Karl Mannheim The Problem of Generations

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CHAPTER VII
THE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
I. HOW THE PROBLEM STANDS AT THE MOMENT
A. THE POSITIVIST FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM
THE firsttaskofthesociologistis toreviewthegeneralstateof investigationinto hisproblem.All toooftenit fallstohislot todealwithstrayproblemstowhichall thesciences
in turnhavemadetheirindividualcontributionwithoutanyone
havingeverpaidanyattentionto thecontinuityof theinvesti-
gationasa whole.Weshallneedtodomore,however,thangive
ameresurveyofpastcontributionstotheproblemofgenerations.
We musttry to givea criticalevaluationof thepresentstageof
discussion(in PartOne);thiswill helpusin ourownanalysisof
theproblem(in PartTwo).
Two approachesto thcproblemhavebeenworkedoutin the
past:a 'positivist'and a 'romantic-historical'one.Thesetwo;
schoolsrepresenttwo antagonistictypesof attitudestowards
reality,andthedifferentwaysin whichtheyapproachtheproDr
lemreflectthiscontrastof basicattitudes.The methodicalide~j~
of thePositivistsconsistedin reducingtheirproblemsto quanti-:;~
tativeterms;theysoughta quantitativeformulationof factol'li'
ultimatelydetermininghumanexistence.The secondschoo.i
adopteda qualitativeapproach,firmlyeschewingtheclearday,;1
lightofmathematics,andintrovertingthewholeproblem. j.
To beginwith theformer.The Positivistis attractedby
problemofgenerationsbecauseit giveshimthefeelingthathe
he hasachievedcontactwith someof the ultimatefactors
humanexistenceas such.Thereis life and death;a definit,
measurablespanof life;generationfollowsgenerationatregul
intervals.Here,thinksthePositivist,is theframeworkofhum
destinyin comprehensible,evenmeasurableform.All otherda
areconditionedwithintheprocessof lifeitself:theyareonly
expressionof particularrelationships.Theycan disappear,
theirdisappearancemeansonlythelossof oneof manypossib
276
HOW THE PROBLEM STANDS AT THE MOMENT 277
formsofhistoricalbeing.Butif theultimatehumanrelationships
arechanged,theexistenceofmanaswehavecometounderstand
it mustceasealtogether-culture,creativeness,traditionmustall
disappear,ormustatleastappearin a totallydifferentlight.
Humeactuallyexperimentedwith theideaof a modification
of suchultimatedata.Suppose,he said,thetypeof succession
ofhumangenerationstobecompletelyalteredtoresemblethatof
a butterflyor caterpillar,sothattheoldergenerationdisappears
at onestrokeand the newoneis born all at once.Further,
supposemantobeofsucha highdegreeofmentaldevelopment
asto becapableof choosingrationallytheformof government
mostsuitableforhimself.(This,ofcourse,wasthemainproblem
of Hume'stime.)Theseconditionsgiven,he said,it wouldbe
bothpossibleandproperfor eachgeneration,withoutreference
to thewaysof its ancestors,to chooseafreshits ownparticular
formofstate.Onlybecausemankindisasit is-generationfollow-
ing generationin a continuousstream,so thatwheneverone
persondiesoff, anotheris b-9rnto replacehim-do we find it
necessarytopreservethecontinuityofourformsofgovernment.
Humethustranslatestheprincipleof politicalcontinuityinto
termsofthebiologicalcontinuityofgenerations.
Comte1tootoyedwitha similaridea:hetriedtoelucidatethe
natureandtempoof progress(thecentralproblemof histime)
by assuminga changein the basicdataof the successionof
generationsandof theaveragelengthof life.If theaveragespan
of life of everyindividualwereeithershortenedor lengthened,
hesaid,thctempoof progresswouldalsochange.To lengthen
thelife-spanoftheindividualwouldmeanslowingupthetempo
ofprogress,whereastoreducethepresentdurationoflifebyhalf
oraquarterwouldcorrespondinglyacceleratethetempo,because
the restrictive,conservative,'go-slow'influenceof the older
generationwouldoperatefor a longertime,shouldtheylive
longer,and for a shortertime,shouldthey disappearmore
quickly.
An excessivelyretardedpacewasharmful,buttherewasalso
dangerthattoogreatanaccelerationmightresultin shallowness,
thepotentialitiesof life neverbeingreallyexhausted.Without
wishingtoimplythatourworldis thebestofall possibleworlds,
Comteneverthelessthoughtthato~rspanoflifeandtheaverage
generationperiodof goyearswerenecessarycorrelativesof our
organism,and thatfurther,theslowprogressof mankindwas
directlyrelatedto thisorganiclimitation.The tempoofprogress
andthepresenceof conservativeaswell asreformingforcesin
1For thesequotationsfromHumeandComte,cf.Mentre(19),pp. 179f.
and66fr.
Harold
Typewritten Text
Karl Mannheim (1927/28), republished 1952, pp. 276-322 plus intro
Harold
Typewritten Text
Harold
Typewritten Text
 in: Paul Kecskemeti (ed.) , Karl Mannheim: Essays (Routledge, 1952, null republished 1972), 276-322; 22-24 (introduction).
278 THE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
societyarethusdirectlyattributedto biologicalfactors.This is,
indeed,howtheproblemlooksin broaddaylight.Everythingis
almostmathematicallyclear:everythingis capableof analysis
intoitsconstituentelements,theconstructiveimaginationof the
thinkercelebratesitstriumph;by freelycombiningtheavailable
data,hehassucceededin graspingtheultimate,constantelements
of humanexistence,andthesecretof Historyliesalmostfully
revealedbeforeus.
Therationalismofpositivismisadirectcontinuationofclassical
rationalism,andit.showstheFrenchmindat workin its own
domain.In fact,theimportantcontributorsto theproblemare
for themostpartFrench.Comte,Cournot,J. Dromel,Mentre,
andothersoutsideGermanyarepositivists'or,at anyrate,have
comeundertheirinfluence.Ferrari,theItalian,andO. Lorenz,
theAustrianhistorian,all workedat a timewhenthepositivist
waveencompassedall Europe.!
Theirformulationsof theproblemhadsomethingin common.
Theyallwereanxioustofindagenerallawtoexpresstherhythm
ofhistoricaldevelopment,basedonthebiologicallawofthelimited
life-span-of manan~theoverlapof newand old generations.
The aimwastounderstandthechangingpatternsof intellectual
andsocialcurrentsairectlyin biologicalterms,to constructthe
curveof theprogressof thehumanspeciesin termsof itsvital
substructure.In theprocess,everything,sofar aspossible,was
simplified:a schematicpsychologyprovidedthat the parents
shouldalwaysbea conservativeforce.
Presentedin thislight,thehistoryofideasappearsreducedtoa
chronologicaltable.The coreof theproblem,afterthissimpli-
fication,appearstobetofindtheaverageperiodoftimetakenfor
theoldergenerationto besupersededby thenewin publiclife,
andprincipally,tofindthenaturalstarting-pointin historyfrom
whichtoreckonanewperiod.Thedurationofagenerationisvery
variouslyestimated-manyassessingit at 15years(e.g.Dromel),
butmosttakingit to mean30 years,on thegroundthatduring
thefirst30 yearsof lifepeoplearestill learning,thatindividual.
creativenessonanaveragebeginsonlyatthatage,andthatat60
amanquitspubliclife.2Evenmoredifficultisit tofindthenatural
1The exacttitlesof all worksrcferredto in thisessaycanbefoundin the
bibliographyat theendof thebook.
2 Riimelin'sattemptseemstobethemostscientific;hetriedtoassessgenera-
tionperiodsin variousnations,usingpurelystatisticalmethodsandignoring
all problemsrelatedto intellectualhistory.The twodecisivefactorsentering
into his calculationsweretheaverageageofmarriageamongmen,andhalf
theaverageperiodof maritalfertility.The generation-periodis obtainedas
thesumofthesetwoquantities(whichvaryasbetweenbothsocialgroupsand
countries).Germanywascomputedat36t,andFranceat34tyear3.
HOW THE PROBLEM STANDS AT THE MOMENT 279
beginningof thegenerationseries,becausebirth anddeathin
societyasa wholefollowcontinuouslyoneuponthe other,and
full intervalsexistonlyin theindividualfamilywherethereis a
definiteperiodbeforechildrenattainmarriageableage.
This constitutesthecoreof thisapproachto theproblem:the
restrepresentsmereapplicationsof the principleto concrete
instancesfoundin history.But theanalyticalmindremainsat
workall the time,and bringsto light manyimportantrami-
ficationsoftheproblemwhileworkingonthehistoricalmaterial.
Mentre1in particular,whofirstreviewedtheproblemhistoric-
ally,placedthewholeformulationon a moresolidbasis.2He
takesuptheanalysisof
theproblemofgenerationsin thehuman
familyafteradiscussionofthesamephenomenonamonganimals,
basedon the work of Espinas('Les SocietesAnimales', Paris,
I8n). It isonlyafterhavinginvestigatedtheseelementaryaspects
oftheproblemthathetakesupmorecomplexaspects,suchasthe
questionof socialandintellectualgenerations.
We alsomusttakeintoaccounta refinementof theproblem
dueto Mentrewhichflowsfromthedistinctionhe makes(in
commonwith Levy-Bruhl)between'institutions'and 'series
libres'. A rhythmin thesequenceof generationsis far more
apparentin therealmofthe'series'-free humangroupingssuch
assalonsandliterarycircles-thanin therealmoftheinstitutions
whichforthemostpartlaydowna lastingpatternofbehaviour,
eitherbyprescriptionsorbytheorganizationofcollectiveunder-
takings,thuspreventingthe newgenerationfromshowingits
originality.An essentialpartof hisworkis concernedwith the
questionastowhetherthereiswhathecallsapre-eminentspherein
history(forexample,politics,science,law,art,economics,etc.)
whichdeterminesallothers.Hecomestotheconclusionthatthere
isnosuchdominantsphereimposingitsownrhythmofdevelop-
mentupontheothers,sinceall alikeareembeddedin thegeneral
streamof history,3althoughtheaestheticsphereis perhapsthe
mostappropriatetoreflectoverallchangesofmentalclimate.An
analysisof thehistoryof thisspherein Francesincethe 16th
centuryledhimtotheviewthatessentialchangeshadcomeabout
atintervalsof30years.
Mentre'sbookis usefulas thefirstcomprehensivesurveyof
theproblem,althoughin realityit yieldslittle,consideringits
volume,and failsto probedeeplyenoughor to formulatethe
1cr.No. 19 in theBibliography.
2 We shall discussherein detailonly thosestudentsof the problemof
generationswhosecontributionsappearedafterthe.publicationof Mentre's
work.
3Mentre(19), p. 298.
230 THE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
problemin systematicterms.That theFrenchrecentlybecame
sointerestedin theproblemof changefromonegenerationto
anotherwaslargelyduetothefactthattheywitnessedthesudden
eclipseof liberalcosmopolitanismasa resultof thearrivalof a
nationalistically-mindedyoung generation.The changeof
generationsappearedasanimmediatelygivendatumandalsoas
a problemextendingfar outsidetheacademicfield,a problem
whoseimpactuponreallifecouldbeobservedinconcretefashion,
forexample,byissuingquestionnaires.1
AlthoughMentreoccasionallymakesremarkswhich point
beyonda purelyquantitativeapproach,wemayconsiderhimas
a positivistwhosetreatmentof theproblemof generationsthus
farrepresentsthelastwordoftheschoolonthissubject.
We mustnowturnourattentionto thealternativeromantic-
historicalapproach.
B. THE ROMANTIC-HISTORICAL FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM
Wefindourselvesin a quitedifferentatmosphereif weturnto
Germanyand tracethedevelopmentof theproblemthere.It
wouldbedifficultto findbetterproofof thethesisthatwaysof
formulatingproblemsandmodesof thoughtdifferfromcountry
to countryand fromepochto epoch,dependingon dominant
politicaltrends,than the contrastingsolutionsofferedto our
problemin thevariouscountriesat differenttimes.It is true
thatRtimelin,who attackedthe problemfrom the statistical
viewpoint,andO. Lorenz,whousedgenealogicalresearchdata
ashisstarting-point,bothremainedfaithfultC'thepositivistspirit
of theirepoch.But thewholeproblemof generationstookon a
specifically'German'characterwhenDiltheytackledit. All the
traditionsand impulseswhich once inspiredthe romantic-
historicalschoolwererevivedin Dilthey'swork;in Diltheywe
witnessthesuddenre-emergence,in revisedform,of problems
and categorieswhich in their original, romantic-historicist.
settinghelpedfoundthesocialandhistoricalsciencesin Germany.
In GermanyandFrance,thepredominatingtrendsofthought
in thelastepochemergedcloselyrelatedwith theirrespective
historicalandpoliticalstructures.
In Francea positivisttypeof thought,derivingdirectlyfrom
the traditionof the Enlightenment,prevailed.It tendedto
dominatenotmerelythenaturalbutalsotheculturalsciences.It
notonlyinspiredprogressiveandoppositionalgroups,buteven
thoseprofessingConservatismandtraditionalism.In Germany,
I Cf. alsothebooksofAgathon(I), Bainville(3),Ageorges(2), Valois(30).
E. R. Curtius(7),andPlatz(25),alsoalwaystakeintoconsiderationthefactor
ofgenerations.
HOW THE PROBLEM STANDS AT THE MOMENT 231
ontheotherhand,thepositionwasjust thereverse-theromantic
andhistoricalschoolssupportedbya strongconservativeimpulse
alwaysheldsway.Onlythenaturalscienceswereabletodevelop
in the positivisttradition:the culturalscienceswere based
entirelyontheromantic-historicalattitude,andpositivismgained
groundonlysporadically,in sofar asfromtimeto timeit was
sponsoredbyoppositionalgroups.
Althoughtheantithesismustnotbeexaggerated,it is never-
thelesstruethatit providedrallyingpointsin thestrugglewhich
wasconductedroundpracticallyeverylogicalcategory;andthe
problemofgenerationsitselfconstitutedmerelyonestagein the
developmentof thismuchwidercampaign.Unlesswe put this
antithesisbetweenFrenchpositivismand Germanromanticism
intoitswidercontext,wecannothopetounderstandit in relation
tothenarrowerproblemofgenerations.
For theliberalpositivisttype,especiallyat home,asstated,
in France,theproblemofgenerationsservesaboveallasevidence
in favourof itsunilinearconceptionofprogress.
This typeof thought,arisingoutof modemliberalimpulses,
fromtheoutsetadopteda mechanistic,extemalisedconceptof
time,andattemptedtouseit asanobjectivemeasureofunilinear
progressby virtueof its expressibilityin quantitativeterms.
Eventhesuccessionof generationswasconsideredassomething
which articulatedratherthan brokethe unilinearcontinuity
of time.The mostimportantthingaboutgenerationsfromthis
pointwasthattheyconstitutedoneoftheessentialdrivingforces
ofprogress.
I t is this conceptof progress,on the otherhand, that is
challengedby theromanticandhistoricistGermanmindwhich,
relyingondatafurnishedbyaconservativetechniqueofobserva-
tion,pointsto theproblemof generationspreciselyasevidence
againstthe conceptof unilineardevelopmentin history.!The
problemofgenerationsisseenhereastheproblemoftheexistence
ofaninteriortimethatcannotbemeasuredbutonlyexperienced
in purelyqualitativeterms.
The relativenoveltyof Dilthey'swork consistsin just this
distinctionwhichhemadebetweenthequalitativeandquanti-
tativeconceptof time.Diltheyis interestedin theproblemof
generationsprimarilybecause,asheputsit, theadoptionof the
'generation'as a temporalunit of the historyof intellectual
evolutionmakesit possibleto replacesuchpurelyexternalunits
1 For theconservativeconceptof time,cf. 'ConservativeThought',to be
publishedin a latervolume.
For a repudiationof theconceptof progressasusedto sumup historical
development,cf.forexample,Pindt'r(23),p. 138.
E.S.K.-19
282 THE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
ashours,months,years,decades,etc.,by a conceptof measure
operatingfromwithin (einevon innenabmessendeVorstellung).The
useofgenerationsasunitsmakesit possibletoappraiseintellectual
movementsby an intuitiveprocessof re-enactment)
The secondconclusionto whichDiltheycomesin connection
with thephenomenonof generationsis thatnot merelyis the
successionof oneafteranotherimportant,but alsothat their
co-existenceis of morethanmerechronologicalsignificance.The
samedominantinfluencesderivingfrom the prevailingintel-
lectual,social,and politicalcircumstancesare experiencedby
contemporaryindividuals,bothin theirearly,formative,andin
theirlateryears.They arecontemporaries,theyconstituteone
generation,just becausetheyaresubjectto commoninfluences.
This ideathat,fromthepointof viewof thehistoryof ideas,
contemporaneitymeansa stateof beingsubjectedto similar
influencesratherthan a merechronologicaldatum,shiftsthe
discussio!lfromaplaneonwhichit riskeddegeneratingintoakind
ofarithmeticalmysticismtothesphereofinteriortimewhichcan
begraspedby intuitiveunderstanding.
Thus,aproblemopentoquantitative,mathematicaltreatment
only is replacedby a qualitativeone,centredaboutthenotion
ofsomethingwhichisnotquantifiable,but~apableonlyofbeing
experienced.The time-intervi)lseparatinggenerationsbecomes
subjectivelyexperienceabletime;andcontemporaneitybecomes
a subjectiveconditionof havingbeensubmittedto the same
determininginfll,lences.
Fromhereit isonlyonesteptothephenomenologicalposition
of Heidegger,whogivesa veryprofoundinterpretationof this
qualitativerelationship-forhim,theverystuffandsubstanceof
Fate.'Fateisnotthesumof individualdestinies,anymorethan
togethernesscan be understoodas a mereappearingtogether
of severalsubjects.Togethernessin the sameworld, and the
consequentpreparednessfor a distinctsetof possibilities,deter-
minesthedirectionofindividualdestiniesin advance.Thepower
of Fate is thenunleashedin thepeacefulintercourseand the
conflictof sociallife.The inescapablefateof livingin andwith
one'sgenerationcompletesthefull dramaof individualhuman
existence.'2
Thequalitativeconceptof timeuponwhich,aswehaveseen,
Dilthey'sapproachwas based,alsounderliesthe formulation
giventheproblemby theart historianPinder.3Diltheywith
happy restraintis neverled to developany but genuine
1Cf. Dilthey(8),pp.36if.
2Heidegger(12), pp. 384if.
3 Pinder(23),cf.especiallyCh. 7.
HOW THE PROBLEM STANDS AT THE MOMENT 283
possibilitiesopenedupbytheromantic-qualitativeapproach.Asa
matterof fact,hewasableto learnalsofrompositivism.Pinder,
on the otherhand,becomesthoroughlyenmeshedin all the
confusionsofromanticism.He givesmanydeepinsights,butdoes
notknowhowtoavoidthenaturalexcessesofromanticism.'The
non-contemporaneityof thecontemporaneous'is whatinterestsPinder
mostin relationto generations.Differentgenerationsliveat the
sametime.Butsinceexperiencedtimeis theonlyrealtime,they
mustall in factbelivingin qualitativelyquitedifferentsubjective
eras.'Everyoneliveswith peopleof thesameand of different
ages,witha varietyofpossibilitiesof experiencefacingthemall
alike.Butforeachthe"sametime"is a differenttime-thatis,it
representsadifferentperiodof hisself,whichhecanonlysharewith
peopleofhisownage.'1
Everymomentoftimeisthereforein realitymorethanapoint-
likeevent-it isa temporalvolumehavingmorethanonedimen-
sion,becauseit is alwaysexperiencedby severalgenerationsat
variousstagesof development.2To quote a musicalsimile
employedby Pinder:thethinkingofeachepochispolyphonous.
At anygivenpointin timewemustalwayssortouttheindividual
voicesofthevariousgenerations,eachattainingthatpointin time
in itsownway.
A furtherideasuggestedby Pinderis that eachgeneration
buildsup an 'entelechy'of itsownbywhichmeansaloneit can
reallybecomea qualitativeunity.AlthoughDiltheybelievedthe
innerunityof a generationto existin thecommunityof deter-
mininginfluencesof an intellectualandsocialkind,thelink of
contemporaneityassuchdidnotassumeapurelyqualitativeform
in hisanalysis.Heideggertriedto remedythiswithhisconcept
of 'fate'as the primaryfactorproducingunity; Pinder,then,
in thetraditionof modernarthistory,suggestedtheconceptof
'entelechy'.
Accordingtohim,theentelechyofagenerationistheexpression
of theunityof its 'inneraim'-of itsinbornwayofexperiencing
life andtheworld.Viewedwithinthetraditionof Germanart
history,this conceptof 'entelechy'representsthe transferof
Riegl'sconceptofthe'artmotive'(Kunstwollen)3fromthephenom-
enonofunityofartisticstylesto thatof theunityofgenerations,
in thesamewayastheconceptof the'artmotive'itselfresulted
fromtherejuvenationandfructification,undertheinfluenceof
positivism,ofthemorphologicaltendencyalreadyinherentin the
historicistconceptofthe'Spirit of a people'(Volksgeist).
1Pinder(23),p. 21. Pinder'sitalics. 2Ibid., p. 20.
3 Cf. K. Mannheim,'On theInterpretationof Weltanschauung,'pp.33if inthisvolume.
284 THE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
Theconceptofa 'spiritof theage' (Zeitgeist)withwhichonehad
hithertoprincipallyworked,nowturnsouttobe-to takeanother
ofPinder'sfavourite1musicalanalogies-anaccidentalchord,an
apparentharmony,producedbytheverticalcoincidenceofnotes
whichin factoweaprimaryhorizontalallegiancetothedifferent
parts(i.e.thegeneration-entelechies)ofafugue.Thegeneration-
entelechiesthusservetodestroythepurelytemporalconceptsof
an epochover-emphasizedin thepast(e.g.Spiritof theageor
epoch).Theepochasaunithasnohomogeneousdrivingimpulse,
nohomogeneousprincipleof form-no entelechy.Its unitycon-
sistsatmostin therelated'natureofthemeanswhichtheperiod
makesavailableforthefulfilmentof thedifferenthistoricaltasks
of thegenerationslivingin it. Periodshavetheircharacteristic
colour-'such coloursdo in fact exist,but somewhatas the
colour-toneofavarnishthroughwhichonecanlookatthemany
coloursof thedifferentgenerationsandage-groups'.2
Althoughthisdenialof theexistenceof an entelechypeculiar
toeachepochmeansthatepochscanno longerserveasunitsin
histori~alanalysisandthattheconceptof Zeitgeistbecomesin-
applicableandrelativized,othertermscustomarilyusedasunits
in the historyof ideasare left valid.Accordingto Pinder,in
additionto entelechiesof generations,thereexistentelechiesof
art, language,and style;entelechiesof nationsand tribes-
evenan entelechyof Europe;and finally,entelechiesof the
individualsthemselves.
What then,accordingto Pinder, constitutesthe historical
process?The interplayof constantand transientfactors.The
constantfactorsarecivilization,nation,tribe,family,individu-
ality,andtype;thetransientfactorsaretheentelechiesalready
mentioned.'It ismaintainedthatgrowthismoreimportantthan
experience('influences','relationships').It ismaintainedthatthe
lifeofart,asseenby thehistorian,consistsin theinteractionsof
determiningentelechies,bornofmysteriousprocessesofnature,with
theequallyessentialfrictions,influences,andrelationsexperienced
in theactualdevelopmentoftheseentelechies.3Whatisimmedi-
atelystrikinghereisthatthesocialfactorisnotevenalludedtoin
thisenumerationofdeterminingfactors.
This romantictendencyin Germanycompletelyobscuredthe
fact that betweenthe natural or physicaland the mental
spheresthereisa levelofexistenceatwhichsocialforcesoperate.
Either a completelyspiritualistica.ttitudeis maintainedand
everythingis deducedfromentelechies(theexistenceof which,
1Pinder (24), p. 98.
2 Pinder,pp. 159ff.
3 Pinder,0;. cif., p. 154,Pinder'sitalics.
HOW THE PROBLEM STANDS AT THE MOMENT 285
however,isnottobedenied),or thereisafeelingofobligationto
introducesomeelementofrealism,andthensomecrudebiological
datalikeraceandgeneration(which,again,mustbe admitted
toexist)arecountedupontoproduceculturalfactsbya 'mysteri-
ous naturalprocess'.Undoubtedly,therearemysteriesin the
world in any case,but we shoulduse themas explanatory
principlesin theirproperplace,ratherthanatpointswhereit is
stillperfectlypossibleto understandtheagglomerationof forces
in termsof socialprocesses.Intellectualandculturalhistoryis
surelyshaped,amongotherthings,by socialrelationsin which
mengetoriginallyconfrontedwitheachother,bygroupswithin
whichtheyfindmutualstimulus,whereconcretestruggleproduces
entelechiesand therebyalsoinfluencesand to a largeextent
shapesart,religion,andso('n. Perhapsit wouldalsobefruitful
toaskourselveswhethersocietyin factcanproducenothingmore
than'influences'and'relationships',orwhether,onthecontrary,
socialfactorsalsopossessa certaincreativeenergy,a formative
power,a socialentelechyof theirown.Is it notperhapspossible
that this energy,arisingfrom-the interplayof socialforces,
constitutesthe link betweentheotherentelechiesof art, style,
generation,etc.,whichwouldotherwiseonlyaccidentallycross
pathsorcometogether?If onerefusestolookatthismatterfrom
thispointofview,andassumesa directrelationshipbetweenthe
spiritualand the vital withoutany sociologicaland historical
factorsmediatingbetweenthem,hewill betooeasilytemptedto
concludethatespeciallyproductivegenerationsarethe'chance
productsof nature',land'theproblemof thetimesofbirthwill
pointtowardsthefar moredifficultandmysteriousoneof the
timesofdeath'.2How muchmoresober,howmuchmorein tune
with thegenuineimpulsesof research,is thefollowingsentence
in whichDilthey,so
to speak,disposedof suchspeculationsin
advance:'Forthetimebeing,themostnaturalassumptionwould
appearto bethaton thewhole,boththedegreeandthedistri-
butionof abilityarethesamefor eachgeneration,thelevelof
efficiencywithinthenationalsocietybeingconstant,sothattwo
othergroupsof conditions3wouldexplainboththedistribution
andtheintensityofachievement.'
Valuable,evena strokeof genius,is Pinder'sidea of the
'non-contemporaneityof the contemporaneous',as well as his
conceptofentelechies-boththe,resultof theromantic-historical
approachandbothundoubtedlyunattainablebypositivism.But
1Pinder,0;. cit.,p. 30.
2Ibid.,p. 60.
3That is, the 'culturalsituation'and 'socialand political conditions'.
Dilthey(8),p. 38.
286 THE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
hisprocedurebecomesdangerouslyinimicaltothescientificspirit
wherehechoosestomakeuseofthemethodofanalogy.Thismode
of thought,whichactuallyderivesfromspeculationsaboutthe
philosophyofnaturecurrentduringtheRenaissance,wasrevived
andblownup to grotesqueproportionsby theRomantics;it is
usedcurrentlybyPinderwheneverhetriestoworkoutabiological
world-rhythm.His ultimateaimalsois to establishmeasurable
intervalsinhistory(althoughsomewhatmoreflexiblythanusual),
andtousethismagicalformulaofgenerationsin ordertodiscover
birth cyclesexercisinga decisiveinfluenceon history.Joel,l
otherwiseaneminentscholar,indulgesin evenmoreunwarranted
constructionsin thisfield.His latestpublicationon thesecular
rhythminhistoryremindsthereaderimmediatelyoftheromantic
speculations.
It is a completemisconceptiontosuppose,asdomostinvesti-
gators,thata realproblemofgenerationsexistsonlyin sofarasa
rhythmof generations,recurringat unchangingintervals,can
be established.Even if it provedimpossibleto establishsuch
intervals,theproblemofgenerationswouldneverthelessremaina
fruitfufandimportantfieldofresearch.
Wedonotyetknow-perhapsthereisasecularrhythmatwork
inhistory,andperhapsit willonedaybediscovered.Butwemust
definitelyrepudiateanyattemptto find it throughimaginative
speculations,particularlywhenthis speculation-whetherbio-
logicalor spiritualin its character-issimplyusedasa pretext
foravoidingresearchintothenearerandmoretransparentfabric
of socialprocessesand their influenceon thephenomenonof
generations.Any biologicalrhythmmustworkitselfoutthrough
the mediumof socialevents:and if this importantgroupof
formativefactorsis leftunexamined,andeverythingis derived
directlyfromvital factors,all the fruitfulpotentialitiesin the
originalformulationoftheproblem2areliabletobejettisonedin
themannerofitssolution.
II. 'tHE SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
The problemof generationsis importantenoughto merit
seriousconsideration.It is oneof theindispensableguidesto an
understandingof thestructureof socialand intellectualmove-
1See(16)in thebiliography.
2 O. Lorenzsoughtto substitutefor thecenturyasunit a morerationally
deducibleunit of threegenerations~Schereremphasizesa 600-yearrhythm
inhisHistoryofLiterature,pp. 18if. Weshallhavetoreferto theworkof the
modernliteraryhistoriansKummersandPetersen,aswellasL. vonWiese,in
thenextpartof thisinvestigation.
THE SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS 287
ments.Itspracticalimportancebecomesclearassoonasonetries~
toobtaina moreexactunderstandingof theacceleratedpace0
socialchangecharacteristicof our time.It wouldberegrettable
if extra-scientificmethodswerepermanentlytoconcealelements
oftheproblemcapableofimmediateinvestigation.
It isclearfromtheforegoingsurveyoftheproblemasit stands·
todaythata commonlyacceptedapproachto it doesnotexist.
The socialsciencesin variouscountriesonly sporadicallytake
accountof the achievementsof theirneighbours.In particular,
Germanresearchinto theproblemof generationshasignored
resultsobtainedabroad.Moreover,the problemhas been
tackledby specialistsin manydifferentsciencesin succession;
thus,wepossessanumberofinterestingsidelightsontheproblem
aswellascontributionstoanoverallsolution,butnoconsciously
directedresearchon the basisof a clearformulationof the
problemasa whole.
The multiplicityof pointsof view,resultingboth fromthe
peculiaritiesof theintellectualtraditionsof variousnationsand
from thoseof the individualsciences,is both attractiveand
fruitful;andtherecanbenodoubtthatsuchawideproblemcan
only be solvedas a resultof co-operationbetweenthe most
diversedisciplinesandnationalities.However,theco-operation
mustsomehowbeplannedanddirectedfromanorganiccentre.
The presentstatusof theproblemof generationsthusaffords
a strikingillustrationof theanarchyin thesocialandcultural
sciences,whereeveryonestartsoutafreshfr()mhisownpointof
view(to a certainextent,of course,thisis bothnecessaryand
fruitful),neverpausingto considerthevariousaspectsaspart
of a singlegeneralproblem,so that the contributionsof the
variousdisciplinestothecollectivesolutioncouldbeplanned.
Any attemptat over-organizationof thesocialand cultural
sciencesis naturallyundesirable:but it is at leastworthcon-
sideringwhetherthereis notperhapsonediscipline-according
to thenatureof theproblemin question-whichcouldact as
theorganizingcentreforworkon it by all theothers.As faras
generationsareconcerned,thetaskofsketchingthelayoutof the
problemundoubtedlyfallsto sociology.It seemsto be thetask
ofFormal Sociologytoworkoutthesimplest,butat thesametime
the mostfundamentalfactsrelatingto the phenomenonof
generations.Withinthesphereof formalsociology,however,the
problemliesontheborderlinebetweenthestaticandthedynamic
typesof investigation.Whereasformalsociologyup to nowhas
tendedfor themostpart to studythesocialexistenceof man
exclusivelystatical{y,thisparticularproblemseemsto beoneof
thosewhichhaveto do with theascertainmentof theoriginof
socialdynamismand of the lawsgoverningthe actionof thc
dynamiccomponentsof thesocialprocess.Accordingly,thisis
thepointwherewehavetomakethetransitionfromtheformal
statictotheformaldynamicandfromthencetoappliedhistorical
sociology-allthreetogethercomprisingthe completefield of
sociologicalresearch.
In thesucceedingpagesweshallattempttoworkoutin formal
sociologicaltermsall the mostelementaryfactsregardingthe
phenomenonof generations,withoutthe elucidationof which
historicalresearchintotheproblemcannotevenbegin.Weshall
try to incorporateanyresultsof pastinvestigations,whichhave
provedthemselvesrelevant,ignoringthosewhichdonotseemto
besufficientlywellfounded.
!\.. CONCRETE GROUP-SOCIAL LOCATION (LAGERUNG)
To obtainaclearideaofthebasicstructureofthephenomenon
of generations,wemustclarifythespecificinter-relationsof the
individualscomprisinga singlegeneration-unit.
Theunityofagenerationdoesnotconsistprimarilyin asocial
bondofthekindthatleadstotheformationofa concretegroup,
althoughit maysometimeshappenthata feelingfortheunityof
agenerationisconsciouslydevelopedintoabasisfortheformation
of concretegroups,asin thecaseof themodernGermanYouth
Movement.!But in thiscase,thegroupsaremostoftenmere
cliques,with the one distinguishingcharacteristicthatgroup-
formationis basedupontheconsciousnessof belongingto one
generation,ratherthanupondefiniteobjectives.
! Apart fromsucha particularcase,however,it is possiblein
\generalto drawa distinctionbetweengenerationsasmerecol-
(lectivefactson theonehand,and concretesocial groupson theother.
Organizationsfor specificpurposes,the family, tribe,sect,
areall examplesof suchconcretegroups.Their commoncharac-
teristicis thattheindividualsof whichtheyarecomposeddo
actuallyin concreteforma group,whethertheentityis basedon
vital,existentialtiesof'proximity'orontheconsciousapplication
oftherationalwill.All 'community'groups(Gemeinschaftsgebilde),
suchcu; thefamilyandthetribe,comeundertheformerheading,
whilethelattercomprises'association'groups(Gesellschaftsgebilde).
) The generationis nota concretegroupin thesenseof a com-Imunity,i.e. a groupwhichcannotexistwithoutits members
havingconcreteknowledgeof eachother,andwhichceasesto
1In this connectionit would
be desirableto work out the exactdifferences
betweenmodernyouthmovementsand theage-groupsofmen'ssocietiesformed
amongstprimitive peoples,carefullydescribedby H. Schurtz (27).
288 THE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
),
;1'
THE SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS 289
existasa mentalandspiritualunitassoonasphysicalproximity
is destroyed.On theotherhand,it is in nowaycomparablet01
associationssuchasorganizationsformedfor a specificpurpose,l
forthelatterarecharacterizedbya deliberateactof foundation,
writtenstatutes,anda machineryfordissolvingtheorganization
-featuresservingto hold thegrouptogether,eventhoughit
lacksthetiesofspatialproximityandofcommunityoflife.
By a concretegroup,then,we meantheunionof a number
of individualsthroughnaturallydevelopedor consciouslywilled
ties.Althoughthemembersofagenerationareundoubtedlybound
togetherin certainways,thetiesbetweenthemhavenotresulted
inaconcretegroup.How,then,canwedefineandunderstandthc
natureofthegenerationasasocialphenomenon?
An answermayperhapsbefoundif wereflectuponthecharac-
terof a differentsortof socialcategory,materiallyquiteunlike
thegenerationbutbearinga certainstructuralresemblancetoit
-namely, the classposition(Klassenlage)of an individualin
society.
In itswidersenseclass-positioncanbedefinedasthecommon
'location'(Lagerung)certainindividualsholdin theeconomicand
powerstructureofagivensocietyastheir'lot'.Oneisproletarian,
entrepreneur,or rentier,and he is whathe is becausehe is con-
stantlyawareof thenatureof hisspecific'location'in thesocial
structure,i.e.ofthepressuresorpossibilitiesofgainresultingfrom
thatposition.Thisplacein societydoesnotresemblemembership
. ofanorganizationterminablebya consciousactofwill.Nor isit
at all bindingin thesamewayasmembershipof a community
(Gemeinschaft)whichmeansthata concretegroupaffectsevery
aspectofanindividual'sexistence.
It is possibleto abandonone'sclasspositionthroughan
individualor collectiveriseor fall in thesocialscale,irrespective
for themomentwhetherthisis dueto personalmerit,personal
effort,socialupheaval,or merechance.
Membershipof an organizationlapsesas soonas we give
noticeofoprintentiontoleaveit; thecohesionofthecommunity
groupceasesto exist if thementaland spiritualdispositionson
whichitsexistencehasbeenbasedceasetooperatein usorin our
partners;andourpreviousclasspositionlosesitsrelevanceforus
assoonasweacquirea newpositionasa resultof a changein
our economicandpowerstatus.
Classpositionis an objectivefact,whethertheindividualinl
questionknowshisclasspositionornot,andwhetherheacknow-
ledgesit or not.
Class-consciousnessdoesnot necessarilyaccompanya class
position,althoughin certainsocialconditionsthelattercangive
290 THE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
risetotheformer,lendingit certainfeatures,andresultingin the
formationof a 'consciousclass'.1At themoment,however,we
areonlyinterestedin thegeneralphenomenonofsociallocationas
1such.Besidestheconcretesocialgroup,thereis alsothephenom-
i enonof similarlocationof a numberof individualsin a social
structure-underwl1ichheadingboth classesand generations
fall.
We havenowtakenthefirststeptowardsan analysisof the
'location'phenomenonasdistinctfromthephenomenon'concrete
~group',andthismuchatanyrateisclear-viz.theunityofgenera-,tionsis constitutedessentiallyby a similarityof locationof a
(numberofindividualswithinasocialwhole.
B. THE BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL FORMULATION OF THE
PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
Similarityof locationcanbe definedonly by specifyingthe
structurewithin which and throughwhich locationgroups
emergein historical-socialreality.Class-positionwasbasedupon
the existenceof a changingeconomicand powerstructurein
rrocietyoGenerationlocationisbasedontheexistenceofbiological
rhythmin humanexistence-thefactorsof life and death,a
limitedspanof life,andageing.Individualswhobelongto the
samegeneration,whosharethesameyearofbirth,areendowed,
tothatextent,withacommonlocationin thehistoricaldimension
ofthesocialprocess.
Now,onemightassumethatthesociologicalphenomenonof
locationcan be eXplainedby, and deducedfrom,thesebasic
biologicalfactors.But thiswouldbeto makethemistakeof all
naturalistictheorieswhichtrytodeducesociologicalphenomena
directlyfromnaturalfacts,orlosesightofthesocialphenomenon
altogetherin amassofprimarilyanthropologicaldata.Anthropo-
logyandbiologyonlyhelpusexplainthephenomenaof lifeand
death,thelimitedspanof life, and themental,spiritual,and
physicalchangesaccompanyingageingassuch;theyofferno
explanationof therelevancetheseprimaryfactorshavefor the
shapingofsocialinterrelationshipsin theirhistoricflux.
Thesociologicalphenomenonofgenerationsisultimatelybased
onthebiologicalrhythmofbirthanddeath.Buttobebasedona
factordoesnotnecessarilymeanto bededuciblefromit, or to be
1It is a mattcrfor historicalandsociologicalrcsearchto discoverat what
stagein its development,and underwhatconditions,a classbecomesclass-
conscious,and similarly,whenindividualmembersof a generationbecome
consciousof theircommonsituationandmakethisconsciousnessthebasisof
theirgroupsolidarity.Why havcgenerationsbecomeso consciousof their
unityto-day?This is thefirstquestionwehavetoanswerin thiscontext.
THE SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS 291
impliedin it. If a phenomenonis basedon another,it couldnot
existwithoutthe latter;however,it possessescertaincharac-
teristicspeculiarto itself,characteristicsin no way borrowed
fromthe basicphenomenon.Wereit not for the existenceof
socialinteractionbetweenhumanbeings-weretherenodefinable
socialstructure,nohistorybasedonaparticularsortofcontinuity,
thegenerationwouldnotexistasa sociallocationphenomenon;
therewouldmerelybebirth,ageing,anddeath.The sociological
problemof generationsthereforebeginsat thatpointwherethe
sociologicalrelevanceof thesebiologicalfactorsis discovered.
Startingwith theelementaryphenomenonitself,then,wemust
firstof all try to understandthegenerationasa particulartype
ofsociallocation.
C. THE TENDENCY 'INHERENT IN' A SOCIAL LOCATION
The factofbelongingto thesameclass,andthatofbelongin~1to thesamegenerationor agegroup,havethisin common,tha~
both endowthe individualssharingin themwith a commonJ
locationin thesocialandhistoricalprocess,andtherebylimi~themto a specificrangeof potentialexperience,predisposing.
themforacertaincharacteristicmodeofthoughtandexperience,fi
and a characteristictypeof historicallyrelevantaction.AnYi
givenlocation,then,excludesalargenumberofpossiblemodesof
thought,experience,feeling,andaction,andrestrictstherange
ofself-expressionopentotheindividualtocertaincircumscribed
possibilities.Thisnegativedelimitation,however,doesnotexhaust!
thematter.Inherentin apositivesensein-everylocationisa tend-
ency pointingtowardscertaindefinitemodesof behaviour,(
feeling,andthought. )
We shallthereforespeakin thissenseof a tendency'inherent
in' everysociallocation;a tendencywhichcanbe determined
fromtheparticularnatureofthelocationassuch.
For anygroupof individualssharingthesameclassposition,
societyalwaysappearsunderthesameaspect,familiarizedby
constantlyrepeatedexperience.It maybesaidin generalthatthe
experiential,intellectual,andemotionaldatawhichareavailable
to_themembersof a certainsocietyarenotuniformly'given'to
allofthem;thefactisratherthateachclasshasaccesstoonlyone
setof thosedata,restrictedtooneparticular'aspect'.Thus,the
proletarianmostprobablyappropriatesonly a fractionof the
culturalheritageof his society,andthatin themannerof his
group.Evenamentalclimateasrigorouslyuniformasthatofthe
CatholicMiddle Agespresenteditselfdifferentlyaccordingto
whetheronewerea theologizingcleric,a knight,or a monk.But
evenwheretheintellectualmaterialismoreorkssuniformor at
292 THE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
leastuniformlyaccessibleto all, theapproachto thematerial,the
wayin whichit is assimilatedandapplied,is determinedin its
directionbysocialfactors.Weusuallysayin suchcasesthatthe
approachis determinedby thespecialtraditionsof
thesocial
stratumconcerned.Butthesetraditionsthemselvesareexplicable
and understandablenot only in termsof the historyof the
stratumbutaboveall in termsof thelocationrelationshipsof its
memberswithinthesociety.Traditionsbearingin a particular
directiononlypersistsolongasthelocationrelationshipsof the
groupacknowledgingthemremainmore or lessunchanged.
Theconcreteformofanexistingbehaviourpatternorofacultural
productdoesnotderivefromthehistoryofa particulartradition
but ultimatelyfromthehistoryof thelocationrelationshipsin
whichit originallyaroseandhardeneditselfintoa tradition.
D. J.'UNDAMENTAL FACTS IN RELATION TO GENERATIONS
Accordingtowhatwehavesaidsofar,thesocialphenomenon
'generation'representsnothingmorethana particularkind of
identityof location,embracingrelated'agegroups'embedded
in a historical-socialprocess.Whilethenatureof classlocation
can be eXplainedin termsof economicand socialconditions,
generationlocationis determinedby thewayin whichcertain
patternsof experienceand thoughttend to be broughtinto
existencebythenaturaldataofthetransitionfromonegeneration
toanother.
The bestwayto appreciatewhichfeaturesof socialliferesult
fromtheexistenceof generationsis to maketheexperimentof
imaginingwhatthesociallifeofmanwouldbelikeif onegenera-
tionlivedonforeverandnonefollowedtoreplaceit. In contrast
to sucha utopian,imaginarysociety,ourownhasthefollowing
characteristics:1
(a) new participantsin the culturalprocessare emerging,
whilst
(b) formerparticipantsin that processare continuallydis-
appearing;
(c) membersof anyonegenerationcanparticipateonlyin a
temporallylimitedsectionof thehistoricalprocess,and
(d) it isthereforenecessarycontinuallytotransmittheaccumu-
latedculturalheritage;
(e) thetransitionfromgenerationtogenerationisacontinuous
process.
Thesearethebasicphenomenaimpliedby themerefactof
I Sinceactualexperimentsareprecludedbythenatureofthesocialsciences,
sucha 'mt'ntalexperiment'ranoftenhelptoisolatetheimportantfactors.
THE SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS 293
theexistenceofgenerations,apartfromonespecificphenomenon
wechoosetoignoreforthemoment,thatofphysicalandmental
ageing.!Withthisasabeginning,letustheninvestigatethebearing
of theseelementaryfactsuponformalsociology.
(a) The continuousemergenceof newparticipantsin theculturalprocess
In contrastto theimaginarysocietywithno generations,our
own-in which generationfollowsgeneration-isprincipally
characterizedby the fact that culturalcreationand cultural
accumulationarenot accomplishedby thesameindividuals-
instead,wehavethecontinuousemergenceofnewagegroups.
This means,in thefirstplace,thatour cultureis developed
byindividualswhocomeintocontactanewwiththeaccumulated
heritage.In thenatureofourpsychicalmake-up,a freshcontact
(meetingsomethinganew)alwaysmeansa changedrelationship
ofdistancefromtheobjectandanovelapproachin assimilating,
using,anddevelopingtheprofferedmaterial.The phenomenon
of 'freshcontact'is, incidentally,of greatsignificancein many
socialcontexts;theproblemof generationsis only oneamong
thoseuponwhichit hasa bearing.Freshcontactsplayan im-
portantpart in thelifeof theindividualwhenhe is forcedby
eventstoleavehisownsocialgroupandenteranewone-when,
forexample,anadolescentleaveshome,orapeasantthecountry-
sidefor thetown,or whenan emigrantchangeshishome,or a
socialclimberhissocialstatusorclass.It iswellknownthatin all
thesecasesa quitevisibleand strikingtransformationof the
consciousnessof theindividualin questiontakesplace:a change,
notmerelyin thecontentof experience,but in theindividual's
mentalandspiritualadjustmenttoit. In all thesecases,however,
thefreshcontactisaneventin oneindividualbiography,whereas
in thecaseof generations,we mayspeakof 'freshcontacts'in
thesenseof theadditionof newpsycho-physicalunitswhoare
in theliteralsensebeginninga 'newlife'.Whereastheadolescent,
peasant,emigrant,andsocialclimbercanonlyin a moreor less
restrictedsensebesaidtobegina 'newlife',in thecaseofgenera-
tions,the'freshcontact'withthesocialandculturalheritageis
determinednot by meresocialchange,but by fundamental
biologicalfactors.We canaccordinglydifferentiatebetweentwo
typesof 'freshcontact':onebasedon a shiftin socialrelations,
I Cf.Spranger(28)on'beingyoung'and'becomingold',andtheintellectual
and spiritualsig-nificanceof thesephenomena.(He alsogivesreferencesto
otherliteratureon thepsychologyoftheadolescent-whereonseealsoHonigs-
heim(J 9)).Further,seeA. E. Brinckmann(4)(whoproceedsbywayofinterpre-
tiveanalysisof worksof art),Jacob Grimm (15),F. Ball (5), Giese(14a).
Literaturerelatingto theyouthmovement,whichconstitutesa problemill
itself,isnotincludedin thebiographyat theendofthisbook.
294 THE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
andtheotheronvitalfactors(thechangefromonegenerationto
another).The lattertypeispotentiallymuchmoreradical,since
withtheadventof thenewparticipantin theprocessofculture,
thechangeofattitudetakesplacein a differentindiyidualwhose
attitudetowardstheheritagehandeddownby hispredecessors
isa novelone.
Weretherenochangeofgeneration,therewouldbeno 'fresh
contact'ofthisbiologicaltype.If theculturalprocesswerealways
carriedonanddevelopedbythesameindividuals,then,tobesure,
'freshcontacts'mightstillresultfromshiftsin socialrelationships,
but themoreradicalformof 'freshcontact'wouldbemissing.
Onceestablished,any fundamentalsocialpattern(attitudeor
intellectualtrend)wouldprobablybeperpetuated-initselfan
advantage,butnotif weconsiderthedangersresultingfromone-
sidedness.Theremightbea certaincompensationfor thelossof
freshgenerationsin sucha utopiansocietyonly if thepeople
livingin it werepossessed,asbefitsthedenizensof a Utopia,of
perfectlyuniversalminds-mindscapableof experiencingall
thattherewasto experienceandof knowingall therewasto
know,andenjoyingan elasticitysuchasto makeit possibleat
any timeto startafresh.'Freshcontacts'resultingfromshifts
in thehistoricalandsocialsituationcouldsufficeto bringabout
thechangesin thoughtand practice.necessitatedby changed
conditionsonlyif theindividualsexperiencingthesefreshcontacts
had sucha perfect'elasticityof mind'. Thus the continuous
emergenceof new humanbeingsin our own societyactsas
compensationfor therestrictedandpartialnatureof theindi-
vidualconsciousness.The continuousemergenceof newhuman
beingscertainlyresultsin somelossof accumulatedcultural
possessions;but, on the otherhand, it alonemakesa fresh
selectionpossiblewhenit becomesnecessary;it facilitatesre-
evaluationof our inventoryandteachesus bothto forgetthat
whichis no longerusefulandto covetthatwhichhasyetto be
won.
(b) The continuouswithdrawalof previousparticipantsin theprocessof
culture
The functionof this secondfactoris impliedin what has
alreadybeensaid. It servesthe necessarysocialpurposeof
enablingustoforget.If societyistocontinue,socialremembering
isjustasimportantasforgettingandactionstartingfromscratch.
At thispointwemustmakeclearin whatsocialformremem-
beringmanifestsitselfandhowtheculturalheritageis actually
accumulated.All psychicandculturaldataonlyreallyexistin
sofarastheyareproducedandreproducedin thepresent:hence
THE SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS 295
pastexperienceis only relevantwhenit existsconcretelyin-
corporatedin thepresent.In our presentcontext,we haveto
considertwowaysin whichpastexperiencecanbeincorporated
in thepresent:
(i) asconsciouslyrecognizedmodels1on whichmenpattern
their behaviour(for example,the majorityof subsequent
revolutionstendedto modelthemselvesmoreor lessconsciously
on theFrenchRevolution);or
(ii) asunconsciously'condensed',merely'implicit'or 'virtual'
patterns;consider,for instance,howpastexperienq:sare'virtu-
ally' containedin suchspecificmanifestationsas thatof senti-
mentality.Everypresentperformanceoperatesacertainselection
amonghanded-downdata,forthemostpartunconsciously.That
is, thetraditionalmaterialis transformedto fit a prevailingnew
situation,or hithertounnoticedor neglectedpotentialities
inherentin thatmaterialarediscoveredinthecourseofdeveloping
newpatternsof action.2
At themoreprimitivelevelsofsociallife,wemostlyencounter
unconsciousselection.Therethepasttendsto be presentin a
'condensed','implicit',and 'virtual' form only. Even at the
presentlevelofsocialreality,weseethisunconsciousselectionat
workin thedeeperregionsofourintellectualandspirituallives,
wherethetempoof transformationis of lesssignificance.A con-
sciousand reflectiveselectionbecomesnecessaryonly whena
semi-conscioustransformation,suchas can be effectedby the
traditionalistmind,is no longersufficient.In general,rational
elucidationandreflectivenessinvadeonlythosetealmsofexperi-
encewhichbecomeproblematicasa resultof a changein the
historicalandsocialsituation;wherethatisthecase,thenecessary
transformationcan no longerbe effectedwithoutconscious
reflectionanditstechniqueofde-stabilization.
Wearedirectlyawareprimarilyofthoseaspectsofourculture
whichhavebecomesubjectto reflection;andthesecontainonly
1This is not theplaceto enumerateall themanyformsof socialmemory.
Wewill thereforedeliberatelysimplifythematterbylimitingourselvesto two
extremealternatives.'Consciouslyrecognizedmodels'include,in thewider
sense,alsothebodyof globalknowledge,storedin libraries.But thissortof
knowledgeis onlyeffectivein sofar asit is continuallyactualized.This can
happenin two ways-either intellectuall¥,whenit is usedas a patternor
guidefor action,or spontaneously,whenit is'virtuallypresent'ascondensed
experience.
Instinct,aswell asrepressedandunconsciousknowledge,asdealtwith in
particularby Freud,wouldneedseparatetreatment.
21'hisprocessof discoveryof hiddenpossibilitiesinherentin transmitted
materialalonemakesit clearwhyit isthatsomanyrevolutionaryandreformist
movementsareabletografttheirnewtruthsontooldones.
290 THE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
thoseelementswhichin thecourseofdevelopmenthavesomehow,
atsomepoint,becomeproblematical.Thisisnottosay,however,
thatoncehavingbecomeconsciousandreflective,theycannotagain
sinkbackintothea-problematical,untouchedregionofvegetative
life.In anycase,thatformof memorywhichcontainsthepast
in theformof reflectionis muchlesssignificant-e.g.it extends
overa muchmorerestrictedrangeof experience-thanthatin
which the past is only 'implicitly','virtually'present;and
reflectiveelementsare moreoftendependenton unreflective
elementsthanviceversa.
Here we must make a fundamentaldistinctionbetween
appropriatedmemoriesandpersonallyacquiredmemories(adistinction
applicablebothtoreflectiveandunreflectiveelements).It makes
a greatdifferencewhetherI acquirememoriesformyselfin the
processofpersonaldevelopment,or whetherI simplytakethem
overfromsomeoneelse.I onlyreallypossessthose'memories'
whichI havecreateddirectlyformyself,onlythat'knowledge'I
havepersonallygainedin realsituations.This is theonlysortof
knowledgewhichreally 'sticks'and it alonehasreal binding
power.Hence,althoughit wouldappeardesirablethatman's
spiritualandintellectualpossessionsshouldconsistofnothingbut
individuallyacquiredmemories,this would also involvethe
dangerthattheearlierwaysof possessionand acquisitionwill
inhibitthenewacquisitionof knowledge.That experiencegoes
withageisin manywaysanadvantage.That,ontheotherhand,
youthlacksexperiencemeansa lighteningof theballastfor the
young;it facilitatestheirlivingon in a changingworld.Oneis
old primarilyin so far aslhe comesto live withina specific,
individuallyacquired,frameworkof useablepastexperience,so
that everynewexperiencehas its form and its placelargely
markedoutforit in advance.In youth,ontheotherhand,where
lifeisnew,formativeforcesarejustcomingintobeing,andbasic
attitudesin theprocessof developmentcantakeadvantageof
themouldingpowerofnewsituations.Thusahumanraceliving
on for everwouldhaveto learnto forgetto compensatefor the
lackofnewgenerations.
(c) Membersof anyone generationcan onlyparticiPatein a temporally
limitedsectionof thehistoricalprocess.
The implicationsof thisbasicfactcanalsobeworkedout in
thelightofwhathasbeensaidsofar.The firsttwofactors,(a)
and (b), wereonly concernedwith the aspectsof constant
'rejuvenation'ofsociety.To beabletostartafreshwithanewlife,
I That is, if we ignore-as we saidwe would-the biologicalfactorsof
physicalandpsychologicalagl'ing.
THE SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS 297
tobuildanewdestiny,anewframeworkofanticipations,upona
newsetofexperiences,arethingswhichcancomeintotheworld
onlythroughthefactofnewbirth.All thisisimpliedbythefactor
of socialrejuvenation.The factorwe are dealingwith now,
however,canbeadequatelyanalysedonlyin termsofthecategory
of 'similarityof location'which we havementionedbut not
discussedin detailabove.1
Membersofa generationare'similarlylocated',firstofall, in
sofarastheyall areexposedto thesamephaseof thecollective
process.This, however,is a merelymechanicaland external
criterionof thephenomenonof 'similarlocation'.For a deeper
understanding,wemustturnto thephenomenonof the'strati-
fication'ofexperience(Erlebnisschichtung),justasbeforeweturned
to 'memory'.The factthatpeoplearebornat thesametime,or
thattheiryouth,adulthood,andold agecoincide,doesnot in
itselfinvolvesimilarityof location;whatdoescreatea similar
locationisthattheyarein apositiontoexperiencethesameevents
anddata,etc.,andespeciallythattheseexperiencesimpingeupon
a similarly'stratified'consciousness.It isnotdifficulttoseewhy
merechronologicalcontemporaneitycannotof itselfproducea
commongenerationlocation.No one,forexample,wouldassert
1 It mustbeemphasizedthatthis'abilityto startafresh'of whichwe are
speakinghasnothingto do with 'conservative'and 'progressive'in theusual
senseof theseterms.Nothingis morefalsethantheusualassumptionuncriti-
callysharedby moststudentsofgenerations,thattheyoungergenerationis
'progressive'andtheoldergenerationeo ipso conservative.Recentexperiences
haveshownwell enoughthat theold liberalgenerationtendsto be more
politicallyprogressivethancertainsectionsof theyouth (e.g.the German
Students'Associations-Bursch£nschaften-etc.).'Conservative'and'progressive'
are categoriesof historicalsociology,designedto dealwith the descriptive
contentsof thedynamismof a historicalperiodof history,whereas'old' and
'young'andtheconceptof the'freshcontact'of a generationarecategories
belongingtoformalsociology.Whetheryouthwill beconservative,reactionary,
or progressive,depends(if notentirely,at leastprimarily)onwhetheror not
theexistingsocialstructureandthepositiontheyoccupyin it provideoppor-
tunitiesfor thepromotionof theirown socialand intellectualends.Their
'beingyoung',the'freshness'of theircontactwith theworld,manifestthem-
selvesin thefactthattheyareableto re-orientanymovementtheyembrace,
to adoptit to thetotalsituation.(Thus,for instance,theymustseekwithin
Conservatismtheparticularformof thispoliticalandintellectualcurrentbest
suitedto therequirementsof themodernsituation:or within Socialism,in
thesameway,anup-to-dateformulation.)This lendsconsiderablesupportto
thefundamentalthesisofthisessay,whichwill havetobefurthersubstantiated
later-that biologicalfactors(suchasyouthand age)do not of themselves
involvea definiteintellectualor practicalorientation(youthcannotbeauto-
maticallycorrelatedwith a progressiveattitudeand so on); theymerely
initiatecertainformal tendencies,the actualmanifestationsof which will
ultimatelydependontheprevailingsocialandculturalcontext.Any attempt
to establisha directidentityor correlationbetweenbiologicaland cultural
dataleadstoa quidpro quowhichcanonlyconfusetheissue.
E.S.K.-20
2gB TilE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
thattherewascommunityof locationbetweentheyoungpeople
of ChinaandGermanyabout1800.Only wherecontemporaries
definitelyarein a positiontoparticipateasanintegratedgroup
in certaincommonexperiencescan we rightlyspeakof com-
rmunityof locationof a generation.Mere contemporaneity
becomessociologicallysignificantonly when it also involves
(participationin the samehistoricaland
socialcircumstances.
Further,we haveto takeinto considerationat this point the
phenomenonof 'stratification',mentionedabove.Someolder
generationgroupsexperiencecertainhistoricalprocessestogether
withtheyounggenerationandyetwecannotsaythattheyhave
thesamegenerationlocation.The factthattheirlocationis a
differentone,however,canbeexplainedprimarilybythedifferent
'stratification'oftheirlives.Thehumanconsciousness,structurally
speaking,is characterizedby a particularinner'dialectic'.It is
ofconsiderableimportancefortheformationoftheconsciousness
which experienceshappento makethoseall-important'first
impressions','childhoodexperiences'-andwhichfollowto form
thesecond,third,andother'strata'.Conversely,in estimatingthe
biographicalsignificanceofaparticularexperience,it isimportant
to knowwhetherit is undergoneby an individualasa decisive
childhoodexperience,or laterin life,superimposeduponother
\basicandearlyimpressions.Early impressionstendto coalescepntoa natural view of theworld.All laterexperiencesthentend
/to receivetheirmeaningfrom this originalset,whetherthey
}appearasthatset'sverificationandfulfilmentor asitsnegation
I'andantithesis.Experiencesarenot accumulatedin thecourse
of a lifetimethrougha processof summationor agglomeration,
but are 'dialectically'articulatedin the way described.We
cannothereanalysethespecificformsofthisdialecticalarticula-
tion,whichispotentiallypresentwheneverweact,think,or feel,
in moredetail(therelationshipof ,antithesis'is onlyonewayin
whichnewexperiencesmaygraftthemselvesuponoldo~es).This
much,however,is certain,thatevenif therestofone'slifecon-
sistedinonelongprocessofnegationanddestructionofthenatural
worldviewacquiredin youth,thedetermininginfluenceof these
earlyimpressionswouldstillbepredominant.Foreveninnegation
our orientationis fundamentallycentredupon that which is
beingnegated,andwearethusstillunwittinglydeterminedbyit.
If we bearin mindthateveryconcreteexperienceacquiresits
particularfaceandformfromitsrelationtothisprimarystratum
of experiencesfromwhichall othersreceivetheirmeaning,we
can appreciateits importancefor the furtherdevelopmentof
the humanconsciousness.Anotherfact,closelyrelatedto the
phenomenonjustdescribed,isthatanytwogenerationsfollowing
THE SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS 299
oneanotheralwaysfightdifferentopponents,bothwithinand
without.Whiletheolderpeoplemaystillbecombatingsomething
in themselvesorin theexternalworldin suchfashionthatall their
feelingsand effortsand eventheirconceptsand categoriesof
thoughtaredeterminedbythatadversary,fortheyoungerpeople
thisadversarymaybesimplynon-existent:theirprimaryorien-
tationis an entirelydifferentone.That historicaldevelopment
doesnotproceedin astraightline-a featurefrequentlyobserved
particularlyin theculturalsphere-is largelyattributedto this
shiftingof the'polar'componentsof life,thatis, to thefactthat
internalor externaladversariesconstantlydisappearand are
replacedby others.Now thisparticulardialectic,of changing
generations,wouldbe absentfromour imaginarysociety.The
onlydialecticalfeaturesof sucha societywouldbethosewhich
wouldarisefromsocialpolarities-providedsuchpolaritieswere
present.TheprimaryeXperientialstratumof themembersof this
imaginarysocietywouldsimplyconsistoftheearliestexperiences
of mankind;all laterexperiencewouldreceiveitsmeaningfrom
thatstratum.
(d) The necessiryfor constanttransmissionof theculturalheritage
Somestructuralfactswhichfollowfromthismustat leastbe
indicatedhere.To mentiononeproblemonly:a utopian,im-
mortalsocietywouldnothaveto facethisnecessityof cultural
transmission,themostimportantaspectofwhichistheautomatic
passingon to thenewgenerationsof thetraditionalwaysof life,
feelings,andattitudes.Thedatatransmittedbyconsciousteaching
areofmorelimitedimportance,bothquantitativelyandqualita-
tively.All thoseattitudesand ideaswhichgo on functioning
satisfactorilyin thenewsituationandserveasthebasicinventory
of grouplifeareunconsciouslyandunwittinglyhandedon and
transmitted:theyseepin withouteitherthe teacheror pupil
knowinganythingaboutit. What is consciouslylearnedor in-
culcatedbelongstothosethingswhichin thecourseoftimehave
somehow,somewhere,becomeproblematicandthereforeinvited
consciousreflection.This is why that inventoryof experience
whichis absorbedby infiltrationfromtheenvironmentin early
youthoftenbecomesthehistoricallyoldeststratumofconscious-
ness,whichtendstostabilizeitselfasthenaturalviewoftheworld.!
1 It is difficultto decidejust at whatpointthisprocessis completein an
individual-at whatpointthisunconsciousvitalinventory(whichalsocontains
thenationalandprovincialpeculiaritiesoutofwhichnationalandprovincial
entelechiescan develop)is stabilized.The processseemsto stoponcethe
inv~ntoryof a-problematicalexperiencehasvirtuallyacquireditsfinalform.
Thc childor adolescentis alwaysopento newinfluencesif placedin a new
But in early childhoodevenmanyreflectiveelementsarc
assimilatedin thesame'a-problematical'fashionasthoseelements
of thebasicinventoryhadbeen.The newgermof an original
intellectualandspirituallifewhichis latentin thenewhuman
beinghasby nomeansasyetcomeintoitsown.The possibility
of reallyquestioningand reflectingon thingsonly emergesat
thepointwherepersonalexperimentationwithlifebegins-round
aboutthe ageof 17, sometimesa little earlierand sometimes
a little later.1It is only thenthat life'sproblemsbeginto be
locatedin a 'present'andareexperiencedassuch.That levelof
dataand attitudeswhichsocialchangehasrenderedproblem-
atical,and whichthereforerequiresreflection,hasnow been
reached;for thefirsttime,onelives'in thepresent'.Combative
iuvenilegroupsstruggleto clarifytheseissues,butneverrealisc
that,howeverradicaltheyare,theyaremerelyoutto transform
theuppermoststratumofconsciousnesswhichisopentoconscious
reflection.For it seemsthatthedeeperstrataarenoteasilyde-
stabilized2and thatwhenthis becomesnecessary,the process
muststartoutfromthelevelofreflectionandworkdownto the
stratumofhabits.3The'up-to-dateness'ofyouththereforeconsists
milieu.They readilyassimilatenewunconsciousmentalattitudesandhabits,
andchangetheirlanguageor dialect.The adult,transferredintoa newen-
vironment,consciouslytransformscertainaspectsofhismodesofthoughtand
behaviour,but neveracclimatizeshimselfin so radicaland thoroughgoing
a fashion.His fundamentalattitudes,hisvitalinventory,and,amongexternal
manifestations,hislanguageanddialect,remainforthemostpartonanearlier
level.It appearsthatlanguageandaccentofferan indirectindicationas to
howfar thefoundationsofa person'sconsciousnessarc laid,hisbasicviewof
theworldstabilized.If thepointcanbedeterminedatwhichaman'slanguage
and dialectceascto change,thereis at leastan externalcriterionfor the
determinationalsoof thepointat whichhisunconsciousinventoryof experi-
enceceasestoaccumulate.AccordingtoA. Meillet,thespokenlanguageand
dialectdoesnotchangein an individualaftertheageof25years.(A. Meillet:
Methodedansles sciences,Paris, Alcan, 1911; also his 'IntroductionIi l'etude
comparativedes languesindo-europeennes'1903,as quotedin Mentre (19),
p. 306 ff.)
1Spranger(28)alsoassumesan importantturningpointabouttheageof
17or so (p. 145).
2 This throwssomelightonthewayin which'ideas'appeartoprecedereal
socialtransformation.'Ideas'areunderstoodherein theFrenchratherthan
in thePlatonicsense.This 'modernIdea'hasa tcndencyto de-stabilizeand
sctin motionthesocialstructure.It doesnotcxistin staticsocialunits-for
example,in self-containedpeasantcommunities-whichtendto drawon an
unconscious,traditionalway of life. In suchsocieties,we do not find the
youngergeneration,associatedwith ideasof this kind, risingagainsttheir
elders.'Beingyoung'hereis a questionofbiologicaldifferentiation.More on
thismatterlater.
3The followingseemsto bethesequencein whichthisprocessunfolds:first
the 'conditions'change.Then concretebehaviourbeginsunconsciouslyto
300 THE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS THE SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
301
in theirbeingclosertothe'present'problems(asa resultof their
'potentiallyfreshcontact'discussedabove,pp.293 ff.),andin the
factthattheyaredramaticallyawareofa processofde-stabiliza-
tionandtakesidesin it. All thiswhile,theoldergenerationcling
tothere-orientationthathadbeenthedramaof theiryouth.
Fromthisangle,we canseethatan adequateeducationor
instructionoftheyoung(inthesenseofthecompletetransmission
of all experientialstimuliwhichunderliepragmaticknowledge)
would encountera formidabledifficultyin the fact that the
experientialproblemsof theyoungaredefinedby a different
setofadversariesfromthoseof theirteachers.Thus (apartfrom
the exactsciences),the teacher-pupilrelationshipis not as
betweenone representativeof 'consciousnessin general'and
another,but asbetweenonepossiblesubjectivecentreof vital
orientationand anothersubsequentone.This tension1appears
incapableof solutionexceptfor onecompensatingfactor:not
onlydoestheteachereducatehis pupil,but thepupileducates
his teachertoo. Generationsare in a stateof constantinter-
action.
This leadsustoournextpoint:
(e) The uninterruptedgenerationseries.
The factthatthe transitionfromonegenerationto another
takesplacecontinuouslytendstorenderthisinteractionsmoother;
in theprocessof thisinteraction,it is not theoldestwhomeet
theyoungestatonce;thefirstcontactsaremadebyother'inter-
mediary'generations,lessremovedfromeachother.
Fortunately,it isnotasmoststudentsofthegenerationproblem
suggest-thethirty-yearintervalis notsolelydecisive.Actually,
allintermediarygroupsplaytheirpart;althoughtheycannotwipe
out thebiologicaldifferencebetweengenerations,theycan at
transformitselfin thenewsituation.The individualseeksto reactto thenew
situation,by instinctive,unconsciousadjustment.(Even the mostfanatical
adherentof an orthodoxyconstantlyindulgesin an adaptivechangeof his
behaviourin respectswhichare not opento consciousobservation.)If the
dynamicofthesituationresultsin tooquickculturalchangeandtheupheaval
is too great,if unconsciousadjustmentprovesinadequateand behaviour
adaptationsfail to 'function'in thesuddennewsituation,sothatanaspectof
realitybecomesproblematic,thenthataspectofrealitywill bemadeconscious
-on thelevelof eithermythology,philosophy,or science,accordingto the
stageofculturalevolutionreached.Fromihispointon,theunravellingof the
deeperlayersproceeds,asrequiredby thesituation.
IL. vonWiese(31),givesavividdescriptionofthisfather-sonantagonism.Of
considerableimportanceisthesuggestionthatthefatherismoreor lessforced
intotheroleofrespresenting'Society'tohisson(p. 196).
302 THE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
leastmitigateitsconsequences.Theextenttowhichtheproblems
of youngergenerationsare reflectedbackuponthe olderone
becomesgreaterin the measurethat the dynamismof society
increases.Staticconditionsmakefor attitudesof piety-the
youngergenerationtendstoadaptitselfto theolder,eventothe
pointof makingitselfappearolder.With thestrengtheningof
thesocialdynamic,however,theoldergenerationbecomesin-
creasinglyreceptivetoinfluencesfromtheyounger.!This process
canbesointensifiedthat,withanelasticityof mindwonin the
courseof experience,the oldergenerationmay evenachieve
greateradaptabilityin certainspheresthan the intermediary
generations,whomaynotyetbein a positiontorelinquishtheir
originalapproach.2
Thus, the continuousshift in objectiveconditionshas its
counterpartin acontinuousshiftin theoncomingnewgenerations
which are first to incorporatethe changesin theirbehaviour
system.Asthetempoofchangebecomesfaster,smallerandsmaller
modificationsare experiencedby youngpeopleas significant
ones,andmoreandmoreintermediaryshadesofnovelimpulses
becomeinterpolatedbetweentheoldestandnewestre-orientation
systems.The underlyinginventoryof vital responses,which
remainsunaffectedby the change,acts,in itselfas a unifying
factor;constantinteraction,on the otherhand,mitigatesthe
differencesin thetoplayerwherethechangetakesplace,while
thecontinuousnatureof thetransitionin normaltimeslessens
thefrictionsinvolved,To sumup: if thesocialprocessinvolved
no changeof generations,thenewimpulsesthatcanoriginate
only in neworganismscouldnot be reflectedbackupon the
representativesof the tradition;and if the transitionbetween
generationswerenotcontinuous,thisreciprocalactioncouldnot
takeplacewithoutfriction.
E. GENERATION STATUS, GENERATION AS ACTUALITY, GENERA-
TION UNIT
This, then,broadlyconstitutesthoseaspectsof generation
phenomena:whichcan be deducedby formalanalysis.They
wouldcompletelydeterminetheeffectsresultingfromtheexistence
of generationsif theycouldunfoldthemselvesin a purelybio-
logical context,or if the generationphenomenoncould be
1It shouldbe noted,on theotherhand,asL. vonWiese(op.cit., p. 197)
pointsout,thatwiththemoderntrendtowardsindividualism,everyindividual
claimsmorethanbeforetherightto'livehisownlife'.
2 This is a furtherproofthatnaturalbiologicalfactorscharacteristicof old
agecanbeinvalidatedbysocialforces,andthatbiologicaldatacanalmostbe
turnedinto theiroppositesby socialforces.
THE SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS 303
understoodasa merelocationphenomenon.However,a genera-
tionin thesenseof a locationphenomenonfallsshortof encom-
passingthe generationphenomenonin its full actuality.!The
latterissomethingmorethantheformer,in thesamewayasthe
merefactofclasspositiondoesnotyetinvolvetheexistenceofa
consciouslyconstitutedclass.The locationassuchonlycontains
potentialitieswhichmaymaterialize,orbesuppressed,orbecome
embeddedin othersocialforcesand manifestthemselvesin
modifiedform.Whenwepointedout thatmereco-existencein
timedidnotevensufficetobringaboutcommunityofgeneration
location,wecameverynearto makingthedistinctionwhichis
nowclaimingourattention.In ordertosharethesamegeneration
location,i.e.in ordertobeablepassivelytoundergoor actively
to usethe handicapsand privilegesinherentin a generation
location,onemustbebornwithinthesamehistoricalandcultural
region.Generationasanactuality,however,involvesevenmore
thanmereco-presencein sucha historicalandsocialregion.AI:'
furtherconcretenexusis neededto constitutegenerationasan!
actuality.This additionalnexusmaybedescribedasparticipationi\
in thecommondestinyof thishistoricalandsocialunit.2This is theJ
phenomenonwehavetoexaminenext.
Wesaidabovethat,forexample,youngpeoplein Prussiaabout
1800 did not sharea commongenerationlocationwithyoung
peoplein Chinaat thesameperiod.Membershipin thesame
historicalcommunity,then,is thewidestcriterionof community
of generationlocation.But whatis its narrowestcriterion?Do
weputthepeasants,scatteredastheyarein remotedistrictsand
almostuntouchedby currentupheavals,in a commonactual
generationgroupwith the urbanyouthof the sameperiod?
Certainlynotl-and preciselybecausetheyremainunaffectedby
theeventswhichmovetheyouthofthetowns.Weshalltherefore,speakof a generationas an actualityonlywherea concretebondi~
createdbetweenmembersofa generationbytheirbeingexposedl
to thesocialandintellectualsymptomsof a processof dynamic!
de-stabilization.Thus,theyoungpeasantswementionedaboveI
onlysharethesamegenerationlocation,without,however,being
membersof thesamegenerationasanactuality,withtheyouth
of the town.They aresimilarlylocated,in so tar as theyare
potentiallycapableofbeingsuckedintothevortexofsocialchange,
and,in fact,thisiswhathappenedin thewarsagainstNapoleon,
whichstirredup all Germanclasses.For thesepeasants'sons,a
1Up tillnowwehavenotdifferentiatedbetweengenerationlocation,genera-
lionasactuality,etc.Thesedistinctionswill nowbemade.
2cr. thequotationfromHeidegger,p. 282,above.
304 THE PROBLEM OF GENERAnONS
meregenerationlocationwastransformedintomembershipof a
generationasanactuality.Individualsofthesameage,theywere
andare,however,onlyunitedasan actualgenerationin sofar
as theyparticipatein thecharacteristicsocialand intellectual
currentsoftheirsocietyandperiod,andin sofarastheyhavean
activeor passiveexperienceof theinteractionsof
forceswhich
madeup the newsituation.At the timeof the warsagainst
Napoleon,nearlyall socialstratawereengagedin sucha process
ofgiveandtake,firstin a waveofwarenthusiasm,andlaterin
a movementof religiousrevivalism.Here, however,a new
questionarises.Supposewe disregardall groupswhichdo not
activelyparticipatein theprocessof socialtransformation-docs
thismeanthatall thosegroupswhichdo soparticipate,constitute
onegeneration?Fom1800on,forinstance,weseetwocontrasting
groups-onewhichbecamemoreandmoreconservativeastime
wenton,asagainstayouthgrouptendingtobecomerationalistic
andliberal.It cannotbesaidthatthesetwogroupswereunified
bythesamemodernmentality.Canwethenspeak,in thiscase,of
the sameactualgeneration?We can,it seems,if we makea
further-terminological'distinction.Boththeromantic-conservative
and the liberal-rationalistyouthbelongedto the sameactual
generation,romantic-conservatismand liberal-rationalismwere
merelytwopolarforms oftheintellectualandsocialresponsetoan
historicalstimulusexperiencedby all in common.Romantic-
conservativeyouth,andliberal-rationalistgroup,belongto the
sameactualgenerationbutformseparate'generationunits'within
it. Thegenerationunit representsa muchmoreconcretebondthan
theactualgenerationassuch.Youth experiencingthesameconcrete
historicalproblemsmaybesaid to bepart of thesameactualgeneration;
while thosegroupswithin thesameactualgenerationwhich work up the
materialof their commonexperiencesin differentspecificways, constitute
separategenerationunits.
F. THE ORIGIN OF GENERATION UNITS
The questionnowarises,whatproducesa generationunit?In
whatdoesthegreaterintensityof thebondconsistin thiscase?
The first thingthatstrikesoneon consideringany particular
generationunitis thegreatsimilarityin thedatamakingup the
consciousnessof its members.Mentaldata are of sociological
importancenot only becauseof theiractualcontent,but also
becausetheycausethe individualssharingthemto formone
group-theyhavea socializingeffect.The conceptof Freedom,
forexample,wasimportantfor theLiberalgeneration-unit,not
merelybecauseof thematerialdemandsimpliedby it, butalso
becausein and throughit it wm.possibleto uniteindividuals
THE SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEM OF GENERATlONS 305
scatteredspatiallyandotherwise.!The dataassuch,however,
are not the primaryfactorproducinga group-this function
belongsto a far greaterextentto thoseformativeforceswhich
shapethedataandgivethemcharacteranddirection.Fromthe
casualslogantoareasonedsystemofthought,fromtheapparently
isolatedgestureto thefinishedworkof art, thesameformative
tendencyis oftenat work-the socialimportanceof whichlies
in itspowerto bindindividualssociallytogether.The profound
emotionalsignificanceofa slogan,ofanexpressivegesture,or of
a workof artliesin thefactthatwenotmerelyabsorbthemas
objectivedata,but alsoasvehiclesof formativetendenciesand
fundamentalintegrativeattitudes,thusidentifyingourselveswith
a setofcollectivestrivings.
Fundamentalintegrativeattitudesandformativeprinciplesare
all-importantalso in the handingdown of everytradition,
firstlybecausetheyalonecanbindgroupstogether,secondly,and,
what is perhapsevenmoreimportant,theyaloneare really
capableof becomingthebasisof continuingpractice.A mere
statementoffacthasaminimumcapacityofinitiatingacontinuing
practice.Potentialitiesof a continuedthoughtprocess,on the
otherhand,are containedin everythesisthathasrealgroup-
formingpotency;intuitions,feelings,and worksof art which
createa spiritualcommunityamongmenalsocontainin them-
selvesthepotentiallynewmannerin whichtheintuition,feeling,
or workofartin questioncanbere-created,rejuvenatedandre-
interpretedin novelsituations.That is why unambiguousness,
toogreatclarityis not an unqualifiedsocialvalue;productive
misunderstandingis oftena conditionof continuinglife.Funda-
mentalintegrativeattitudesand formativeprinciplesare the
primarysocializingforcesin the historyof society,and it is
necessarytolivethemfullyin orderreallytoparticipatein collec-
tivelife.
Modern psychologyprovidesmore and more conclusive
evidencein favouroftheGestalttheoryofhumanperception:even
in ourmostelementaryperceptionsofobjects,wedonotbehave
astheold atomisticpsychologywouldhaveusbelieve;thatis,
wedo notproceedtowardsa globalimpressionby thegradual
summationof a numberof elementarysensedata,but on the
contrary,westartoffwitha globalimpressionof theobjectasa
1 Mentaldatacanbothbindanddifferentiatesocially.The sameconcept
of Freedom,for example,had totallydifferentmeaningsfor theliberaland
theconservativegeneration-unit.Thus, it is possibleto obtainan indication
oftheextenttowhichagenerationisdividedintogeneration-unitsbyanalysing
thedifferentmeaningsgivento a currentidea.Cf. 'ConservativeThought'
(tofollowin a latervolume),wheretheconservativeconceptof Freedomis
analysedin contrastto theliberalconceptcurrentat thesametime.
306 THE PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS
whole.Now if evensenseperceptionis governedby theGestalt
principle,thesameapplies,to an evengreaterextent,to the
processof intellectualinterpretation.Theremaybea numberof
reasonswhy thefunctioningof humanconsciousnessshouldbe
basedon theGestaltprinciple,buta likelyfactoristherelatively
limitedcapacityofthehumanconsciousnesswhenconfrontedwith
theinfinityof elementarydatawhichcanbedealtwithonlyby
meansof the simplifYingand summarizinggestalt approach.
Seeingthingsin termsofGestalt,however,alsohasitssocialroots
withwhichwemustdealhere.Perceptionsandtheirlinguistic
expressionsneverexistexclusivelyfortheisolatedindividualwho
happensto entertainthem,but alsofor thesocialgroupwhich
standsbehindtheindividual.Thus,thewayin whichseeingin
termsof Gestaltmodifiesthedatumassuch-'-partlysimplifying
andabbreviatingit, partlyelaboratingandfillingit out-always
correspondsto themeaningwhichtheobjectin questionhasfor
thesocialgroupsasawhole.Wealwaysseethingsalreadyformed
in a specialway;wethinkconceptsdefinedin termsofaspecific
context.Formandcontextdepend,in anycase,onthegroupto
whichwe belong.To becomereallyassimilatedinto a group
involvesmorethan the mereacceptanceof its characteristic
values-it involvestheabilityto seethingsfromits particular
'aspect',toendowconceptswithitsparticularshadeofmeaning,
andto experiencepsychologicalandintellectualimpulsesin the
configurationcharacteristicof thegroup.It means,further,to
absorbthoseinterpretiveformativeprincipleswhichenablethe
individualto dealwithnewimpressionsandeventsin a fashion
broadlypre-determinedbythegroup.
The socialimportanceof theseformativeand interpretive
principlesis thattheyforma link betweenspatiallyseparated
individualswho maynevercomeinto personalcontactat all.
Whereasmerecommon'location'in a generationis of only
potentialsignificance,a generationasan actualityis constituted
whensimilarly'located'contemporariesparticipatein a common
destinyandin theideasandconceptswhicharein someway
boundupwithitsunfolding.Withinthiscommunityofpeoplewith
a commondestinytherecanthenariseparticulargeneration-units.
Theseare characterizedby the fact that theydo not merely
involvea looseparticipationby a numberof individualsin a
patternof eventssharedby all alikethoughinterpretedby the
differentindividualsdiflerently,but an identityof responses,a
certainaffinityin thewayin whichallmovewithandareformed
by theircommonexperiences.
Thus within any generationtherecan exista numberof
differentiated,antagonistic~neration-units.Together they
THE SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEM OF GENERATIONS 307
constitutean'actual'generationpreciselybecausetheyareoriented
towardeachother,eventhoughonlyin thesenseoffightingone
another.Thosewhowereyoungabout1810 in Germanyconsti-
tutedoneactualgenerationwhethertheyadheredto thethen
currentversionof liberalor conservativeideas.But in sofar as
theywereconservativeorliberal,theybelongedtodifferentunits
of thatactualgeneration.
The generation-unittendsto imposea muchmoreconcrete
and bindingtie on its membersbecauseof theparallelismof
responsesit