Visual Metaphors in Political Cartoons

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Visual Metaphorical Conceptualization of the Syrian Refugees Crisis in
Political Cartoons
Thesis · July 2016
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(M. A. 2016) 
 
Visual Metaphorical Conceptualization of 
the Syrian Refugees Crisis in 
Political Cartoons 
 
 
by 
Joonyeop Baek 
 
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS 
GRADUATE SCHOOL 
HANKUK UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN STUDIES
 
Visual Metaphorical Conceptualization of 
the Syrian Refugees Crisis in 
Political Cartoons 
 
by 
Joonyeop Baek 
 
 
 
 
Under the direction 
of 
Professor Jeong-Woon Park 
 
A thesis submitted to the committee of the Graduate School of 
Hankuk University of Foreign Studies in partial fulfillment of 
the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. 
 
August 2016
Approved by the committee of the Graduate School of 
Hankuk University of Foreign Studies in partial fulfillment 
of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts 
 
Thesis Committee: 
_____________________________ ________ 
 Professor Kwang-sup Kim 
_____________________________ ________ 
 Professor Iksoo Kwon 
_____________________________ ________ 
 Professor Jeong-Woon Park (Advisor) 
 (Name and Signature) (Date) 
 
 
 
 
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS 
GRADUATE SCHOOL 
HANKUK UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN STUDIES
 i 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................... 1 
 
Chapter 2 Previous Studies of Visual Metaphor .......................................... 5 
2.1 Conceptual Metaphor Theory .......................................................... 5 
2.2 Development of Visual Metaphor Studies ....................................... 7 
2.3 Visual Metaphors in Political Cartoons .......................................... 14 
2.3.1 Identification of Visual Metaphors .................................. 14 
2.3.2 Interpretation of Visual Metaphors .................................. 19 
2.4 Chapter Summary ........................................................................... 22 
 
Chapter 3 Syrian Refugees Crisis in Political Cartoons ............................. 23 
3.1 Data Selection and Methods ........................................................... 23 
3.2 Analysis of the Data ........................................................................ 26 
3.2.1 FLOOD Metaphors .......................................................... 27 
3.2.2 WAR Metaphors .............................................................. 34 
3.2.3 SPORTS Metaphors ......................................................... 43 
3.2.4 BURDEN Metaphors ....................................................... 48 
3.2.5 DISASTER Metaphors .................................................... 57 
 ii 
 
3.3 Discussion ....................................................................................... 61 
3.4 Chapter Summary ........................................................................... 65 
 
Chapter 4 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 67 
 
Bibliography .................................................................................................... 69 
 
Abstract in Korean ......................................................................................... 74 
 
 1 
CHAPTER 1 
Introduction 
 
 Metaphor is one of the most prominently researched subjects in 
cognitive linguistics. According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), our ordinary 
conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally 
metaphorical in nature. And the essence of metaphor is understanding or 
experiencing one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain. 
 Although it is claimed that metaphor is a matter of thought rather than 
of language, verbal metaphors have hitherto been the major subject of metaphor 
studies. A number of studies have based almost exclusively on data from 
linguistic expressions. However, if metaphor is really a matter of thought, it is 
also plausible to think that metaphors can appear via other modes of 
communication as well as the verbal one. On this account, Gibbs and Colston 
(1995) suggest that all possible manifestations of the trope must be studied to 
avoid the risk that important aspects of its nature are misunderstood because of 
the concentration on a single mode of expression. Metaphor studies should take 
other non-verbal manifestations into consideration. For instance, pictures, 
advertisement, and body gestures are all possible subjects where metaphors can 
be manifested. Lakoff and Johnson (2003[1980]: 249) also claim that “what is 
 2 
needed is still more empirical research that seeks converging evidence and is 
gathered by using different empirical methods of inquiry.” 
 In this light, researchers have begun to focus on the non-verbal 
metaphors. One of the main subjects in non-verbal metaphor studies is so-called 
‘visual metaphors.’ Visual metaphors use pictorial or otherwise visual devices 
that suggest identity in order to encourage metaphorical insight in viewers 
(Carroll 1994). For example, in Figure 1, we can infer that cigarette is as 
deadly as bullets are. Ortiz (2011: 1578) explores several primary metaphors 
construed from this image. In the advertisement, there is an image of bullets 
and a cigarette together. The cigarette close to the bullets and standing together 
represents metaphorsSIMILARITY IS PROXIMITY and SIMILARITY IS 
ALIGNMENT. They are derived from the tendency that similar objects tend to 
be close to another and to align themselves in the same way (Grady 1997). Also 
the bullet-shaped cigarette means that they have the same nature by THE 
NATURE OF AN ENTITY IS ITS SHAPE. Moreover, the image of a cigarette 
within the group of bullets tells the reader that they compose and belong to the 
same category by the metaphors CONSTITUENTS ARE CONTENTS and 
CATEGORIES ARE BOUNDED SPATIAL REGIONS. 
 Ortiz (ibid.: 1578) argues that these metaphors underlying in the image 
allow the readers to understand “bullets and cigarettes are the same thing 
 3 
because, according to the advertisement, they are similar, are of the same nature, 
constitute and belong to the same category.” 
 
 
Figure 1. NHA ad. (discussed in Ortiz 2011: 1578) 
 
 As Figure 1 shows, metaphor can be manifested non-verbally as well as 
verbally. Therefore, studying visual and other non-verbal metaphors is 
necessary to validate the existence of conceptual metaphor. 
 4 
 This thesis analyzes visual metaphors in political cartoons within the 
framework of Cognitive Linguistics. In particular, it places focus on political 
cartoons dealing with the Syrian Refugees Crisis in 2015. First, I will identify 
the metaphors construed in the cartoons. Then, I will investigate how people 
conceptualize the Syrian Refugees Crisis and how it is represented 
metaphorically in political cartoons. 
 This thesis consists of four chapters and is organized as follows. In 
chapter 2, I will introduce Conceptual Metaphor Theory in brief and present 
previous studies of visual metaphors. Studies of visual metaphors in political 
cartoons will be examined as well. 
 Chapter 3 explores the visual metaphors in political cartoons. I will first 
identify the metaphors in each political cartoon. The refugees and Europe are 
the main targets considered in the metaphors. Then, I will discuss how people’s 
conceptualizations of the Refugees Crisis are represented by the use of such 
metaphors. 
 Chapter 4 concludes this thesis by summarizing what have been 
analyzed and discussed. The limitations and further research plans will be 
mentioned as well. 
 
 
 5 
CHAPTER 2 
Previous Studies of Visual Metaphor 
 
 Before analyzing metaphors in political cartoons, we need to ponder on 
previous studies. Following the pioneering study of Lakoff and Johnson (1980), 
numerous studies of metaphor have been conducted. Although most of the 
studies have focused on verbal metaphors, scholars have begun to lay stress on 
non-verbal metaphors as well. 
 In this chapter, first, I will discuss how the studies of visual metaphors 
developed. Second, the studies of visual metaphors in political cartoons will be 
examined. 
 
2.1 Conceptual Metaphor Theory 
 
 The classical theory of metaphor has considered metaphor as a novel or 
poetic linguistic expression where one or more words for a concept are used 
outside of their normal conventional meaning to express a similar concept 
(Lakoff 1993). Although this is just a theory, it was taken as a definition of 
metaphor for a long time. 
 6 
 However, some scholars tried to approach the matter from a different 
angle. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) argue that our ordinary conceptual system, in 
terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. 
Thus, metaphor characterizes our thinking. Lakoff (1993) explains why 
metaphors are a matter of concept with the following examples: 
 
(1) a. Look how far we have come. 
 b. We may have to go our separate way. 
c. The marriage is on the rocks. (Lakoff 1993: 206) 
 
The above expressions are about love. If metaphor is solely a language problem, 
these different linguistic expressions should be considered as having separate 
and different metaphors. However, Lakoff and Johnson (1980) stated that 
metaphor is understanding and experiencing one thing in terms of another. In 
this case, people comprehend love in terms of journey based on their 
correspondences. Lakoff (1993) characterizes the mapping of LOVE IS 
JOURNEY as the following: 
 
 
 
 7 
(2) The LOVE-AS-JOURNEY Mapping 
 - The lovers correspond to travelers. 
 - The love relationship corresponds to the vehicle. 
 - The lovers’ common goals correspond to their common 
 destinations on the journey. 
 - Difficulties in the relationship correspond to impediments to 
 travel. (Lakoff 1993: 207) 
 
Therefore, the expressions in (1) should be considered as different metaphorical 
expressions for the same conceptual metaphor. 
 Following Lakoff and Johnson (1980), a myriad of studies have 
attempted to prove that our conceptual system is metaphorically structured. 
Recently, metaphor studies are taking interest in both verbal expressions and 
non-verbal manifestations in order to demonstrate it. 
 
2.2 Development of Visual Metaphor Studies 
 
 According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), metaphor is primarily a matter 
of thought and action, and only derivatively a matter of language. In other 
 8 
words, the conceptual nature of metaphor implies that not only language can be 
used as a stepping-stone for metaphoric conceptualization. But also pictures, 
sound and gestures can trigger metaphors as well (Schilperoord and Maes 
2009). 
 Within the paradigm, researchers have tried to find empirical evidence 
for conceptual metaphor beyond verbal manifestations. Visual metaphor is one 
of the most popular subjects in non-verbal metaphor studies. Lakoff (1993: 241) 
points out that “metaphors can be realized in obvious imaginative products such 
as cartoons, literary works, dreams, visions, and myths.” A number of studies 
(Carroll 1994, Coëgnarts and Kravanja 2012, El Refaie 2003, Forceville 1996, 
2002, 2008, Ortiz 2011, and Phillips 2003, among others) have examined how 
visual metaphors play a role in various genres such as advertising, film, 
political cartoons, and art. 
 Carroll (1994: 190) defines visual metaphor as: “visual metaphors use 
pictorial or otherwise visual devices that suggest identity in order to encourage 
metaphorical insight in viewers.” Forceville (2008) adds that the target and 
source of visual metaphors are entirely rendered in visual terms, just as verbal 
metaphors have a target and source entirely rendered in language. 
 Forceville (1996) contributed greatly to the development of visual 
metaphor studies. He proposes criteria for identifying visual metaphors and 
 9 
categories of visual metaphors. He states that following questions need to be 
answered in order to identify something as a metaphor: 
 
- What are the metaphor’s two domains? 
- Which is the target, and which is the source? 
- What features can be mapped from the source domain to the target 
 domain? (Forceville 1996: 108) 
 
The first two questions are concerned with the identification of the metaphor. 
The last question deals with the interpretation of it. 
 Moreover, Forceville (1996, 2008) distinguishes three different types of 
visual metaphor. 1 The first one is Contextual Metaphor. An object is 
metaphorized because of the visual context where it is placed. Removing the 
visual context results in the disappearance of the source domain, and hence in 
non-metaphor. 
 
 
1 Forceville (1996) presents one more type of visual metaphor, ‘verbo-visual metaphor.’ 
It is a case when one domain is rendered visually, while the other one is rendered 
verbally. In his later studies (e.g. Forceville 2008), however, he admits that this should 
be a subtype of multimodal metaphor, instead of a subtype of visual metaphor. For 
more discussion of multimodal metaphor, see Forceville (2006, 2008). 
 10 
 
Figure 2. "HAIR-SILK IS ICE CREAM" (discussed in Forceville 2008: 464)Figure 2 shows an example of contextual metaphor. The metaphor HAIR-SILK 
IS ICE CREAM is inferred from the advertisement with the text ‘also your hair 
deserves a treat now and then’ in Figure 2. The spoon is the visual context that 
cues the source ICECREAM. Ice cream is creamy, sweet and it makes people 
happy. Thus, the metaphor can be interpreted as: “Hair-silk makes your hair 
happy.” 
 11 
 The second is Hybrid Metaphor. In this case, parts of both domains are 
merged into a single image. Figure 3 is a case of hybrid metaphor. 
 
 
Figure 3. “TSUNAMI IS A SHARK” 
(discussed in Schilperoord and Maes 2009: 221) 
 
In the cartoon, the tidal wave and shark teeth are integrated into one image. The 
cartoon was drawn after the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake. On December 26, 
2004, an earthquake and tsunami hit Indonesia, leaving around 230,000 people 
 12 
dead or missing. This information helps the readers to understand the cartoon is 
one for tsunamis rather than for sharks. A shark is a dangerous fish that may 
attack people with its very sharp teeth. This feature is mapped from the source 
SHARK to the target TSUNAMI. 
 The third metaphor is Visual Simile. Both domains are visually 
represented in their entirety. 
 
 
Figure 4. "BEER CRATES ARE THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA" 
(discussed in Forceville 1996: 137) 
 13 
 
For instance, in Figure 4, the target BEER CRATES, which metonymically 
stands for BEER, is juxtaposed to the source THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA. 
The features projectable from the source are ‘famousness’, ‘national pride’, or 
‘greatness’. 
 Visual metaphors are similar to verbal metaphors, as both of them 
involve metaphorical mapping between target and source. But also visual 
metaphors seem to have advantages over verbal metaphors. For instance, visual 
metaphors may make salient certain aspects of conceptual metaphors that are 
not, or not as clearly, expressible in their verbal manifestations. The role of, for 
instance, size and spatial dimensions in source domains is more noticeable in 
visual discourses than in verbal ones (Forceville and Urios-Aprisi 2009). El 
Refaie (2003) also claims visual metaphors are able to convey a complex 
message in a much more immediate and condensed fashion than language. 
Forceville (2008) argues that visual metaphors are more easily recognized 
cross-culturally as pictures are more easily recognized transnationally than 
languages. Moreover, Wekesa (2012) claims that visuals have the power and 
ability to argue even more simply and forcefully than their verbal counterparts. 
 Compared to verbal metaphors, visual metaphors still have a long way 
to go. Many problems, such as the definition and methods of analysis, are still 
 14 
controversial among visual metaphor researchers. Nevertheless, it is necessary 
to study visual metaphors in order to “test and refine Conceptual Metaphor 
Theory, which is currently hampered by the fact that most of the evidence 
adduced to prove the existence of conceptual metaphors comes from language 
alone (Forceville 2008: 463).” Therefore, it is surely one of the promising fields 
in metaphor studies. 
 
2.3 Visual Metaphors in Political Cartoons 
 
 As mentioned in section 2.2, non-verbal manifestations have begun to 
attract attention from metaphor researchers. In accordance with this trend, 
political cartoons have been drawing interest for visual metaphor researchers as 
well. 
 
2.3.1 Identification of Visual Metaphors 
 
 El Refaie (2009a: 184) defines a political cartoon as: “an illustration, 
usually in a single panel, published on the editorial or comments pages of a 
newspaper. Most commonly, cartoons address a current political issue or event, 
a social trend, or a famous personality, in a way that takes a stand or presents a 
 15 
particular point of view.” Political cartoons differ from other images in 
newspapers. According to El Refaie (2009b: 186), “the metaphorical 
combination of the real and the imaginary is one of the features of cartoons that 
distinguish them from other newspaper images.” Besides, political cartoons are 
usually drawn in a single cut. In other words, there are constraints of space. 
Also the topics can be sometimes too complicate for readers to understand. For 
these reasons, cartoonists have to think how to convey the message more 
concisely and clearly to their readers. Therefore, they portray delicate topics as 
more familiar and more easily imaginable terms by using metaphors, and it 
helps them to explain something or to persuade people (El Refaie 2003, 
Schilperoord and Maes 2009). In other words, according to Bain et al. (2012: 
220), “cartoons can offer condensed and simplified portrayals of complex 
situations in order to aid audience cognition.” 
 Many scholars have discussed how visual metaphors work in political 
cartoons. El Refaie (2003) is one of the earliest studies applying Conceptual 
Metaphor Theory to analyze political cartoons. It explores the difference 
between verbal and visual metaphors in political cartoons. El Refaie (ibid.: 87) 
points out “visual metaphors are not always simply translations into the visual 
mode of verbal metaphors.” Instead, visual metaphors should be regarded as 
visual representations of underlying metaphorical concepts like verbal 
 16 
representations are. Moreover, she argues that visual metaphors can show the 
meanings more easily and more effectively than verbal metaphors. 
 Bounegru and Forceville (2011) examine 30 political cartoons 
representing the Global Financial Crisis in 2008 and identify Natural Disaster, 
Illness and Begging as the most frequent metaphors. Within the most frequently 
recurring source, NATURAL DISASTER, the cartoons depicted the target 
domain, FINANCIAL CRISIS, by various images such as tsunami, crack in the 
ice and sinking boat. It means that visual metaphors are able to represent one 
conceptual domain in many different ways like verbal metaphors do. It 
concludes that the reason why various metaphors appear in political cartoon is 
not only to explain the complex topic easily, but also because the genre itself 
richens their use. Similarly, El Refaie (2003) also argues that metaphors are 
widespread in political cartoons since they make it easier for people to deal 
with complex topics. 
 Blending is pervasive in political cartoons as well as metaphors. 
Conceptual Blending (Fauconnier and Turner 2002) uses four spaces whereas 
Conceptual Metaphor is a relationship between two domains. There is a 
‘generic’ space, which represents shared structure of ‘input’ spaces, and a 
‘blended’ space, where more than two ‘input’ spaces are integrated. Properties 
in two or more different inputs are projected selectively to the new blended 
 17 
space. Emergent structure, which does not come directly from the inputs, is also 
elaborated in the blended space. According to Bergen (2003: 6), “blends in 
political cartoons can display emergent properties, properties that are not drawn 
from either of the input spaces, but rather are specific to the blend itself.” He 
explores 219 political cartoons that appeared in the week following the 
September 11 attacks. Figure 5 is an example from Bergen (2003). 
 
 
Figure 5. “Terror Attack/Pearl Harbor!” (discussed in Bergen 2003) 
 
 18 
The attack on Pearl Harbor and the September 11 attacks are integrated in the 
cartoon, which is the new blended space. Bergen found three emergent 
properties that were not present in the two inputs. First, the plane has a question 
mark on its body instead of a symbol of Japan. It comes from the fact that the 
terrorists of the September 11 attacks were unidentified at first. Second, the 
plane is flying away with no damage as in the attack on Pearl Harbor. However, 
the plane actually crashed into the World Trade Center. Also the plane would 
not have said, “terror, terror, terror”in both events. Finally, the buildings are 
sinking like the ships at Pearl Harbor instead of collapsing. It remains intact and 
depicted like a part of a sinking ship. These emergent properties cannot be 
explained by the two-domains approach, as none of them were present in either 
of the domains. 
 Kwon (2015) explores political cartoons before and after the Charlie 
Hebdo shooting on January 2015. He also argues that conceptual metaphor, 
metonymy, and conceptual blending are employed in political cartoons to 
convey the message with effect. ARGUMENT IS WAR metaphor and PENCIL 
FOR JOURNALIST metonymy were found pervasive in the cartoons. It 
indicates that people conceptualize the shooting as a verbal battle instead of a 
physical battle. The study reveals that the use of cognitive mechanisms is not 
 19 
limited to verbal manifestations, but they also work actively in non-verbal 
manifestations and help deliver the message more effectively. 
 
2.3.2 Interpretation of Visual Metaphors 
 
 Identifying metaphors helps people interpret the message of the 
cartoonist. However, people may not necessarily it the same as the cartoonists 
intended originally. One’s interpretation is dependent on his or her personal 
experience and knowledge. El Refaie (2009a) explores how people interpret the 
cartoons differently. She experiments young people’s interpretation of 
metaphors in political cartoons. The results of the study show that some 
metaphorical mappings, such as mappings between size and power, are 
understood easily. But some people had difficulty in interpreting metaphors that 
require specific knowledge. For instance, the cartoon in Figure 6 shows a baby 
with the face of George W. Bush is crawling toward a box of matches with a 
fire behind him. 
 
 20 
 
Figure 6. “GEORGE BUSH IS A TODDLER” (discussed in El Refaie 2009a) 
 
The text “4 more years” written on the box means the reelection. Therefore, the 
cartoon is trying to say that the reelection of George Bush will bring troubles 
just as he already did. The metaphors in the cartoon are GEROGE BUSH IS A 
TODDLER and TIME IS SPACE (El Refaie 2009a). The former metaphor 
maps the properties of a toddler, such as irresponsible and impetuous, onto 
George Bush. The latter one comes from the image of a baby crawling toward 
the matchbox, which cues the metaphor TIME PASSING IS MOTION OVER 
A LOCATION (Lakoff 1993). However, in the experiment, people who could 
 21 
not recognize the face of George Bush or people who did not know certain 
political context were not able to interpret the cartoon metaphorically. They 
read the cartoon in a literal way, for instance, “do not leave matches out for 
little babies.” The study suggests that individual’s socio-political knowledge 
and experience are decisive factors to understand the metaphors in political 
cartoons. In other words, different knowledge and experience make different 
interpretations. 
 Bounegru and Forceville (2011) also emphasize that socio-cultural 
factors may affect the choice and interpretation of metaphor. For instance, 
people from different regions may use metaphors in different patterns. In their 
study, cartoons in mountainous countries such as Switzerland used the image of 
an avalanche for NATURAL DISASTER metaphor whereas countries nearby 
the sea like Philippines used the image of a tsunami in cartoons. 
 Schilperoord and Maes (2009) also point that the processing and 
interpretation of cartoons requires a complex mix of political, cultural, 
historical, and contextual knowledge. Individual factors such as personal 
history, concerns, and interests can also influence the choice of metaphorical 
source domains (Kövecses 2005). 
 
 
 22 
2.4 Chapter Summary 
 
 In this chapter, I have examined previous studies of visual metaphors. 
Studies of visual metaphors in political cartoons were mainly discussed. They 
show political cartoons are rich of metaphors. Also it was emphasized that 
people’s interpretation of cartoon is necessarily dependent on the context and 
their own experiences. 
 In chapter 3, I will analyze the visual metaphors in political cartoons 
dealing with the Syrian Refugees Crisis in 2015. Following the analyses, 
various conceptualizations of the Refugees Crisis will be explored by 
categorizing the metaphors. 
 
 
 
 23 
CHAPTER 3 
Syrian Refugees Crisis in Political Cartoons 
 
 This chapter explores a set of political cartoons dealing with the Syrian 
Refugees Crisis. First, I will identify the metaphors in each cartoon and suggest 
the implied message of the cartoons. Second, the source domains will 
categorize the metaphors. Then, I will examine how people conceptualize the 
Refugees Crisis in the aspect of the relationship between refugees and Europe. 
 
3.1 Data Selection and Methods 
 
 Since the outbreak of the Syrian civil war in 2011, millions of people 
had died and had taken refuge from Syria. The refugees flowed into 
neighboring countries like Turkey, Lebanon, and Europe. The number of 
refugees has continued to increase, and there was an explosive increase 
especially in 2015. According to the report of United Nations High 
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 2 114,500 new refugees registered 
during the first six months of 2015. This compares to 59,600 new refugees 
registered during the corresponding period of 2014. The number of Syrian 
 
2 UNHCR Mid-Year Trends 2015, 18 Dec 2015 
 24 
asylum applications in 2015 only was more than 670,000, which is almost 75% 
of the total applications since 2012.3 The refugees from Syria over the past five 
years continue to put huge socio-economic and political pressures on other 
countries. Figure 7 shows the sharp increase in 2015. 
 
 
 
Figure 7. Evolution of Asylum Applications (source: UNHCR) 
 
 For this reason, the data for this study consists of the cartoons published 
in 2015, particularly between January 2015 and February 2016. In the selected 
time period, prolific cartoons related to the Syrian refugees crisis were 
published as the number of refugees had increased dramatically at that time. 
 
3 UNHCR Map New Asylum Applications EU, April 2011 ― December 2015, 22 Feb 
2016 
 25 
The cartoons were collected from Daryl Cagle’s Online Political Cartoons 
Database (http://www.politicalcartoons.com), Cartoon Movement 
(http://www.cartoonmovement.com), and Townhall (http://www.townhall.com) 
by searching phrases related to the Syrian Refugees Crisis, such as Syria, 
refugees, immigrant, migration and crisis. 
 After collecting the data, it had to be identified whether the cartoon is 
metaphorical or not. Thus the following questions from Forceville (1996) were 
asked to identify a metaphor: 
 
- What are the metaphor’s two domains? 
- Which is the target, and which is the source? 
- What features can be mapped from the source domain to the target 
 domain? (Forceville 1996: 108) 
 
The analyses of the data are made up of following points: 1) description of the 
image shown in the cartoon; 2) identification of the metaphors in terms of their 
target and source; and 3) interpretation of the metaphors implied in the cartoon. 
The main targets considered are REGUFEES and EUROPE. Therefore, the 
cartoons that depict either or both the refugees and Europe metaphorically are 
 26 
examined by priority. Then, the conceptualization of the Refugees Crisis is 
suggested, according to the source domains. 
 
3.2 Analysis of the Data 
 
 Various metaphors in the political cartoons show that people 
conceptualize the Syrian Refugees Crisis diversely. This study details the 
metaphors corresponding to the source domains, such as FLOOD, WAR, 
SPORTS, BURDEN and DISASTER. Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 108) argue 
that “differentmetaphors can structure different aspects of a single concept.” 
For instance, the refugees are rendered differently in the enemy or in the 
weapon within the single concept WAR. Cartoon in Figure15 depicts the 
refugees as the main participant fighting against Europe in this situation. On the 
other hand, Figure 13 implies that it is not the refugees who intended this crisis 
but someone else is only using them as a weapon. I will identify these different 
aspects as well. 
 
 
 
 
 27 
3.2.1 FLOOD Metaphors 
 
According to Kövecses (1990: 71), natural forces, such as flood, wind, 
storms, are considered “as extremely forceful and as affecting physical objects 
with a great impact. Physical things cannot help but undergo their effects.” For 
example, there are expressions such as “She was engulfed with fear”, “A flood 
of emotion swept over her” (EMOTION IS NATURAL FORCE). 
 Political cartoons often depict the incoming of refugees by an image of 
water. It is not still but running and making people annoyed or dangerous. For 
instance, the refugees are drawn as leaking water, overflowing water, and tidal 
wave. The conceptual metaphor REFUGEES CRISIS IS FLOOD underlies in 
these cartoons. It “emphasizes the havoc that can be wreaked by” natural forces 
(Kövecses 1990: 167). 
 In Figure 8, a kitchen is flooded with overflowing water from the sink 
and a person swabbing down the floor. It is written ‘refugees’ on the sink and 
‘Europe’ on the person’s apron. The refugees are conceptualized as 
overflowing water and Europe is personified as a cleaner. 
 
 28 
 
Figure 8. Tom Hanssen ‘Europe and refugees’ (Oct. 22, 2015) 
 
 Similarly, in Figure 9, water is flowing out. The plumber is trying to 
repair the faucet but he cannot. We can assume that the REFUGEES ARE 
OVERFLOWING WATER by the inscription ‘refugees crisis’ on the faucet. 
Second, we can see European Union’s symbol on the plumber’s shoulder and 
the inscription ‘Europe’ on his hat. Therefore, EUROPE IS PLUMBER as the 
metaphor NATION IS PERSON can be construed by the image. Besides, we 
can infer the Refugees Crisis is out of control by the missing valve. 
 29 
 
 
Figure 9. Osama Hajjaj ‘Refugees crisis in Europe’ (Oct. 24, 2015) 
 
Both cartoons show that people conceptualize the Refugees Crisis as an 
overflow of water. Overflowing water is a trouble that needs to be fixed. The 
cleaner has to keep wiping the water and the plumber has to repair it and turn 
off the water. The interpretation of the cartoons is: “The crisis is now out of 
control. Europe has to do something or it will cause more troubles.” 
 30 
 In Figure 10, people are falling from the cracks in the ceiling to the 
buckets on the floor. The person sitting on the chair seems annoyed with the 
situation. The image reminds of leaks when it rains. Here, the refugees are 
viewed as leaking water from the ceiling. 
 
 
Figure 10. Joep Bertrams ‘Provisional arrival centres’ (Sep. 3, 2015) 
 
The Refugees Crisis is conceptualized as a leak of water. Leaking water is a 
nuisance that annoys people and causes a lot of troubles. Unless someone fixes 
 31 
the problem, it will keep leaking. Then the whole house will be inundated or the 
ceiling will fall down. The interpretation of the metaphors is: “We should 
restrict the incoming refugees or they will annoy us and cause more troubles.” 
 Other cartoons feature the metaphor REFUGEES CRISIS IS FLOW OF 
WATER too. In Figure 11, the wave has already flooded over the wall. People 
under the wall are arguing how to deal with the situation. 
 
 
Figure 11. Paresh Nath ‘EU migration crisis’ (Aug. 24, 2015) 
 
 32 
 In Figure 12, a person is saying ‘manage the waves or see the collapse 
of our fort!’ The waves are a risk that can destroy the wall. So people are trying 
to reinforce the wall in order to stop it. 
 
 
Figure 12. Paresh Nath ‘Migration and schengen’ (Jan. 24, 2016) 
 
From the images and inscriptions, we can construe that REFUGEES ARE 
TIDAL WAVE and EUROPE (SCHENGEN) IS A WALL. The Schengen Area 
is the area including 26 European countries that do not demand passport to 
 33 
travel. It functions almost as a single country. Therefore, reinforcing the wall 
means setting up enhanced control over the border. In other words, it can be 
interpreted as: “Europe has to make preparations for the danger of incoming 
refugees.” 
 
Source Domain 
FLOOD 
Target Domain 
REFUGEES CRISIS 
Water Refugees 
Land Europe 
Control over water Policy 
Movement / Direction of water Moving from Syria to Europe 
Inundation / Danger Increase of refugees 
 
Table 1.1 Conceptual Mappings on REFUGEES CRISIS IS FLOOD 
 
 The conceptual mappings on REFUGEES CRISIS IS FLOOD are 
exemplified in Table 1.1 above. The use of FLOOD metaphors suggests that the 
Refugees Crisis is a threat to people, which is hard to control. We know it is 
dangerous, but it is also unpredictable and irresistible. Nonetheless, the 
cartoons are saying that we must stand up to it. 
 34 
3.2.2 WAR Metaphors 
 
 Terms referring to war, battle, and struggle are recurrently used to 
depict the Refugees Crisis. In war, for instance, we attack the opponent and 
defend ourselves against the opponent. We try to take the opponent’s position. 
Also we need to plan strategies in order to win the war. We use weapons in the 
war. We may win or lose. It is easy to find conceptual metaphors explaining 
one concept in terms of war. For example, “He attacked every weak point in my 
argument” (ARGUMENT IS WAR), “This team must change their strategy” 
(SPORT IS WAR), and “She fought for him, but his mistress won out” (LOVE 
IS WAR). 
The metaphor REFUGEES CRISIS IS WAR is found in many political 
cartoons. Europe is depicted as it is engaged in a battle, trying to defend itself 
against the enemy, which is the Refugees Crisis. 
 In Figure 13, the image shows refugees are falling from the sky to 
Europe. The skull and crossbones on the planes are the symbol of danger. It 
indicates that they are carrying something dangerous. Therefore, the refugees 
dropped by the planes are not passengers but metaphorically depicted as bombs. 
The pilots attacking Europe are Bashar al-Assad, the president of Syria, and 
Vladimir Putin, the president of Russia. Syria and Russia are bombing Europe. 
 35 
The Refugees correspond to bombs in this cartoon. The opponents, Syria and 
Russia, have forced out the refugees to Europe, and the refugees are likely to be 
a threat, just as a weapon used in war. 
 
 
Figure 13. Arend Van Dam ‘Bombing Europe’ (Feb. 9, 2016) 
 
 REFUGEES ARE BOMBS is profiled in Figure 14 as well. There are 
bombs in the sky aligned with the boats on the sea. The boats are heading to 
 36 
where the bombs came from, and the bombs are heading to where the boats 
come from. Besides, the shape of the bomb and boat is drawn similarly. 
 
 
Figure 14. Hajo De Reijger ‘Syria intervention’ (Sep. 14, 2015) 
 
It implies that the boats will cause the same effect just as the bombs will do. 
Primary metaphors SIMILARITY IS ALIGNMENT and THE NATURE OF 
AN ENTITY IS ITS SHAPE are activated for such implement. According to 
Grady (1997: 282-283), objects may be oriented in the same way because they 
 37 
serve similar functions. “Her new dress is very much in line with those worn by 
her coworkers” “There are stunning parallels between these two novels” are 
examples of this metaphor. Also people have a tendency to draw inferences 
about an object from its shape. The correlation between an object’s shape and 
its behavior motivates it. For example, “Democracy takes very different forms 
in different countries,” “Irish is of a very different cut from other European 
languages.” The boat with the shape of a bomb implies that the boat shares the 
nature of bomb; it will kill people and destroy the place. And the boatsmetonymically stand for the refugees. Therefore, aligning the bombs and boats 
that have similar shape makes the readers infer that bombs and refugees are the 
same things. 
 There have been almost 3,000 airstrikes against ISIS targets in Syria 
since a United Stated-led campaign began in September 2014. More than 95% 
of these have been conducted by the United States, according to the United 
States monitoring group Airwars.4 We can assume that the bombs in the 
cartoon are heading to Syria from the West, and the refugees are coming from 
Syria to the West. Both cartoons in figures 13 and 14 convey the message: “The 
refugees are a threat for Europe that is as dangerous as bombs.” 
 
4 http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/dec/01/syria-airstrikes-everything-you-
need-to-know 
 38 
 The interpretation of the cartoon in Figure 15 and Figure 16 is similar to 
that of Figure 13 and Figure 14. The image of castle, soldiers, and crowds 
surrounding the castle evokes the concept of battle and war. The crowds are 
enemies trying to attack the castle and occupy it. The soldiers in the castle are 
trying to defend the castle against them. 
 
 
Figure 9. David Horsey ‘Europe faces an invasion of migrants and refugees’ 
(Sep. 3, 2016) 
 
 39 
 In Figure 16, boats are struggling through the heavy seas and eventually 
crashing into the wall. Europe is the wall defending itself by crashing the 
refugees’ boats. 
 
 
Figure 16. Petar Pismestrovic ‘Seenot’ (Apr. 21, 2015) 
 
We can construe that Europe is a castle and the refugees are invading enemies. 
War is a matter of survival. If we lose the war, we die. If we win the war, we 
live. The text ‘we need a bigger moat’ reinforces the idea that the people in 
Europe should continue their effort to survive. A moat is a deep and wide ditch 
 40 
filled with water, surrounding a castle. It defends the castle against opponent’s 
attack as an obstacle when they try to access to the wall. Therefore, a bigger 
moat is more effective for defense. It guides the interpretation of the metaphor 
as: “Europe must find a way to defend itself against the incoming refugees, or 
we will fail to survive.” 
 Sometime the opponents may infiltrate into our organization as a part of 
strategies. They gain access to our organization or places surreptitiously in 
order to acquire information or to launch a secret attack. Some cartoons depict 
the entry of refugees as an infiltration of ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria). 
Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) is an Islamist militant group that has 
seized a chunk of land stretching from northern Syria to central Iraq, has struck 
fear into the hearts of leaders around the world.5 
 In Figure 17, Barack Obama is giving a welcome to the wolf in sheep’s 
clothing. Barack Obama thinks the refugees are sheep but the wolf inside is 
wearing an ISIS nametag on his chest. We are able to construe that ISIS is a 
wolf in sheep’s clothing. 
 
5 http://edition.cnn.com/2015/01/14/world/isis-everything-you-need-to-know 
 41 
 
Figure 17. A. F. Branco ‘Sleeper sheep’ (Sep. 18, 2015) 
 
A sheep is a gentle animal whereas a wolf is a dangerous animal that can harm 
people. It is a stereotypic opposition based on based on their relationship, the 
killer and its victim, the eater and the one who is eaten. Unlike other cartoons, it 
is not the refugees but ISIS who are enemies in this cartoon. However, the 
Refugees Crisis itself is still a war where ISIS is trying to make bad use. It 
implies the message: “ISIS is disguising as refugees in order to infiltrate. We 
should not welcome them because they are dangerous and will attack us.” 
 42 
 The Refugees Crisis is represented as war between Europe and the 
refugees. The mappings on the metaphor REFUGEES CRISIS IS WAR are 
exemplified in table 1.2 below. 
 
Source Domain 
WAR 
Target Domain 
REFUGEES CRISIS 
Combatants Europe / Refugees 
Battle field / Castle Europe 
War situation Refugees Crisis situation 
Offense / Defense Enter / Block 
Weapon Refugees / Policy 
Win / Lose Admission / Refusal 
 
Table 1.2 Conceptual Mappings on REFUGEES CRISIS IS WAR 
 
 To win this war, the refugees must get into Europe whereas Europe must stop 
the refugees coming in. 
 
 
 
 43 
3.2.3 SPORTS Metaphors 
 
 Sports games are likely to be understood as war. We use expressions 
like “John beats his opponent in 12-round slugfest,” “Real Madrid triumphs in 
Champions League.” Dancygier and Sweetser (2014: 67-69) give account for 
the selected mappings between two concepts. Table 1.3 shows the mappings on 
the SPORTS ARE WAR metaphor. 
 
Source Domain 
WAR 
Target Domain 
SPORTS GAMES 
Combatants Players 
Army Team 
Cannot both own land Cannot both win the game 
Military victory Winning a game 
Gain in territory Status as winner 
 
Table 1.3 Conceptual Mappings on SPORTS ARE WAR 
 (Dancygier and Sweetser 2014: 68) 
 
 44 
In Figures 18 and 19, scenes of baseball and tennis are depicted with the 
metaphor REFUGEES CRISIS IS SPORTS GAMES. Although sports games 
are often seen as war, the cartoons in this chapter are different from those of 
WAR metaphors in the previous chapter. The cartoons of WAR metaphors 
depict the refugees as the opponent of Europe. However, the refugees are not 
represented as the opponent in the cartoons of SPORTS metaphors. Instead, 
they appear as a ball, which is the instrument used in the game. Also the 
opponents are not drawn in the cartoons. 
 In Figure 18, a man is holding a bat in his hand. The bat and the helmet 
are instruments used in baseball games. EUROPE IS HITTER in this game. 
The ball is not drawn in the cartoon. However, by the hitter’s pose, we can 
assume the ball is about to come. It is inferred from the caption ‘refugee 
admission’ that REFUGEES ARE BALL. And the REFUGEES POLICY IS 
BAT. Therefore, Europe is waiting to hit back the refugees. 
 
 45 
 
Figure 18. Joep Bertrams ‘Refugee admission’ (Jun. 18, 2015) 
 
 On the contrary, the ball is visualized in Figure 19 by the same 
metaphor REFUGEES ARE BALLS. Also the player in Figure 19 has already 
hit the ball. It is HUNGARY IS TENNIS PLAYER in the cartoon. And the net 
and the racket evoke a scene of tennis. The net looks like wire entanglements 
used to demarcate areas. Hungary hit back the refugees over its border. 
 
 46 
 
Figure 19. Petar Pismestrovic ‘Orbans net game’ (Aug. 19, 2015) 
 
Baseball and tennis have similar rules. First, both games require a hitter and an 
opponent as participants in the game. Also a ball is needed to play. Second, 
hitters must hit the ball to win the game. The hitter in baseball games has to hit 
the pitcher’s ball and score. Similarly, the hitter in tennis games has to hit the 
opponent’s ball over the net. The player who is unable to return the ball will not 
gain a point, while the opposite player will have an advantage. To win the game, 
players in both games must hit the opponent’s ball and make the opponent fail 
 47 
to hit ours. Thus, we can infer that the hitter in Figure 18 will try to hit the ball 
somehow like the player in Figure 19, who has already hit the ball. 
 In contrast to the refugees in WAR metaphors, the refugees in SPORTS 
metaphors are understood as passive ones. When the refugees are seen as 
enemies in war, it means they are acting with their own purpose. On the other 
hand, they do not have it when they are mapped to the ball in sports games. It is 
just an instrument for the games, which is thrown or hit back by the opponent. 
The cartoons do not focus on the opponents, who are likely to have sent the 
refugees to Europe and Hungary. They are only concerned about the incoming 
refugees. In Table 1.4, correspondences between REFUGEESCRISIS and 
SPORTS GAMES are given. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 48 
Source Domain 
SPORTS GAMES 
Target Domain 
REFUGEES CRISIS 
Players Europe 
Instrument Refugees / Policy 
Field Europe 
Offense / Defense Send back the refugees 
Victory Refusal 
 
Table 1.4 Conceptual Mappings on REFUGEES CRISIS IS SPORTS GAMES 
 
The metaphors in both cartoons are interpreted as: “Europe and Hungary are 
not going to admit refugees and send them back somehow.” 
 
3.2.4 BURDEN Metaphors 
 
 When we try to get somewhere, carrying a heavy weight will make it 
harder to do so. This physical experience is linked to expressions that view 
weight in terms of difficulties. For instance, we say “This exam places a terrible 
burden on me”, “He is weighed down by a lot of assignments.” Therefore, 
understanding one concept as a burden yields the conceptual metaphor 
 49 
DIFFICULTIES ARE BURDENS as well. The Refugees Crisis is also 
understood in terms of thing that causes inconvenience, annoyance and 
difficulties. It is considered as a heavy burden imposed on Europe. The 
metaphor is REFUGEES CRISIS IS BURDEN for the following cartoons. 
 In Figure 20, someone behind the wall is dumping garbage and people 
together. The person in the image is splattered with the garbage and seems 
annoyed. 
 
 
Figure 20. Joep Bertrams ‘Annoyance’ (Aug. 26, 2015) 
 50 
The inscription on the garbage can ‘asylum problem’ indicates REFUGEES 
CRISIS IS LITTERING in this cartoon. 
In Figure 21, ships are capsized and bodies are all over the coast. A 
skeleton is cleaning the place. The image of a skeleton reminds the reader of 
the Grim Reaper,6 who is holding a vacuum cleaner instead of a scythe, and 
wearing suits instead of a hooded monk’s robe. Thus, it implies that the people 
are dead. The refugees are something that Europe has to clean up. 
 
 
Figure 21. Arend Van Dam ‘Boat refugees’ (Apr. 23, 2015) 
 
6 Fauconnier and Turner (2002: 291-295) discuss the Grim Reaper blend in details. 
 51 
 The metaphor inherent in both cartoons is REFUGEES ARE 
GARBAGE. Rendering refugees as garbage is based on conceptual metaphors 
MORALITY IS CLEANLINESS (Lakoff and Johnson 1999: 307) and 
AMORAL IS DIRTY / ETHICAL IS CLEAN (Kövecses 2002: 210). The 
correspondence between cleanliness and morality is motivated by our body 
experience. When our body gets dirty, we wash the dirt away to be clean. We 
want to keep our body clean. Similarly, we become amoral when we do 
something bad, but we can be moral by stop doing it. We are expected to be 
moral. For example, expressions such as “That was a dirty trick” or “The 
preacher said that all my sins is washed away” are examples of AMORAL IS 
DIRTY and “She is a woman of spotless virtue” for ETHICAL IS CLEAN. An 
amoral person is a dirty person. Many refugees have attempted an illegal entry 
into countries, which is considered to be amoral behavior. Dumping garbage at 
other person’s territory is also illegal. 
It is different that another one in Figure 20 dumps the refugees whereas 
they tried to enter by themselves in Figure 21. However, in both situations, it 
has to be cleaned up by the others, which annoys them. Therefore, depicting 
refugees as garbage is interpreted as: “The refugees have to be expelled because 
they are not allowed to come.” 
 52 
 In Figure 22, a truck is broken down and people are trying to get in the 
truck. The inscription on the truck ‘European refugee policy’ cues the metaphor 
EUROPEAN REFUGEE POLICY IS A TRUCK. When a truck is broken down, 
it cannot move. In other words, lack of movement is lack of control. Thus, the 
broken truck means the policy has failed and thus refugees are out of control. 
Another metaphor EUROPE IS A TRUCK DRIVER is derived, as it is the 
European nations that operate the policy. Besides, it seems that the truck is 
about to burst since there are too many people inside the truck. So the truck is 
broken down because it was overloaded. And more people are having an 
opportunity to get in the truck. Then it will be heavier and heavier. The 
REFUGEES ARE BURDEN and the primary metaphor DIFFICULTY / 
HARDSHIP IS HEAVINESS are activated. 
 
 53 
 
Figure 22. Paresh Nath ‘EU refugee policy’ (Oct. 24, 2015) 
 
If the weight of refugees is too heavy, it metaphorically means they are too 
difficult problems to handle. Therefore, Europe must fix the truck and find a 
way to control the weight of load it is carrying. The interpretation of the 
metaphors is presumably: “The exceeding number of refugees will make the 
European refugee policy fail. Europe needs to take control of their refugee 
policy.” 
 54 
 Figure 23 depicts refugees as a burden too. In Figure 23, a man is 
carrying a number of people on his shoulder. His arrow-shaped stick is about to 
be broken. Also there are more migrants keep coming from the sea by boats. 
The metaphor REFUGEES CRISIS IS STRUGGLE underlies in this cartoon. 
 
 
Figure 23. Osama Hajjaj ‘Europe migrants’ (Sep. 6, 2015) 
 
In the cartoon, we can see the circle of twelve golden stars, the symbol of 
Europe, on his chest. Thus, Europe is personified as a man struggling with the 
 55 
people on his back. The metaphor of the image of people on his back can be 
rendered as REFUGEES ARE A BURDEN. The weight of the burden has 
broken the stick and is making the man hard to stand. The image profiles 
primary metaphor DIFFICULTY / HARDSHIP IS HEAVINESS. The 
correlation between perceiving weight and feeling strain motivates it (Grady 
1997: 291). It is found in expressions such as: “I have a heavy workload this 
year” and “This situation is hard to bear.” The refugees are making the 
situation difficult in Europe. 
 The man’s stick has the shape of an arrow pointing downwards. It 
reminds of an arrowed line on a graph, where the conceptual metaphor LESS IS 
DOWN underlies. According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), when you add 
more of a substance or of physical objects to a container or pile, the level goes 
up. For example, we use expressions such as: “My income rose last year” or “If 
you’re too hot, turn the heat down.” If the graph is a financial chart, we can 
infer the refugees are causing negative effect on European economy. Also the 
image of migrants coming from the sea implies the situation will be more 
difficult in future. Therefore, it makes the readers think that Europe needs to 
stop accepting the refugees, or they will make more difficult problems in 
Europe. 
 56 
 The cartoons of REFUGEES CRISIS ARE BURDEN draw the refugees 
as garbage and burden by the correspondences between two concepts shown in 
Table 1.5. 
 
Source Domain 
BURDEN 
Target Domain 
REFUGEES CRISIS 
Person Europe 
Burden Refugees 
Weight / Pressure Difficulty / Stress 
Difficulty in physical movement Difficulty in control 
 
Table 1.5 Conceptual Mappings on REFUGEES CRISIS IS BURDEN 
 
The person who holds the burden experiences physical difficulties. It causes 
physical pressure on the person and makes him difficult to move. As time goes 
on, the person becomes exhausted. In the same manner, the Refugees Crisis is 
given to Europe as a burden. It makes Europe struggle and gives unnecessary 
works. It is causing negative effect on European economy (Figure 23), and 
breaking European policies (Figure 22). Thus, the Refugees Crisis is annoying 
Europe. 
 57 
3.2.5 DISASTER Metaphors 
 
 In Figure 24, a man is lifting up a boat full of people. It is easy to 
recognize he is Superman, as he is flying, strong enough to lift the boat with 
one hand, and wearing a cape. Also the silhouette looks like a star, which 
comes from the symbol of European Union. The metaphor can be verbalized as 
EUROPE IS SUPERMAN. Thanks to the superman, the boat is not falling 
anymore but going up. 
 
 
Figure 24. Hajo DeReijger ‘EU deal on refugees’ (Sep. 24, 2015) 
 58 
 In contrast, the cartoon in Figure 25 shows a boat hanging on the 
balloon, which is bursting. The balloon with the symbol of European Unions 
cannot float the boat anymore. The boat is falling, and some passengers have 
already fallen to the sea. The metaphor in the cartoon is EUROPE IS A 
DEFLATED BALLOON. In Figure 27, the DEATH IS DOWN metaphor is 
construed, which is contrary to Figure 26. Europe is saving the refugees in 
Figure 26 whereas it is failing to save them in Figure 27. 
 
 
Figure 25. Vasco Gargalo ‘Migration in Mediterranean’ (Apr. 2, 2016) 
 59 
The images of two cartoons cue the conceptual metaphor LIFE IS UP / 
DEATH IS DOWN (Lakoff and Johnson 1980). You can stand up only when 
you are alive. When you are dead, you are physically down. For example, 
“Lazarus rose from the dead,” “He dropped dead.” Therefore, if the boat falls, 
it means the passengers will die. But raising the boat can be understood 
metaphorically as saving the passengers’ life. 
 The interesting setting in these cartoons is the position of the boat. It 
may be abnormal to construe that the boat going up to the sky is good and 
falling down to the water is bad. In fact, many refugees have been trying to 
cross the sea. The boats are loaded with hundreds of people in terribly 
overcrowded conditions. As a result, many of them capsized and people died. 
So the sea in the cartoons is a dangerous place for the refugees. In other words, 
there is always a potential threat of death when the boat is at the sea. Therefore, 
lifting the boat up from the sea is rescuing the refugees from the danger. 
 We can construe the metaphor REFUGEES CRISIS IS DISASTER. The 
disaster is capsizal in particular. It yields another metaphor EUROPE IS 
RESCUER too. 
 
 
 60 
Source Domain 
DISASTER 
Target Domain 
REFUGEES CRISIS 
Victim Refugees 
Damage Death of refugees 
Place Sea 
Rescuer Europe 
 
Table 1.6 Conceptual Mappings on REFUGEES CRISIS IS DISASTER 
 
In Table 1.6, the mappings between the REFUGEES CRISIS and DISASTER 
are presented. The Refugees Crisis is understood in terms of the relationship of 
a victim and a rescuer of a disaster. The refugees are drawn as the victims, and 
Europe is the one who can save them or not. We can infer that not only the 
ability but also the responsibility is possibly mapped to Europe from the rescuer. 
Therefore, the interpretation of the metaphor is: “Europe can save the refugees 
dying at sea. It is their responsibility.” 
 
 
 
 61 
3.3 Discussion 
 
 The Refugees Crisis is conceptualized in various terms. And the terms 
are also represented by diverse images in political cartoons. Table 1.7 shows 
the source domains of the REFUGEES CRISIS metaphors and the images of 
refugees and Europe depicted in the cartoons. 
 
Source domains Europe and Refugees 
FLOOD Europe: cleaner, wall Refugees: flood, tidal wave 
WAR Europe: castle, defense army Refugees: invader, bomb 
SPORTS GAMES Europe: hitter Refugees: ball 
BURDEN Europe: a struggler Refugees: garbage, burden 
DISASTER Europe: rescuer Refugees: victim 
 
Table 1.7 Source Domains of the Refugees Crisis Metaphors 
 
 62 
Table 1.7 shows that the Refugees Crisis is conceptualized negatively. The 
refugees are threat, invaders, burden, and victims whereas Europe is depicted as 
a cleaner, defense army, struggler, and a rescuer. These relationships between 
the refugees and Europe possibly make the readers understand the Refugees 
Crisis is a trouble. But it is also interesting that most cartoons in this study are 
taking negative stance toward the same event. 
 There are two possible factors for this result. First, it is the genre itself. 
Political cartoon is a genre that deals with current political issues, social events, 
and related people. Bounegru and Forceville (2011: 213) argue that “the 
cartoon amplifies and exaggerates the negative impact … with satirical effects.” 
Schilperoord and Maes (2009) also claim political cartoons almost invariably 
express a particular critical, if not radically negative, stance towards the topic. 
Then, it may be not surprising that the Refugees Crisis is represented negatively 
in most cartoons. 
The source domains are visually represented by various images in the 
cartoons. These concepts recur in the verbal metaphors as well. For instance, 
the following examples in (3) show REFUGEES CRISIS IS FLOOD metaphor 
found in newspapers: 
 
 63 
(3) a. As Europe grapples with a flood of refugees from the Syrian 
 war and the pope urges Catholics to help them, the U.S. 
 government may lack the political appetite to offer American 
 soil as a safe haven to more than the current trickle of Syrians. 
 (Reuters, Sep. 7, 2015)7 
 
 b. So long as the Syrian civil war grinds on and the Islamic State 
 continues expanding its footprint, desperate refugees will keep 
 flowing from places like Syria. (The Atlantic, Oct. 21, 2015)8 
 
 c. Regime forces and allies are trying to create a new refugee 
 wave by moving towards Azaz … (The Guardian, Feb. 16, 
 2016)9 
 
 Not only FLOOD, but also other sources appeared in verbal mode. 
Verbal manifestations of REFUGEES CRISIS IS WAR are given in (4) below: 
 
 
7 http://www.reuters.com/article/us-europe-migrants-usa-idUSKCN0R725O20150908 
8 http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/10/syrian-refugees-
resettlement-us/411178/ 
9 http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/16/refugees-are-becoming-russias-
weapon-of-choice-in-syria 
 64 
(4) a. In his Christmas message, Milos Zeman said that young men 
 should not come to Europe and should stay in Syria to fight 
 ISIS. “I am profoundly convinced that we are facing an 
 organized invasion and not a spontaneous movement of 
 refugees,” Mr. Zeman said. (Independent, Dec. 27, 2015)10 
 
 b. Hungary’s nationalist Prime Minister, Viktor Orbán, has 
 claimed Europe is in the grip of madness over immigration 
 and refugees, and argued that he was defending European 
 Christianity against a Muslim influx. (The Guardian, Sep. 3, 
 2015)11 
 
 The source domains of other metaphors are found in verbal metaphors 
too, exemplified in (5). 
 
(5) a. Policy makers and practitioners should stop considering 
 refugees as a burden to be shared, but rather as an opportunity 
 to be welcomed. (EU Observer, Jun. 16, 2016)12 
 
10 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/refugees-coming-to-europe-an-
organised-invasion-says-czech-president-a6787286.html 
11 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/03/migration-crisis-hungary-pm-
victor-orban-europe-response-madness 
12 https://euobserver.com/business/133474 
 65 
 b. There is a bit of a “great white savior coming to the rescue” 
 vibe happening in all of this that seems wrong. (Inquisitr, Dec. 
 11, 2015)13 
 
The examples of verbal metaphors and the comparison between visual and 
verbal metaphors indicate that the way we conceptualize the Refugees Crisis 
can be revealed in both visually and verbally. In other words, visual metaphors 
show our understanding and experience of the world as well as verbal 
metaphors do so. 
 
3.4 Chapter Summary 
 
 In this chapter, I have analyzed visual metaphors in political cartoons, 
which show how people conceptualize the Syrian Refugees Crisis. On the 
whole, people seem to conceptualize it as a trouble for Europe. More 
specifically, it is understood in terms of FLOOD, WAR, SPORTS GAMES, 
BURDEN and DISASTER. Most of the metaphors express negative stance of 
Europe towards the refugees. Moreover, the verbal metaphors of the Refugees13 http://www.inquisitr.com/2626255/dear-canada-syrian-refugees-arent-trained-seals-
here-to-entertain-us/ 
 66 
Crisis were exemplified with examples from newspaper. Both verbal metaphors 
and visual metaphors show our conceptualization of the Refugees Crisis in 
various ways. 
 
 
 
 67 
CHAPTER 4 
Conclusion 
 
 This thesis has examined visual metaphors in political cartoons dealing 
with the Syrian Refugees Crisis. It has shown that political cartoons rely 
heavily on metaphors. Within the framework of Cognitive Linguistics, 
metaphors were identified in terms of their target and source, and the 
interpretations of each cartoon were given. Following the analyses, the concepts 
people use to understand the Refugees Crisis were discussed. It has shown that 
the Refugees Crisis is conceptualized as a situation that makes Europe struggle 
such as war, flood, sports games, burden and disaster. The expected roles of 
Europe in these situations are to stop the influx, to fight against invaders, or to 
solve the problem. In addition, it is interesting that most of the cartoons seem to 
imply a negative perspective on the Syrian Refugees Crisis. The refugees were 
represented by images such as overflowing water, invading enemies, and 
garbage. In contrast, Europe is drawn as people who are suffering from the 
situations. But also Europe is the one who can settle the Refugees Crisis and 
save the refugees’ lives. 
 This study does not deal with all cartoons pertaining to the Syrian 
Refugees Crisis. It focused on only a small set of data, leaving other cartoons 
 68 
unexplained. And at the same time, this study leaves further research points 
behind as well. First, people may interpret the same cartoon differently. 
Metaphors may be not only cognitively but also culturally motivated. In 
metaphors and their linguistic expression, the cognitive and the cultural are 
fused into a single conceptual complex (Kövecses 2005). Therefore, exploring 
their various interpretations can be interesting. Also future research can 
compare verbal metaphors and visual metaphors dealing with the same event. 
For example, verbal metaphors in newspapers and visual metaphors in political 
cartoons may have similarities and differences. Although this thesis argues that 
metaphor is expressed not only in verbal forms but also in visual forms, the 
conclusion would be more reliable if future studies make a comparison between 
them in further detail. 
 Nonetheless, this thesis tried to show that political cartoons can trigger 
metaphors as well as language does, and to demonstrate the tenet of Conceptual 
Metaphor Theory that metaphor is a matter of how we think rather than of 
where they occur. I hope to explore thoroughly how socio-cultural factors affect 
the readers’ interpretation of metaphor and how exactly visual metaphor differs 
from verbal metaphors in future research. 
 
 
 69 
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[국문초록] 
 
신문 만평 속 시리아 난민 사태에대한 
시각적 은유와 개념화 양상 
 
한국외국어대학교 
영어학과 
백준엽 
 
 은유는 인지언어학에서 가장 활발히 연구되어온 주제 중 하나이다. 
전통적으로 은유는 문학 작품 등에서 한 단어가 원래의 의미와 비슷한 다른 
개념을 가리키기 위해 사용되는 참신한 언어 표현 정도로 여겨졌다. 하지만 
1980 년대 Lakoff & Johnson (1980)을 필두로 한 인지언어학 내에서 
새롭게 제기된 ‘개념적 은유 이론 (conceptual metaphor theory)’은 은유를 
단순히 언어 표현의 문제가 아닌, 보다 본질적인 개념화의 문제로 다루게 
되는 구심점이 되었다. 즉, 은유는 한 개념을 다른 개념을 통해서 이해하는 
것이며, 결국은 우리가 세상을 어떻게 이해하고 경험하는가의 문제라는 
것이 개념적 은유 이론의 주장이다. 
 은유가 언어 표현의 문제가 아닌 사고의 문제라는 주장을 뒷받침하기 
위해 수많은 연구들이 이루어졌다. 하지만 대부분의 연구들은 그 근거를 
 75 
언어의 형태로 나타난 은유 현상 (verbal metaphor)에 의존한다는 한계점을 
가진다. 이를 극복하기 위하여 최근에는 은유가 다양한 비언어적인 
의사소통 수단을 통해서도 표현될 수 있음을 밝히려는 연구들이 다양하게 
이루어지고 있다. 그 중 하나가 시각적 은유 (visual metaphor)에 대한 
연구들이며, 이들은 광고, 미술, 신문 만평 등에서 이미지를 매개로 나타나는 
은유를 다룬다. 시각적 은유 (visual metaphor)는 언어의 형태로 표현되는 
은유와 달리 근원영역 (source domain)이나 목표영역 (target source)이 
이미지의 형태로 표현된다. 시각적 은유 (visual metaphor)를 비롯한 
비언어적인 형태의 은유에 대한 연구들은 기존의 언어 표현 중심의 은유 
연구들이 가지는 한계점을 보완하고, 우리가 세상의 모습을 바라보는 것 
자체가 은유적이라는 개념적 은유 이론의 기본 원리를 뒷받침하는 데 
의의가 있다. 
 본 논문은 사람들이 시리아 난민 사태를 어떻게 개념화하는지, 
그리고 그것이 신문 만평 속에 어떠한 은유적 이미지로 구체화되어 
드러나는지 그 양상을 분석하고자 하였다. 우선 2 장에서는 기존 연구들을 
소개한다. 기존의 개념적 은유 연구가 가지는 한계점을 지적하고, 이를 
보완하기 위해 대두된 시각적 은유 (visual metaphor)에 대한 연구들을 
분석한다. 특히 신문 만평에 나타나는 시각적 은유 (visual metaphor)에 
대한 연구들이 중점적으로 다루어지며, 이를 통해 신문 만평도 은유 연구의 
주된 대상이 될 수 있음을 제시한다. 
 76 
 3 장에서는 시리아 난민 사태를 은유적으로 나타낸 신문 만평들을 
분석한다. 본 연구에서 다룬 신문 만평들에는 사람들이 시리아 난민 사태를 
어떻게 개념화하여 받아들이는지 그 양상이 다양한 은유적 이미지를 통해 
드러난다. 특히 난민들과 유럽을 각각 어떤 방식으로 그려냈는지에 따라 
사람들이 난민 사태를 어떻게 개념화하고, 이해하고 있는지 유추할 수 있다. 
그리고 더 나아가 작가가 만평을 통해 독자들에게 전달하고자 한 의미를 
해석하고 논의한다. 결과적으로 시리아 난민 사태는 물난리, 전쟁, 운동 경기, 
짐, 재해 등의 다양한 개념으로 이해되고 있음을 설명한다. 
 본 연구는 비언어적 수단인 신문 만평을 통해서 다양한 시각적 은유 
(visual metaphor)들이 표현될 수 있음을 밝힌다. 후속 연구에서 이와 같은 
시각적 은유 (visual metaphor)와 언어적 은유 (verbal metaphor)의 양상에 
공통점이나 차이점이 있는지 비교해보거나, 특정한 주제와 그와 관련된 
만평에 대한 사람들의 다양한 해석을 살펴본다면 더욱 더 흥미로운 
결과들이 발견될 것으로 예상된다. 
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