effectiveness and rigor of PjBL
(Larmer et al. 2015). The term was popularized by the Buck
Institute for Education (now known as PBLWorks) and encom-
passes specific elements that make PjBL more impactful for stu-
dents. Gold Standard PjBL consists of seven essential design
elements while keeping student learning goals in mind: (1) a
challenging problem or question, (2) sustained inquiry, (3)
authenticity, (4) student voice and choice, (5) reflection, (6) cri-
tique and revision, and (7) a public product (Boardman et al.
2024; Lee and Galindo, 2021; Irick et al. 2020; Larmer et al. 2015;
Laur, 2013). These design elements, and the degree of their
representation within the project, determine how closely a project
attains the goals of Gold Standard PjBL (Irick et al. 2020). Table 7
presents the essential elements or core components of PjBL
identified in the reviewed studies. 48% of these studies incorpo-
rated all seven key elements or core components of PjBL. The
seven components may be applied differently as researchers and
educators continue to investigate the best ways to adopt Gold
Table 6 (continued)
No Title Aim Findings
15 Engagement in Learning Physics Through
Project-Based Learning: A Case Study of Gifted
Finnish Upper-Secondary-Level Students
Research on the advantages and
disadvantages of project-based learning (PBL)
among gifted pupils studying physics is
scarce.
PBL met the preconditions (challenge, skill,
interest) for engaging the students in learning
physics.
16 Design of edupark Physics book with Project-
Based Learning based on Ngarai Sianok National
Geopark, Indonesia
to develop the book as a learning device in the
form of a Physics Edupark book using Project
Based Learning (PjBL)
Project-based learning model can develop
student learning creativity
17 Preliminary analysis of physical module
practicum modeling project-based learning to
improve scientific skills of high school students
to survey the analysis of the need for teaching
materials in schools needed in physics
practice
It is necessary to develop teaching materials in
the form of practical textbooks based on
project-based learning models to improve
students’ scientific skills
18 The effect of the project-based learning model
assisted by student worksheets on the critical
thinking abilities of high school students
determines the effect of the project-based
learning model assisted by student
worksheets on students’ critical thinking skills
in learning physics.
Students who were taught by using a project-
based learning model assisted by student
worksheets had higher critical thinking skills
thanstudents who were taught by using the
direct learning model.
19 Need an analysis of student worksheets based
on the tracker on static fluid learning material in
high school
develop learner-based worksheets (LKPD) on
the static fluid material
It is necessary to develop Tracker-based
student worksheets using a project-based
learning (PjBL) model on static fluid learning
material in class XI SMA.
20 Needs Analysis of Air Quality Detection Tool in
Project-Based Learning
to analyze the need for an air quality
detection experiment that can be used in
project-based learning
Teachers and students need experiment tools
and media for the detection of air quality in
project-based learning in junior high schools.
21 The Effect of the PjBL Model based on Skill
Approach Process to Physics Critical Thinking
Ability of High School Students
Describing and determining the level of
critical thinking skills of students using
learning tools with a project-based learning
model based on material process skills
approach to momentum and impulse
There was an increase in critical thinking skills
after using learning tools with a project-based
learning model based on the process skills
approach to material momentum and impulse
22 Physics meets fine arts: A Project-Based
learning path on infrared imaging
PjBL aimed to offer students the opportunity
to participate in educational activities within a
real working context.
PBL path could be effective in promoting more
meaningful learning of the topics, as regards
the connection between the physical and
perceptual properties of light
23 ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ CRITICAL
THINKING SKILL OF MIDDLE SCHOOL
THROUGH STEM EDUCATION PROJECT-
BASED LEARNING
To investigate the students‘ critical thinking
skill by using STEM education through Project
Based Learning
Percentages of students‘ critical thinking skill
were the advanced thinker (higher thinker)
41.6%, practicing thinker (average thinker)
30,6%, beginning thinker (average thinker)
25%, and challenged thinker (lower thinker)
2.8%.
24 Analysis of Physics Textbooks for 10th and 11th
Grades in Accordance with the 2013 Secondary
School Physics Curriculum from the Perspective
of Project-Based Learning
To investigate the 10th and 11th grade Physics
textbooks in accordance with the 2013
Secondary School Physics Curriculum from
the perspective of project-based learning
method and to share the results with the
physics education public
Most of the educational gains in the 10th and
11th grade physics textbooks were supported
with experimental activities; however, project-
based assignments are needed
25 A Study of Creativity in CaC2 Steamship-
derived STEM Project-based Learning
To explore the effects of project-based
learning (PBL) integrated into science,
technology, engineering and mathematics
(STEM) activities and to analyze the creativity
displayed by junior high school students while
performing these activities
Improved students’ creativity, students’ ability,
in STEM learning and developed the affective
domain of creativity, including
adventurousness, curiosity, imagination and
challenge
26 Project Based Learning Multi Life Skill for
Collaborative Skills and Technological Skills of
Senior High School Students
To determine the effect of PjBL containing
multi life skills
PjBL multi life skills positively affect the
students’ independence
27 A project-based course on Newton’s laws for
talented junior high-school students
To demonstrate that project-based inquiry
can be used for teaching physics at the junior
high school level.
project-based learning promotes student
interest in science and improves understanding
of scientific content
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Standard PjBL. The two PjBL elements used by all the SLR studies
were a challenging problem or a question and authenticity. This
shows that the organizing framework for Gold Standard PjBL is
problems and questions. These structures make learning more
relevant for students since they offer them a reason to learn rather
than just memorize information. By concentrating on a sustained
inquiry, students not only learn new information but also learn
when and how to apply it (Lee and Galindo, 2021). PjBL
emphasizes authentic learning experiences, wherein students
engage in real-world investigations leading to the development of
a final product or performance (Boardman et al. 2024). Critique
and revision have been implemented in 15 studies, while only
eight studies have not applied student voice and choice. Students
are required to communicate their ideas and make decisions
throughout the project to set the standard for PjBL. The elements
of critique and revision are integral components of high-quality
PjBL, and they can greatly enhance the learning experience for
students. Students engage in critique and revision by seeking
feedback from peers and teachers, evaluating their work, and
revising their solutions based on the feedback received and, on
the criterion-referenced rubrics employed (Laur, 2013). However,
teachers may find it challenging to incorporate critique and
revision elements in PjBL due to time constraints, lack of training,
assessment pressures, student resistance, resource limitations,
educational culture, and teacher confidence. Overcoming these
challenges requires professional development, supportive policies,
and a commitment to PjBL principles (Lee and Galindo, 2021).
(PjBL) teaching practices. There are seven teaching practices for
Gold Standard PjBL, which are design and plan, align to stan-
dards, build the culture, manage activities, scaffold student
learning, assess student learning, and engage and coach. 37% of
the studies utilized all the recommended teaching practices of
PjBL. However, three specific practices were implemented in
every study: designing and planning, managing activities, and
scaffolding student learning. Additionally, about 96% of the stu-
dies utilized various tools to assess students throughout PjBL. In
contrast, only 37% of the studies incorporated building culture as
part of the PjBL teaching approach, as shown in Table 8.
Discussion
The main objective of synthesizing the findings from this SLR is
to explore literature gaps to allow scholars to contribute to the
development of implementing the PjBL approach to learning and
teaching physics in secondary schools. PjBL is an active approach
that encourages students to become as involved and involved in
the learning process as possible. It calls on the teacher to invi-
gorate the learning scenario by encouraging student collaboration
to research, make choices, and address project obstacles (De la
Torre-Neches et al. 2020). The PjBL approach improves students’
ability to work together and solve problems. Students could
improve their teamwork skills by supporting one another’s opi-
nions, speaking out when appropriate, listening to one another,
and taking part in serious debates (Rehman et al. 2023). Physics is
an important subject that is essential for understanding many
natural phenomena and is a foundation for many STEM fields.
Conducting an SLR study on teaching secondary school physics
can provide valuable insights into effective teaching strategies,
and gaps in the research. This may help to conduct further
research on the development of the PjBL Module to improve
secondary school students’ 21st-century skills, such as problem-
solving skills and critical thinking skills. This SLR study was
Table 7 PjBL design elements were examined in the reviewed studies.
No Elements
Challenging problem or
question
Inquiry Sustained Authenticity Student voice and
choice
Reflection Critique and
revision
Public
product
1 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
2 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
3 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
4 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
5 ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄
6 ⁄ ⁄⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
7 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
8 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
9 ⁄ - ⁄ - ⁄ - ⁄
10 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
11 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
12 ⁄ - ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
13 ⁄ - ⁄ - ⁄ - ⁄
14 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
15 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
16 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ - - ⁄
17 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
18 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ - - -
19 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
20 ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ - - -
21 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ - - -
22 ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ - -
23 ⁄ - ⁄ - ⁄ - ⁄
24 ⁄ - ⁄ - ⁄ - ⁄
25 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
26 ⁄ - ⁄ - ⁄ - ⁄
27 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ - ⁄
The ‘/‘ symbol indicates the presence of PjBL design elements, whereas the ‘-‘ symbol signifies its absence.
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conducted to answer the four research questions related to the
PjBL implementation in teaching secondary school physics in the
light of learning theories, context, key elements, and teaching
practices.
(PjBL) learning theories. In terms of the first research question
related to learning theories or frameworks, which play a crucial
role in guiding the implementation and evaluation of educational
interventions. In the context of PjBL for secondary school phy-
sics, Table 3 provides insights into the theoretical underpinnings
and frameworks utilized in the reviewed studies. While the sig-
nificance of implementing PjBL in secondary school physics
education is evident across these studies, it is noteworthy that
only a few studies explicitly examined theoretical foundations
related to PjBL. Approximately 2% of the studies reviewed are
notable for their dependence on prominent theories, such as
constructivist theory, cognitive evaluation theory, self-
determination theory and the 4P theory of creativity, which
includes Process, Person, Product, and Press/Place. Additionally,
the design and implementation of PjBL modules were guided by
specific frameworks or models (Martawijaya et al. 2023; Mak-
konen et al. 2021; Hamdani, 2020). For instance, Makkonen et al.
(2021) developed a framework for PjBL modules focusing on
basic Newtonian mechanics, tailored to gifted students in physics
education. Similarly, Hamdani (2020) utilized a practicm module
framework for practical physics textbooks, emphasizing hands-on
learning experiences. The utilization of the ADDIE model
(Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation) by
four studies (Astra and Kartini, 2023; Sulaiman et al. 2023;
Solihin et al. 2022; Rahmad et al. 2019) underscores a systematic
approach to designing PjBL activities, particularly in the context
of air quality detection experiments. This systematic approach
ensures the alignment of instructional objectives with student
needs and outcomes. Furthermore, the development of PjBL
models and worksheets in studies by Fadilah (2019), Astra et al.
(2019), and Rahim et al. (2019) exemplifies efforts to scaffold
student learning experiences and foster critical thinking skills.
These models provide structured frameworks for inquiry-based
learning, guiding students through the process of defining pro-
blems, designing projects, managing timelines, monitoring pro-
gress, and evaluating outcomes. Emafri et al. (2020) and Bonanno
et al. (2018) also incorporated theoretical frameworks into their
PjBL approaches, leveraging Plomp’s model and a hands-on
learning sequence influenced by the PjBL paradigm, respectively.
These frameworks facilitate authentic, real-world learning
experiences that promote deeper conceptual understanding and
application of physics principles. In summary, while the reviewed
studies may vary in their explicit incorporation of theoretical
foundations, the utilization of frameworks and models under-
scores a commitment to systematic instructional design and
pedagogical innovation within the realm of PjBL for secondary
school physics education. Moving forward, further exploration
and integration of theoretical perspectives can enrich our
understanding of the mechanisms underlying effective PjBL
implementation and its impact on student learning outcomes.
Future researchers should consider the significance of selecting
appropriate learning theories in developing a PjBL module for
secondary school physics to improve students’ 21st-century skills,
such as problem-solving skills and critical thinking skills. Because
developing, implementing, and evaluating a project in a way that
is educationally sound, engaging, and in line with the learning
Table 8 PjBL teaching practices were examined in the reviewed studies.
No PjBL physics teaching practices
Design and
plan
Align to standards Build the
culture
Manage activities Scaffold student
learning
Assess student
learning
Engage and
coach
1 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
2 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
3 ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
4 ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
5 ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
6 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
7 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
8 ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
9 ⁄ - - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
10 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
11 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
12 ⁄ - - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ -
13 ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
14 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
15 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
16 ⁄ - - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ -
17 ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄
18 ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
19 ⁄ - - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
20 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
21 ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
22 ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ -
23 ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ -
24 ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ -
25 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
26 ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ -
27 ⁄ ⁄ - ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
The ‘/‘ symbol indicates the presence of PjBL teaching practice, whereas the ‘-‘ symbol signifies its absence.
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objectives, it is essential to select the appropriate learning theories
for the PjBL module. It offers a theoretical foundation that raises
the standard of students’ educational experience.
Future directions for supporting PjBL in secondary physics
classrooms include emphasizing constructivist principles by
developing inquiry-based projects that deepen understanding.
Incorporating sociocultural theory can enhance engagement
through peer collaboration, while self-determination theory
fosters intrinsic motivation with student-driven tasks. Optimiz-
ing cognitive load ensures tasks are manageable, and integrating
STEM creates real-world connections. Experiential learning can
deepen understanding through fieldwork and reflection, while
universal design ensures inclusivity in activities. Finally,
targeting 21st-century skills through collaborative projects
promotes critical thinking and creativity. These frameworks
can significantly enhance teaching and learning outcomes in
physics.
The context of the reviewed studies. The context related to the
second research question provides valuable insights into the
landscape of PjBL research in secondary school physics educa-
tion. This discussion is divided into two categories: the char-
acteristics of the studies and the synthesized findings from the
(SLR) studies. Type, Country, Year, Learning Environment, Study
Design, and Sample Size. The distribution of publications indi-
cates a strong presence in journal publications, with 63% of the
research published in this format, highlighting the ongoing aca-
demic dialogue on PjBL within scholarly journals. In contrast,
37% of the studies were shared through conference proceedings,
reflecting a diverse dissemination approach by researchers to
reach broader audiences and contribute to the academic
literature.
Geographically, the studies were primarily conducted in
different countries, for example, Finland, USA, Oman and
Indonesia, highlighting the global interest and applicability of
PjBL. The variation in country representation underscores the
need for context-specific investigations to understand the
nuanced implementation and outcomes of PjBL across different
cultural and educational settings. Although most of the research
has been conducted in Indonesia (48%), this focus is attributable
to the specific inquiries posed by the research, which pertain to a
global issue with potential implications applicable