Lesson 2

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Elements of the simple period: verb, objects and complements – phrasal structure and transitivity
Goals:
1. Study verb transitivity;
2. learn the types of sentences elements: “object”, “predicative”, “adnominal functors” and “adverbial”.
The Structure Of The English Sentence
In linguistics, transitivity is a property of verbs that when relates to whether a verb can take direct objects and how many such objects a verb can take. 
Traditional grammar makes a binary distinction between intransitive verbs that cannot take a direct object (such as fall or sit in English) and transitive verbs that take one direct object (such as throw, injure, kiss in English).
In practice, many languages (including English) interpret the category more flexibly, allowing: ditransitive verbs, verbs that have two objects; or even ambitransitive verbs, verbs that can be used as both a transitive verb and an intransitive verb. Further, some verbs may be idiomatically transitive, while, technically, intransitive. This may be observed in the verb walk in the idiomatic expression To walk the dog.
Some verbs can be either transitive verbs or intransitive verbs, depending on the context:
Direct Object - I hope the Senators win the next game. 
No Direct Object - Did we win? 
Types of Verbs: 
Intransitive verbs (no object) 
Some verbs do not require any further elements to make their meaning complete: although there may be further elements in the sentence, these are not essential. 
This is called intransitive complementation. It involves verbs such as: appear, arrive, come, cough, decrease, die, disappear, drown, fall, go, happen, lie (tell an untruth), matter, rain, rise, sneeze, snow, stop, swim, work.
 
Also note that the verb be, when followed by an adverbial expressing place or time, is used as an intransitive verb.
He is in London at the moment.
Transitive verbs (one object) (aka Monotransitive verb)
Mr. Jenner breaks the windows. 
The verb to break is monotransitive, and requires one object. 
It would be ungrammatical to say Mr. Jenner breaks, unless the verb to break conveys a different meaning. 
 
NOTE: Most verbs can be used both as Transitive and as Intransitive verbs. It is, therefore, better to say that a verb is used Transitively or Intransitively rather than that it is Transitive or Intransitive.
	Used Transitively
	Used Intransitively
	The ants fought the wasps.
	Some ants fight very fiercely.
	The shot sank the ship.
	The ship sank rapidly.
	Ring the bell, Rama.
	The bell rang loudly.
	The driver stopped the train.
	The train stopped suddenly.
	He spoke the truth.
	He spoke haughtily.[1: arrogantly]
	The horse kicked the man.
	This horse never kicks.
	I feel a severe pain in my head.
	How do you feel?
	He walks the horse.
	The horse walks.
	The girl ran a needle into her finger (ran a needle = caused a needle to run) 
	The girl ran down the street.
	The boys fly their kites (i.e., cause their kites to fly)
	Birds fly.
A few verbs in common use are distinguished as Transitive or Intransitive by their spelling, the Transitive being causative forms of the corresponding intransitive verbs.
	Intransitive
	Transitive
	Many trees fall in the monsoon.[2: /mɑnˈsun/ the season when there is a lot of rain in South Asia]
	Woodmen fell trees. (Fell = cause to fall)
	lie still.
	lay the basket there. (Lay = cause to lie)
	Rise early with the lark.[3: /lɑrk/ a small, brown bird that is known for its beautiful singing = cotovia]
	Raise your hands. (Raise = cause to rise)
	Sit there.
	Sit the lamp on the table. (Sit = cause to sit)
Some verbs may be linking or not, depending on the context. Let’s have a look at some of them:	
LOOK
Linking: The monkey looked hungry.
(Hungry monkey or monkey is hungry) In this sentence looked is a linking verb. 
Action - Transitive: The monkey looked for food. "For food" is a prepositional phrase and it must be omitted before checking. The sentence remaining after omitting the prepositional phrase is "The monkey looked". There is no noun or adjective to link monkey to. Looked is an action verb in this sentence.
TASTE
Linking: The soup tasted good. 
Check: soup is good, good soup, soup = good 
Action - Transitive: I tasted the soup. 
Check: I am the soup (no), soup am I (no) I = soup (no)
GROW
Linking: He grew tired of walking.
“Of walking” is a prepositional phrase and not included in the check. You should omit the prepositional phrase to check: "He grew tired".
Check: He is tired, tired is he, he = tired. 
Action - Transitive: He grew tomatoes here. 
APPEAR
Linking: Mother appeared happy at her party. 
Omit the prepositional phrase, "at her party". Now the sentence reads, "Mother appeared happy."
Check: mother is happy, happy mother, mother = happy. 
Action - Intransitive: Mother appeared quietly in the room. 
Omit the prepositional phrase, "in the room". The sentence now reads: Mother appeared quietly. Quietly is an adverb, omit the adverb. "Mother appeared." There is no noun or adjective to link mother to, so appeared is used as an action verb.
SOUND
Linking: The bugle sounds loud.[4: /ˈbjuː.ɡl̩/ ​ a musical instrument like a simple trumpet, used especially in the army = corneta]
Check: bugle is loud, loud bugle, bugle = loud (yes, yes, and yes) 
Action – Intransitive: The bugle sounded loudly.
Check: Bugle is loudly. (no) 
Loudly describes the verb. It answers the question How? Loudly is an adverb, omit the adverb. That leaves the sentence "The bugle sounded."
TURNED
Linking: The nation's mood turned sour.
Check: The subject is not engaged in an action. TURNED links MOOD and a state of being: SOUR.
Action - Transitive: The judge turned the pages quickly.
Check: The subject was engaged in an action (TURNED) and that action transferred to an object (PAGES).
Action - Intransitive: The lawyer turned suddenly toward the back of the courtroom.
Check: The subject was engaged in an action (TURNED) and that action was done in a particular way (SUDDENLY) but not to someone or something.
Other Considerations
I. IMPERSONAL VERBS
In linguistics, an impersonal verb is a verb that cannot take a true subject, because it does not represent an action, occurrence, or state-of-being of any specific person, place, or thing. The term weather verb is also sometimes used, since such weather-indicating verbs as to rain are usually impersonal.
In English, an impersonal verb always takes an impersonal pronoun (it in English), as its syntactical subject: It snowed yesterday.  Verbs meaning existence may also be impersonal. "There are (some) books." / "There is a book." Some linguists consider the impersonal subject of weather verbs to be "dummy pronouns", while others interpret them differently.
II. UNACCUSATIVE AND ERGATIVE VERBS[5: ergative adjective /ˈɜː.ɡə.tɪv/ /ˈɜː˞.ɡə.t̬ɪv/ specialized used to refer to a verb that can be transitive (= used with an object) or intransitive (= used without an object), with the object of the transitive verb used as the subject of the intransitive verb. For example, close is an ergative verb (I closed the door| The door closed): Ergative verbs are both transitive and intransitive.a sentence in which the main verb is ergative]
In linguistics, an unaccusative verb is an intransitive verb whose subject is not a (semantic) agent; that is, it does not actively initiate, or is not actively responsible for, the action of the verb. 
 
An unergative verb is an intransitive verb distinguished semantically by having an agent subject. For example, in English, run, talk and resign are unergative verbs (while fall and die are unaccusative).
 
He ran towards the tree yesterday.
He resigned the Presidency.
Joan fell on the street yesterday.
Jimmy died last month.
Many unaccusative alternate with a corresponding transitive construction where the unaccusativesubject appears in direct object position:
The ice melted. ≈ The sun melted the ice. 
The window broke. ≈ The golf ball broke the window.
 
Unaccusative past participles can be used as nominal modifiers with active meaning, while unergative past participles cannot:
unaccusative: the melted snow, the departed guests, the fallen soldiers.
unergative: the shouted victim, the slept child, the hesitated leader.
III. RAISING VERBS
Other examples of semantically empty it are found with raising verbs in "unraised" counterparts. 
For example: It seems that John loves coffee. (corresponding "raised" sentence: John seems to love coffee.)
Action Verbs vs. State Verbs - Learn English Tenses (Lesson 5).
Objects
In English there are three kinds of objects: direct, indirect and prepositional.
 
III.1 Direct Object 
The advertising executive drove a flashy red Porsche. 
 
III.2 Indirect Object
I gave her some flowers.
I gave some flowers to her.
 
III.3 Prepositional Object 
I have my doubts about this method – to have doubts about.
I’m not at all content with this computer – to be content with.
I don’t like listening to him – to listen to.
I warned her of the consequences. – to warn of.
I gave the book to Mary – to give something to someone.
See the difference between an indirect object and a prepositional object:
Paul won the prize. ("the prize" is a direct object.) Paul gave Mary the letter. ("Mary" is an indirect object. "letter" is a direct object.) Paul gave the letter to Mary. ("Mary" is prepositional object "to" and is an indirect object. "letter" is again a direct object.)
So, an object preceded by a preposition can be replaced by a pronoun and be placed in front of the direct object or can be used without the preposition in front of the direct object, thus, it is an indirect object or a prepositional object. If it cannot be replaced by a pronoun, it is a prepositional object, only.
 
The sentence “I gave the book to Mary” can be written “I gave Mary the book” or, depending on the context, “I gave her the book”. In this case “to Mary” is the indirect object and also the prepositional object. In the sentence “I warned her for the consequence”, “for the consequences” cannot be placed before “her” (direct object), so, it’s a prepositional object.
A pro-drop language (from "pronoun-dropping") is a language in which certain classes of pronouns may be omitted when they are in some sense pragmatically inferable (the precise conditions vary from language to language, and can be quite intricate). The phenomenon of "pronoun-dropping" is also commonly referred to in linguistics as zero or null anaphora. (this is the case of Portuguese).[6: evident]
English is considered a non-pro-drop language. It means that pronouns and nouns cannot be omitted if the verb requires an object. 
This pronoun is called dummy pronoun (formally expletive pronoun or pleonastic pronoun).
Example: He ordered a cheeseburger, and even though it took them a while to, he did get some French fries with it.
 
So, in Portuguese I can say.
Eu gosto quando chove.
 
In English, as the verb “to like” requires an object, we have to say: 
I like it when it rains.
 
Another example:
Portuguese: Eu entreguei para ela.
English: I delivered her the book.
Dummy objects are sometimes used to transform transitive verbs to transitive light verbs form (a light verb is a verb that has little semantic content of its own and it therefore forms a predicate with some additional expression, which is usually a noun.
Common verbs in English that can function as light verbs are do, give, have, make, take, etc.) 
e.g. do → do it, "to engage in sexual intercourse"; 
make → make it, "to achieve success"; 
get → get it, "to comprehend". 
Prepositional objects are similar, e.g. with it, "up to date"; out of it, "unconscious" or "dazed". All of these phrases, of course, can also be taken literally. [7: /deɪzd/ C2 very confused and unable to think clearly]
He ordered a cheeseburger, and even though it took them a while to make it, he did get some French fries with it.
Double Object Verbs
Some verbs have two objects –an indirect object and a direct object:
These clauses have the structure: V + N (indirect object) + N (direct object).
We can use a prepositional phrase with to or for with an indirect object:
	
These clauses have the structure: V + N (direct object) + Prepositional phrase (indirect object).
Common verbs with for and an indirect object are:
Examples:
They booked a table for me at the restaurant.
We made toys for all the children.
Common verbs with to and an indirect object are:
Examples:
He gave his programme to the man sitting next to him.[8: programme noun [ C ] (BOOK) a thin book or piece of paper giving information about a play or musical or sports event, usually bought at the theatre or place where the event happens]
They sent Christmas cards to all their customers.
If the indirect object is a long phrase we normally use to or for:
He showed his ticket to the policeman standing by the door.
We kept something to eat and drink for all the people who arrived late.
 
6. If the indirect object is a pronoun we normally use the N + V + N + N pattern:
I poured him another drink.
Their mother read them another story.
Learn English - TO & FOR
COGNATE OBJECT OR COGNATE ACCUSATIVE. 
Intransitive Verbs sometimes take after them an Object akin or similar in meaning to the Verb. Such an Object is called the Cognate Object or Cognate Accusative. (Latin Cognatus, akin.)
•  I have fought a good fight.
•  He laughed a hearty laugh.[9: (sometimes disapproving) loud, cheerful and full of energy]
•  I dreamt a strange dream.
•  He sleeps the sleep of the just.
•  Let me die the death of the righteous.
•  She sighed a deep sigh.
•  She sang a sweet song. 
•  He ran a race.
•  Aurangzeb lived the life of an ascetic.
Notice that while in Portuguese these verbs are transitive, in English they remain intransitive.
ADVERBIAL OBJECT OR ADVERBIAL ACCUSATIVE 
A noun used adverbially to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb denoting time, place, distance, weight, value etc., is called an Adverbial Object or Adverbial Accusative, and is said to be in the Accusative Case adverbially; as,
•  He held the post ten years.
•  I can't wait a moment longer.
•  He swam a mile.
•  He weighs seven stone.
•  The watch cost fifty rupees.[10: /ˈruː.piː/ the standard unit of money used in India, Pakistan, Mauritius, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the Seychelles = rupia]
Predicative (Aka Predicate Complement- Subject Complements and Object Complements)
In addition to the transitive verb and the intransitive verb, there is a third kind of verb called a linking verb (copula). The word (or phrase) which follows a linking verb is called not an object, but a predicative.
The predicate can be:
subject complement; object complement 
SUBJECT COMPLEMENT 
He seems nice.  
Bob is a postman.  
The driver is tired.
OBJECT COMPLEMENT
We painted the door white.  
They elected him president.  
That shrimp dish made him sick.
They called her a thief. 
I consider him my friend.
The judge ruled her out of order. [11: (British English) (North American English out of line) (informal) behaving in a way that is not acceptable or right]
I consider the driver tired. 
Paint it black.
Let’s remind you of/ about the predicate:
A reminder of basic sentence structure 
_subject_|_predicate_
The two diagrams below are the basic sentence structure of linking verbs. 
_subject_|_linking verb_\_predicate noun_ 
_subject_|_linking verb_\_predicate adjective_
A predicate noun is located in the predicate and it renames the subject.
A predicate adjective is located in the predicate and it describes the subject.
Adnominal Functors
Adnominal functors are functors for modifications exclusively modifying (semantic) nouns.They can be of two types:[12: Linguistics. a function word or affix.]
ADNOMINAL ADJECTIVES: 
in the Lewinsky case
notion of time
the Tate gallery
a box of paper
one half of the cake
harsh weather
five children
a vessel with a displacement of 9700 tons
 
NOUN COMPLEMENT 
He is interested in you.
 
Notice that when there is a noun complement, it is demanded by the nominal phrase. Who is interested, is interested in someone or something.
Adverbials
The subject, verb phrase, objects and predicatives form the core of a sentence. Any other element is adverbial; it concerns the circumstances of the sentence (when, where) or relates the sentence to something else. There are four adverbials in the sentence below.
Lorna arrived (1) here (2) yesterday (3) by car (4) despite the rain. 
 
Adverbials may always be added to a sentence, but some main verbs require adverbials for a well formed-sentence, as in the following example:
Lorna put the book onto the table. 
 
As sentence elements, there are four main TYPES OF ADVERBIALS:
adverbial adjunct – integral to sentence meaning and can be removed leaving a well-formed sentence.
Mr. Bibby saw her yesterday. 
obligatory adverbial – integral to sentence meaning but cannot be removed.
They treated her well. 
adverbial conjunct - linking the sentence to another, and is removable.
You thought it was true; however, I thought otherwise. 
adverbial disjunct - making a comment on the sentence
Stupidly, I answered the question.
Kinds Of Adverbs:
Adverbs of Manner
She moved slowly and spoke quietly.
Adverbs of Place
She has lived on the island all her life. 
She still lives there now.
Adverbs of Frequency
She takes the boat to the mainland every day.
She often goes by herself.
Adverbs of Time
She tries to get back before dark.
It's starting to get dark now.
She finished her tea first.
She left early.
Adverbs of Purpose
She drives her boat slowly to avoid hitting the rocks.
She shops in several stores to get the best buys.
 
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In this class, you:
Studied verb transitivity;
learned the types of sentences elements: "object", "predicative", "adnominal functors" and "adverbial".
Next class. You will study:
Difference between tense, mood and aspect;
types of verbs: lexical and auxiliary.