LIFF AV1 CO

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LIFF AV1 (CO) 
 
SAY THIS IN ENGLISH 
 I take it you already know 
Of tough and bough and cough and dough? 
Others may stumble, but not you 
On hiccough, thorough, slough, and through? 
Well done! And now you wish, perhaps 
To learn of less familiar traps? 
 Beware of heard, a dreadful word 
That looks like beard and sounds like bird. 
And dead; it's said like bed, not bead; 
For goodness sake, don't call it deed! 
Watch out for meat and great and threat, 
(they rhyme with suite and straight and debt) 
A moth is not a moth in mother. 
Nor both in bother, broth in brother. 
 And here is not a match for there. 
And dear and fear for bear and pear. 
And then there's dose and rose and lose - 
Just look them up -- and goose and choose. 
And cork and work and card and ward, 
And font and front and word and sword. 
And do and go, then thwart and cart. 
 Come, come, I've hardly made a start. 
A dreadful language? Why, man alive, 
I'd learned to talk it when I was five, 
And yet to write it, the more I tried, 
I hadn't learned it at fifty-five! 
 
 
Without communicative intent, pronunciation is not true speech; it is not more than the manipulation of linguistic 
forms. The basic process whereby one learns to pronounce English, or any other language, is by imitating the 
pronunciation of those who speak the language natively. Direct imitation is most effective, but circumstances often 
make second-hand, indirect imitation necessary. And the imitation is also most effective if it takes place under 
conditions that approach as nearly as possible those of normal communication. Analyzing how sounds are produced is 
helpful but not basic. 
Learning to pronounce is a process that is normally achieved in three steps: 
Learning to hear and identify a sound or sound contrast when a native speaker produces it. 
Learning to produce it when the learner’s attention is focused on pronunciation. 
Mastering it to the point of automatic production when attention is focused on meaning. 
Phonetics and Phonology 
Phonetics is the scientific study of speech. It has a long history, going back certainly to well over two thousand years 
ago. The central concerns in phonetics are the discovery of how speech sounds are produced, how they are used in 
spoken language, how we can record speech sounds with written symbols and how we hear and recognize different 
sounds. 
Phonology - The most basic activity in phonology is phonemic analysis, in which the objective is to establish what the 
phonemes are and arrive at the phonemic inventory of the language. For some phonologists, the most important area 
is the relationships between the different phonemes - how they form groups, the nature of the oppositions between 
them and how those oppositions may be neutralized. 
Phoneme and Grapheme 
Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that serves to distinguish two words. 
Virtually all theories of phonology hold that spoken language can be broken down into a string of sound units 
(phonemes), and that each language has a small, relatively fixed set of these phonemes. 
Most phonemes can be put into groups; for example, in English we can identify a group of plosive phonemes p, t, k, b, 
d, g, a group of voiceless fricatives f, θ, s, h, and so on. 
 
 
 
Graphemes are the smallest units in a writing system capable of causing a contrast in meaning. There are about 40 
distinctive phonemes in English, but 70 letters or letter combinations to symbolize phonemes. This makes pronouncing 
spellings easier than writing correct spellings. 
Dialect and Accent 
It is usual to distinguish between dialect and accent. Both terms are used to identify different varieties of a particular 
language, but the word ‘accent’ is used for varieties which differ from each other only in matters of pronunciation 
while ‘dialect’ also covers differences in such things as vocabulary and grammar. 
Accents typically differ in quality of voice, pronunciation of vowels and consonants, stress, and prosody. Although 
grammar, semantics, vocabulary, and other language characteristics often vary concurrently with accent, the word 
'accent' refers specifically to the differences in pronunciation, whereas the word 'dialect' encompasses the broader set 
of linguistic differences. Often 'accent' is a subset of 'dialect'. 
Craig M. Carver shows about two dozen dialect regions in the US, based mainly on vocabulary, in his American 
Regional Dialects. Peter Trudgill, in his Dialects of England, shows sixteen modern dialect regions in England, based on 
grammar, vocabulary, and accent (there are more in Wales, Scotland and Ireland). Trudgill, in International English, 
breaks the US into 8 accent areas, and these coincide well with Carver’s delineations. 
The dialects of the United States 
 
British dialects 
 
Carver and Trudgill both stress that dialect regions are merely convenient representations of a language continuum, 
where language differences grow the farther apart they are, especially across the more distinct boundaries. 
Studies show that 99% of American is used in pretty much the same way, the remainder flavoring the different 
regions. The interregional differences in England run much deeper despite its small size, since it has developed over a 
period about four times as long, and had significant input from other languages (Latin, Norse with the Viking invasions, 
French with the Norman invasion, and more Latin and Greek with the industrial and scientific revolutions). 
You should be proud of having an accent or not? 
We’d like to discuss “foreign accents” in general. Webster’s Dictionary defines accent as “speech habits typical of the 
natives of a region.” SO – we all have accents!!! 
You should be proud of having an accent. In fact, there are advantages to having one. YES, we said advantages! A 
foreign accent tells listeners that you speak at least TWO languages. That certainly puts you far ahead of a person who 
can speak only one language. The world would be very dull if we all sounded the same. After all, VARIETY IS THE SPICE 
OF LIFE!!!!! 
Unfortunately, there is a disadvantage to having a foreign accent. It may hinder affective communication in your non-
native language and cause you to be misunderstood. 
 You have probably discovered that there is a big difference between the way words are spelled in English and how 
they are pronounced. For example the letters ch are used to represent three different sounds: machine chain 
mechanic. 
Pretty confusing, right? That’s why we need to study. 
Social Class and Accent 
Social structure of the united kingdom 
The social structure of the United Kingdom has historically been highly influenced by the concept of social class, with 
the concept still affecting British society in the early-21st century. Although definitions of social class in the United 
Kingdom vary and are highly controversial, most are influenced by factors of wealth, occupation and education. 
Until recently the Parliament of the United Kingdom was organized on a class basis, with the House of Lords 
representing the hereditary upper class and the House of Commons representing everyone else, and the British 
monarch is often viewed as being at the top of the social class structure. 
Accents within England 
RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION (RP) 
COCKNEY ENGLISH 
ESTUARY ENGLISH (EE) 
QUEEN’S ENGLISH 
Received Pronunciation (RP) 
There seems to be some disagreement as to the origins of the term ‘received’ in the phrase, ‘Received Pronunciation’ 
but both A.J. Ellis’ on Early English Pronunciation, 1869-1889, as well as John Walker’s Critical Pronouncing Dictionary 
and Expositor of the English Language of 1791 are among the possibilities for it’s early appearance. Regardless of its 
exact origins, the term ‘received’ originally meant ‘that which is generally accepted’ or ‘that accepted by the best 
society.’ 
RP has for many yearsepitomized the ‘top end of the scale’ of British English and it is what English people have 
traditionally meant when they’ve said that someone ‘hasn’t got an accent.’ It remains that RP is often regarded as a 
‘neutral’ and often ‘correct’ accent. It is also referred to under the terms ‘BBC English’, ‘Public School English’ or even 
‘Standard English’. 
RP is also the accent that Americans and possibly other foreigners would likely refer to as the typical British accent. It 
should also be noted that there is no single accent whose role and status in the United States correspond to that of RP 
in England. 
A number of distinctions even within RP have, over the years, been proposed by various linguists. These include 
‘Mainstream’ RP, ‘Upper crust RP’, ‘Adoptive RP’, ‘Near RP’, ‘Conservative RP’, and ‘General RP’. Regardless of the 
differences within RP, it is an accent commonly recognized and one that has been taught as the standard English in 
schools for years. 
Cockney English 
Cockney represents the basilectal end of the London accent and can be considered the broadest form of London local 
accent. It traditionally refers only to specific regions and speakers within the city. While many Londoners may speak 
what is referred to as ‘popular London’ they do not necessarily speak Cockney. The popular Londoner accent can be 
distinguished from Cockney in a number of ways, and can also be found outside of the capital, unlike the true Cockney 
accent. 
Does the term Cockney refer to both the accent as well as to those people who speak it? The etymology of Cockney 
has long been discussed and disputed. One explanation is that ‘Cockney’ literally means cock's egg, a misshapen egg 
such as sometimes laid by young hens. It was originally used when referring to a weak townsman, opposed to the 
tougher countryman and by the 17th century the term, through banter, came to mean a Londoner (Liberman, 1996). 
Today's natives of London, especially in its East End use the term with respect and pride (‘Cockney Pride’). 
Does the term Cockney refer to both the accent as well as to those people who speak it? The etymology of Cockney 
has long been discussed and disputed. One explanation is that ‘Cockney’ literally means cock's egg, a misshapen egg 
such as sometimes laid by young hens. It was originally used when referring to a weak townsman, opposed to the 
tougher countryman and by the 17th century the term, through banter, came to mean a Londoner (Liberman, 1996). 
Today's natives of London, especially in its East End use the term with respect and pride (‘Cockney Pride’). 
Estuary English (EE) 
‘Estuary English’ is a term coined in 1984 by British linguist David Rosewarne. Defined as a variety of modified regional 
speech it becomes a mixture of non-regional and local south-eastern English pronunciation and intonation. The 
Sunday Times, one of Britain’s most famous newspapers, has described it as a dialect existing between "Cockney and 
the Queen" and the Tory (Conservative) Minister of Education condemned it as a ‘bastardized version of Cockney 
dialect’. 
‘Estuary English’ is a term coined in 1984 by British linguist David Rosewarne. Defined as a variety of modified regional 
speech it becomes a mixture of non-regional and local south-eastern English pronunciation and intonation. The 
Sunday Times, one of Britain’s most famous newspapers, has described it as a dialect existing between "Cockney and 
the Queen" and the Tory (Conservative) Minister of Education condemned it as a ‘bastardized version of Cockney 
dialect’. 
Queen’s English 
The notion of the ‘Queen’s’ English or ‘King’s English’, depending on who is the ruler of the time, can be traced back to 
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries where the idea that the monarch’s usage of the language should be a model 
in speech and writing. During these times there was a development of a prestigious speech associated with the court 
and aristocracy. The phrase ‘The King’s English’ was first used during the reign of James I. 
Sociolinguistic Issues of ‘Queen’s’ English 
The accents of the Queen Mother and Princess Margaret (the Queen’s sister) reflect the conservative RP as epitomized 
by the old British films and Pathe newsreels of the first part of the century. The younger members of the royal family 
such as Prince Edward, Prince Andrew and the in-laws of the family, the Duchess of York (Fergie) as well as the late 
Princess of Wales (Diana), all speak an RP closer to ‘advanced’ RP than to the conservative, more traditional accent. 
The distance between the Royal Family and the ‘subjects’ of the country was seen to be enhanced by the traditional 
speech of the royals. As the younger members of the Royal Family attempt to close the gap between the two, their 
speech reflects the changes. 
Features of ‘Queen’s’ English 
General pronunciation 
The Queen and Older Royals might pronounce the following words as noted. 
Examples: 
• house = hice 
• off = orf 
• tower = tar 
• refined = refained 
Younger royals might exhibit the following types of pronunciations: 
• really = rairly 
• milk = miuk - 
• yes = yah 
• St. Paul’s = St. Pauw’s 
The ‘Royal ONE’ 
The pronominal usage of ‘one’ is not only stereotypically associated with the upper classes, and especially the Royal 
Family, but that is also used frequently in their real life. There are a number of ways that the word ‘one’ used in place 
of ‘I’ and it has also been seen to be commonly used in those people connected with the Royal Family. Friends of the 
family as well as household help like the Queen’s dresser or an ex-cook have been heard to use the phrase ‘one’ in 
place of ‘I’. 
Examples: 
‘One says to oneself: “Oh God, there’s one’s daughter”’. (Father of the Duchess of York – quoted from The Star, July 
1986.) 
‘One hesitates to use such a trite word as delighted, but of course one IS delighted’. (The Queen’s dresser – quoted on 
receiving his knighthood – The Guardian, June 1989.) 
Listen to the way it is: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TzDPWMT5raQ 
Accents within The United States 
General American (GA), also known as Standard American English (SAE), is a major accent of American English. The 
accent is not restricted to the United States. Within American English, General American and accents approximating it 
are contrasted with Southern American English, several Northeastern accents, and other distinct regional accents and 
social group accents like African American Vernacular English. 
General American, like British Received Pronunciation (RP) and most standard language varieties of many other 
societies, has never been the accent of the entire nation. However, it has become widely spoken in many American 
films, TV series, national news, commercial ads, and American radio broadcasts. 
The General American accent is most closely related to a generalized Midwestern accent and is spoken particularly by 
many newscasters. This has led the accent to sometimes be referred to as a ‘newscaster accent’ or ‘television English’. 
General American is sometimes promoted as preferable to other regional accents. In the United States, classes 
promising ‘accent reduction’, ‘accent modification’ and ‘accent neutralization’ generally attempt to teach speech 
patterns similar to this accent. 
General American is also the accent typically taught to people learning English as a second language in the United 
States, as well as outside the country to anyone who wishes to learn ‘American English’, although in much of Asia and 
some other places ESL teachers are strongly encouraged to teach American English no matter their own origins or 
accents. 
Regional home of General American 
It is commonly believed that General American English evolved as a result of an aggregation of rural and suburban 
Midwestern dialects, though the English of the Upper Midwest can deviate quite dramatically from what would be 
considereda ‘regular’ American Accent. The local accent often gets more distinct the farther north one goes within the 
Midwest, and the more rural the area, with the Northern Midwest featuring its own dialect North Central American 
English. The fact that a Midwestern dialect became the basis of what is General American English is often attributed to 
the mass migration of Midwestern farmers to California and the Pacific Northwest from where it spread. 
Eastern Nebraska, southern and central Iowa, and western Illinois (not the Chicago area). 
Southern American English 
Southern American English is a group of dialects of the English language spoken throughout the Southern region of the 
United States, from Southern and Eastern Maryland, West Virginia and Kentucky to the Gulf Coast, and from the 
Atlantic coast to most of Texas and Oklahoma. 
Southern American English is a group of dialects of the English language spoken throughout the Southern region of the 
United States, from Southern and Eastern Maryland, West Virginia and Kentucky to the Gulf Coast, and from the 
Atlantic coast to most of Texas and Oklahoma. 
Overview of Southern dialects 
The Southern dialects collectively known as Southern American English stretch across the southeastern and south-
central United States, but exclude the southern most areas of Florida and the extreme western and south-western 
parts of Texas as well as the Rio Grande Valley (Laredo to Brownsville). 
This linguistic region includes Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, and 
Arkansas, as well as most of Texas, Virginia, Oklahoma, Kentucky, and West Virginia. It also includes parts of southern 
and central Missouri, and parts of Florida and Maryland. 
Southern dialects originated in large part from immigrants from the British Isles who moved to the South in the 17th 
and 18th centuries. Settlement also included large numbers of Protestants from Ulster, Ireland, and from Scotland. 
Upheavals such as the Great Depression, the Dust Bowl and World War II caused mass migrations of those and other 
settlers throughout the United States. 
More information: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Q6sQUmPmuA 
The Northeastern United States is a region of the United States as defined by the United States Census Bureau. The 
region comprises nine states: the New England states of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode 
Island and Vermont; and the Mid-Atlantic states of New Jersey, New York and Pennsylvania. The Census Bureau 
regions are "widely used...for data collection and analysis." 
Improving your English Pronunciation 
If you want to check some tips in order to improve your English pronunciation go to: 
http://www.english-at-home.com/pronunciation/improving-your-pronunciation/ 
Match the sentences in order to replace the informal English verbs for a formal one. 
1. He is sorting out the problem with the computer. resolve 
2. I got in touch with my sister yesterday. contact 
3. Lady Gaga called off the concert. cancel 
4. The traffic cop is checking the suspect’s ID. ascertain 
5. The police officer told me that he was speeding. inform 
6. I need to make sure that I arrive on time at the office. ensure 
7. Peter asked about the cost of the ticket. enquire 
8. Sherlock Holmes found out who murdered the priest. discover 
9. We are putting off the holiday because of the hurricane. postpone 
10. I got the email today. receive 
Objetivo da Questão: Reconhecer as diferenças de vocabulário das formas formal e informal no inglês, de forma a 
saber usar a linguagem adequada a cada situação. (Recognize the vocabulary differences in formal and informal 
English, in order to know how to use the proper language to each situation). 
Humans use language to communicate. This is an obvious statement, but what is language and how do we use it? 
Language is basically a set of symbols with associated meanings. These symbols are delivered using a set of rules for 
stringing the symbols together to generate additional meaning 
Humans use mostly sounds to represent these symbols, although as an Italian I can communicate common meanings 
by only using a range of hand gestures! We string together phonetic sounds to make words, and we string together 
words to make sentences. The set of rules we have created to structure our delivery of words is our grammar. For 
example, a basic rule is that every sentence should contain a verb (a word conveying action) and a subject (a word 
conveying who or what is doing the action or on whom or what the action is having an impact). 
There are more than 5 million distinct words in the English language: The Oxford Dictionary of English (2005) lists more 
than 300,000 entries; William Shakespeare used about 15,000; the average person whose first language is English 
knows about 4,300 words, although they understand the exact meaning of only 70 per cent or so of these. 
We string together these words into sentences to answer a basic set of questions: Who? How? What? Why? When? 
And where? But, the use of words to answer these questions through oral communication or written communication 
has significant constraints. 
If you look at the last few paragraphs, you may notice that what I am trying to communicate is severely limited by the 
fact that I can only deliver one basic concept at a time. In other words, my communication process is linear. As a 
result, I have to be very careful that my concepts follow a logical sequence: concept A helps to explain concept B, 
which in turn helps to explain concept C. In many cases I have no choice but to tackle a subject in increasing detail. If I 
want to show the relationship between concept A and concept C, I have to start all over again with a new sentence. 
Any change in my sequential approach – for example if I want to go back to a higher level of detail – has to be usually 
associated with a visible break, such as a new paragraph. 
So the use of the written or oral form of communication favours a specific subset of mental models: those that require 
a logical interpretation and which follow a sequence of increasing detail. A precise sequence is followed and the model 
revealed goes into greater and greater detail (linear sequential thinking). Of course, written and oral communication 
can be used in many other ways too, but most people get quickly turned off when subject to forms of written and oral 
communication that “do not get to the point”. 
SPEAKING VERSUS WRITING 
THE PEN IS MIGHTIER THAN THE Spoken WORD. OR IS IT? 
There are always at least two people in any communication. To communicate, one person must put something "out" 
and another person must take something "in". We call this "output" and "input". 
I speak to you (OUTPUT: my thoughts go OUT of my head). 
You listen to me (INPUT: my thoughts go INto your head). 
You write to me (OUTPUT: your thoughts go OUT of your head). 
I read your words (INPUT: your thoughts go INto my head). 
So language consists of four "skills": two for output (speaking and writing); and two for input (listening and reading). 
We can say this another way - two of the skills are for "spoken" communication and two of the skills are for "written" 
communication. 
What are the differences between Spoken and Written English? Are there advantages and disadvantages for each 
form of communication? 
 
Status 
When we learn our own (native) language, learning to speak comes before learning to write. In fact, we learn to speak 
almost automatically. It is natural. But somebody must teach us to write. It is not natural. In one sense, speaking is the 
"real" language and writing is only a representation of speaking. However, for centuries, people have regarded writing 
as superior to speaking. It has a higher "status". This is perhaps because in the past almost everybody could speak but 
only a few people could write. But as we shall see, modern influencesare changing the relative status of speaking and 
writing. 
Differences in Structure and Style 
We usually write with correct grammar and in a structured way. We organize what we write into sentences and 
paragraphs. We do not usually use contractions in writing (though if we want to appear very friendly, then we do 
sometimes use contractions in writing because this is more like speaking.) We use more formal vocabulary in writing 
(for example, we might write "the car exploded" but say "the car blew up") and we do not usually use slang. In writing, 
we must use punctuation marks like commas and question marks (as a symbolic way of representing things like pauses 
or tone of voice in speaking). 
We usually speak in a much less formal, less structured way. We do not always use full sentences and correct 
grammar. The vocabulary that we use is more familiar and may include slang. We usually speak in a spontaneous way, 
without preparation, so we have to make up what we say as we go. This means that we often repeat ourselves or go 
off the subject. However, when we speak, other aspects are present that are not present in writing, such as facial 
expression or tone of voice. This means that we can communicate at several levels, not only with words. 
Durability 
One important difference between speaking and writing is that writing is usually more durable or permanent. When 
we speak, our words live for a few moments. When we write, our words may live for years or even centuries. This is 
why writing is usually used to provide a record of events, for example a business agreement or transaction. 
Speaker & Listener / Writer & Reader 
When we speak, we usually need to be in the same place and time as the other person. Despite this restriction, 
speaking does have the advantage that the speaker receives instant feedback from the listener. The speaker can 
probably see immediately if the listener is bored or does not understand something, and can then modify what he or 
she is saying. 
When we write, our words are usually read by another person in a different place and at a different time. Indeed, they 
can be read by many other people, anywhere and at any time. And the people reading our words, can do so at their 
leisure, slowly or fast. They can re-read what we write, too. But the writer cannot receive immediate feedback and 
cannot (easily) change what has been written. 
How Speaking and Writing Influence Each Other 
In the past, only a small number of people could write, but almost everybody could speak. Because their words were 
not widely recorded, there were many variations in the way they spoke, with different vocabulary and dialects in 
different regions. Today, almost everybody can speak and write. Because writing is recorded and more permanent, 
this has influenced the way that people speak, so that many regional dialects and words have disappeared. (It may 
seem that there are already too many differences that have to be learned, but without writing there would be far 
more differences, even between, for example, British and American English.) So writing has had an important 
influence on speaking. But speaking can also influence writing. For example, most new words enter a language 
through speaking. Some of them do not live long. If you begin to see these words in writing it usually means that they 
have become "real words" within the language and have a certain amount of permanence. 
Influence of New Technology 
Modern inventions such as sound recording, telephone, radio, television, fax or email have made or are making an 
important impact on both speaking and writing. To some extent, the divisions between speaking and writing are 
becoming blurred. Emails are often written in a much less formal way than is usual in writing. With voice recording, for 
example, it has for a long time been possible to speak to somebody who is not in the same place or time as you (even 
though this is a one-way communication: we can speak or listen, but not interact). 
With the telephone and radiotelephone, however, it became possible for two people to carry on a conversation while 
not being in the same place. Today, the distinctions are increasingly vague, so that we may have, for example, a live 
television broadcast with a mixture of recordings, telephone calls, incoming faxes and emails and so on. One effect of 
this new technology and the modern universality of writing has been to raise the status of speaking. Politicians who 
cannot organize their thoughts and speak well on television win very few votes. 
WRITTEN ENGLISH 
Because of a writing system that incorporates etymology, spelling cues not present in oral discourse can give readers 
additional clues to the relationship between words through a vague awareness of different morphological classes. 
Anglo-Saxon words are usually characterised by a cloudy morphology (early \ ere), wildly unphonemic spelling, and the 
presence of silent letters and digraphs. Common affixes are “un-”, “-ful”, and “-ness”. These are the most common 
words used to describe everyday, informal and interpersonal matters. 
Romance words are also common and bear closer resemblance to French morphemes and words (very \ vrais). There 
is often more regularity in their spelling. 
Latin and Greek words are set apart from Romance words by very methodical morphology, Classical Latin and Greek 
morphemes, and consistent spelling. They usually have rigid definitions and are used more frequently in formal and 
scientific writing as well as in constructing technical, philosophical, and legal jargon. 
Hybrids (e.g. kay, Byte, Prisoner) have the relative formality and familiarity of Romance words. 
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPPECH AND WRITING 
There are many differences between the processes of speaking and writing. Writing is not simply speech written down 
on paper. Learning to write is not a natural extension of learning to speak. Unlike speech, writing requires systematic 
instruction and practice. 
Here are some of the differences between speaking and writing that may clarify things for you and help you in your 
efforts as a writer and speaker. 
Consider the fact that… 
Virtually nobody speaks Standard Written English. This is the form of English that is appropriate for professional, 
business, and academic writing. For example, no one always speaks in complete sentences or pronounces the final 
letter of every word. However, many people learn to translate their spoken dialect into Standard Written English when 
they write. 
Both spoken and written dialects are linked to the social background, age, race, and gender of the writer, speaker and 
audience. Depending upon whom we are addressing, and what we are discussing, we can switch between formal and 
informal ways of communicating. 
FORMAL AND INFORMAL ENGLISH 
Consider these two examples: 
Example 1: This is to inform you that your book has been rejected by our publishing company as it was not up to the 
required standard. In case you would like us to reconsider it, we would suggest that you go over it and make some 
necessary changes. 
Example 2: You know that book I wrote? Well, the publishing company rejected it. They thought it was awful. But hey, 
I did the best I could, and I think it was great. I'm not gonna redo it the way they said I should. 
The difference between the two is obvious. The first one is formal, and the second is informal. But what is it that 
makes them formal and informal? 
It is the style of writing, or the way we use words to say what we want to say. Different situations call for different 
ways of putting words together. The way we write in academic and scientific settings differs greatly from the way we 
write to a friend or close one. The tone, vocabulary, and syntax, all change as the occasion changes. This difference in 
the styles of writing is the difference between formality and informality, or the difference betweenformal and 
informal writing. There are three main language styles: 1. Formal; 2. Semi-Formal; 3. Informal. 
RULES OF LANGUAGE STYLE 
The following rules apply to both written and spoken English. 
Different Styles between Informal & Formal English 
The follow examples illustrate the main differences between informal and formal English. 
1. Active & Passive Voice 
Informal: Our technician repaired the fault on 12th June. Now it’s your turn to pay us. 
Formal: Although the fault was repaired on 12th June, payment for this intervention has still not been received. 
2. Verb Form: Phrasal Verbs & Latin 
Informal: The company laid him off because he didn't work much. 
Formal: His insufficient production conducted to his dismissal. 
3. Language: Direct & Formulaic 
Informal: I’m sorry but … / I’m happy to say that … 
Formal: We regret to inform you that … / We have pleasure in announcing that … 
4. Use of Slang 
Informal: He had to get some money out of a hole in the wall … 
Formal: He withdrew the amount from an ATM. 
 5. Personal Form & Nominators 
Informal: If you lose it, then please contact us as soon as possible. 
Formal: Any loss of this document should be reported immediately … 
 6. Linking Words 
Informal: The bank can’t find the payment you say you’ve made. 
Formal: Notwithstanding that the payment has been sent the bank fails to acknowledge it. 
7. Revitalized Sentences 
Informal: Anybody or any company. 
Formal: … any natural person who, and any legal entity which … 
 8. Modal Usage 
Informal: If you need any help, give us a call. 
Formal: Should you require any assistance, please feel free to contact us … 
 9. Singular & Plural Person 
Informal: I can help you to solve this problem. Call me! 
Formal: We can assist in the resolution of this matter. Contact us on our toll-free number. 
Different Styles between Informal & Formal English 
Also, to make a sentence more formal you can: 
Use ‘There’ as a subject; e.g. ‘There is a serious risk of...’ 
Use 'It' as a subject; e.g. 'It is impossible to...' 
Use ‘One’ as a subject; e.g. ‘One may ask whether...’ (‘One’ is a formal version of ‘You’ [plural] in general) 
Use the passive voice; e.g. ‘Many things can be done in order to...’ 
The main thing to remember is that both are correct, it is just a matter of tone and setting. Formal English is used 
mainly in academic writing and business communications, whereas Informal English is casual and is appropriate when 
communicating with friends and other close ones. Choose the style of writing keeping in mind what you are writing 
and to whom. But whichever style you write in - formal or informal - be sure to keep it consistent, do not mix the two. 
Some examples are: 
 
• To a friend it is acceptable to say, ‘Hey Jack, how’re you doing buddy?’ 
• To a Governor you would say, ‘Good afternoon Governor, how are you doing today?’ 
• To your girlfriend, ‘Do you want to grab a bite to eat? I need to ask you something.’ 
• To your girlfriend’s father, ‘Mr. Jones, would you care to have dinner with me tonight? I would like to talk to you 
about your daughter, and myself.’ 
• To a coworker, ‘Morning Joe.’ 
• To your boss or a client, ‘Good morning, Mr. Smith or Good morning, sir.’ 
• To a friend, ‘Man! Was that movie really cool or what, we need to see it again!’ 
• To your drama professor, ‘Professor Bogart, the motion picture which you assigned us to watch was one of the most 
impressive that I have ever seen. In fact, I am going to view it again tonight!’ 
Always use formal English when writing a business letter, an essay, or other papers for work, school or publication. 
You can use informal English when writing a letter to a close friend or a relative, when quoting informal usage, or in a 
novel or script, etc. Otherwise it is much less risky to use the formal form, especially if you have any doubts about the 
acceptability of the informal form, or if you need to be very clear or specific. Remember that you will never look or 
sound foolish by using proper grammar. 
Social and Academic English 
Social English is the language of everyday communication in oral and written forms. Examples include: 
• when your students are talking to their friends on the playground or in the school bus; 
• when you and your students are having an informal face-to-face conversation; 
• when your students go to the grocery store and read the shopping list. 
Academic English and social English are not two separate languages. Academic English is more demanding and 
complex than social English. Academic English is the language necessary for success in school. It is related to a 
standards-based curriculum, including the content areas of Math, Science, Social Studies, and English language arts. 
In order to check the relation between formal and informal words, check: 
http://www.word-mart.com/html/formal_and_informal_writing.html 
http://www.proprofs.com/flashcards/download.php?title=honors-la-10-vocabulary-back-page 
Você está pronto para um desafio? Aqui estão algumas palavras e locuções escritas em alfabeto fonético. Transcreva-
as e decida onde elas se encaixam no texto abaixo: (Are you ready for a challenge? Here are some words and phrases 
written in phonetic alphabet. Transcribe them and decide where they fit in the text below). 
 
Jack and I were going for our holidays, but the (1) ___________________travel firm that was offering three weeks in 
the sun for £500 (2) ___________________. We went to Brighton instead. Now Brighton is a (3) 
___________________to have a seaside holiday, provided you don’t want to (4) ___________________ or lie on the 
beach. The beach is a (5) ___________________, you see, and the sea is cold, (6) ___________________. But the 
restaurants in Brighton are (7) ___________________ good. Indian, Chinese, you name it, (8) ___________________. 
There are theatres and cinemas and some really (9) ___________________. Even the (10) ___________________.You 
can have a (11) ___________________holiday in Brighto. And it’s (12) ___________________if you’re the (13) 
___________________who likes a constant stiff (14) ___________________, fast-(15) ___________________clouds, 
and a good chance of (16) ___________________. 
Objetivo da Questão: Levar o aluno à reflexão sobre alfabeto fonético do inglês quanto a vogais e consoantes, de 
forma a atentar para as diferenças entre sons surdos e sonoros e vogais com sons longos e curtos. (Lead the student to 
the reflection of the English phonetic alphabet as for vowels and consonants as to focus the differences between 
voiceless and voiced sounds and long and short vowel sounds) 
Resposta Sugerida: 
 
1.cut-price; 2. went burst; 3.wonderful place; 4.go in the sea; 5.stony; 6.brown soup; 7.fantastically; 8.they’ve got it; 
9.excellentmarkets; 10.architecture’s nice; 11. Marvelous; 12. even better; 13.sort of person; 14. Breeze; 15. Moving; 
16. Rain 
Without a universal transcription system for phonetics and phonology, writing down the unfamiliar sounds of other 
languages presents an almost insuperable challenge. Take, for example, a sound which is used only paralinguistically in 
English (that is, for some purpose outside the language system itself), but which is a perfectly ordinary consonant in 
other languages, just as [b] in but or [l] in list are in English, namely the ‘tut-tut’ sound made to signal disapproval. 
When we see this, we do not think of a whole word, but of a repeated clicking. This description is hopelessly 
inadequate, however, for anyone else trying to recognize the sound in question, or learn how to make it. 
Hearing a native speaker use the ‘tut-tut’ click in a language where it is an ordinary consonant does not help us 
understand how the sound is made or how it compares with others. Likewise, adopting the usual spelling from that 
language (assuming it is not one of the many without an orthography) might let us write the ‘tut-tut’sound down; but 
this technique would not produce a universal system for writing sounds of the world’s languages, since linguists would 
tend to use their own spelling systems as far as possible, and opt for representations from the languages they 
happened to know for other sounds. There would be little consistency, and generalization of such a system would be 
difficult. 
The International Phonetic Alphabet was proposed in 1888; it has been under constant review ever since by the 
International Phonetic Association, and the latest revision dates from 1996. Although a universal system of description 
and transcription might be desirable in principle, and even in practice when dealing with unfamiliar languages and 
sounds, readers of a book both in and on English might question the necessity of learning the IPA. 
First, there is considerable ambiguity in the English spelling system, and it works in both directions: many sounds to 
one spelling, and many spellings to one sound. The former situation results in ‘eye-rhymes’, or forms which look as if 
they ought to have the same pronunciation, but don’t. There are various doggerel poems about this sort of ambiguity 
(often written by non-native speakers who have struggled with the system): one begins by pointing out a set of eye-
rhymes – ‘I gather you already know, Of plough and cough and through and dough’. Those four words, which we might 
expect to rhyme on the basis of the spelling, in 
fact end in four quite different vowels, and cough has a final consonant too. On the other hand, see, sea, people, 
amoeba and fiend have the same long [i:] vowel, but five different spellings. 
Despite these multiple ambiguities, attempts are regularly made to indicate pronunciations using the spelling system. 
Nevertheless, none are wholly successful, for a variety of different reasons. 
The Phonetic Alphabet 
Symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet 
Pronunciation 
The Sounds of English 
There are some consonant sounds that can cause some trouble to non-native speakers: 
Let’s take an attentive look at two of them: 
1. TH sound 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ag4qoNzEH4w 
2. North American pronunciation of the sounds: 
ɪ, ɚ, r, d, ð TH, f, æ, n, t, & k while using the sentence "I heard the fish here is fantastic" as an icebreaker. 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kjB7CNCx3jI&feature=relmfu 
PHONETIC CONCEPTS 
Consonant 
A consonant is a speech sound made by partially or completely blocking the flow of air through the mouth (using the 
lips, teeth, tongue, and palate). 
Consonant X Contoid 
Since the word ‘consonant’ is used in describing the phonology of a language that can include sounds which could be 
classed phonetically as vowels (Y, W), so we ought also to have a different word which covers just those sounds which 
are phonetically of the type that produces a significant obstruction to the flow of air through the vocal tract: the term 
proposed is CONTOID. 
 
VOWEL 
A vowel is a speech sound made by allowing breath to flow out of the mouth, without closing any part of the mouth or 
throat. 
Also, attention to these two sounds, which are very similar: 
 
 
In order to practice the difference of the sounds above, check the following site: 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nh6uuwkA3o8&feature=related 
DIGRAPH 
A digraph is a combination of letters or characters used to represent a single speech sound. 
TYPES OF DIGRAPHS: 
“exocentric” digraphs 
“Exocentric” digraphs, where the sound of the digraph is different from that of either of its constituent letters. These 
are rarely considered "silent". There are examples where the phoneme has no standard single-letter representation, 
as with consonants ‹ng› for /ŋ/ as in sing, ‹th› for /θ/ as in thin or /ð/ as in then, and diphthongs ‹ou› in out or ‹oi› in 
point and where standard single-letter representation uses another letter, as with ‹gh› in enough or ‹ph› in physical 
instead of ‹f›. 
"endocentric“ digraphs 
“Endocentric" digraphs, where the sound of the digraph is the same as that of one of its constituent letters. These 
include most double consonants, as ‹bb› in clubbed; though not geminate consonants, as ‹ss› in misspell, the 
discontiguous digraphs whose second element is "magic e", e.g. ‹a_e› in rate (cf. rat), ‹i_e› in fine (cf. fin) and others 
such as ‹ck› (which is in effect the "doubled" form of ‹k›), ‹gu› as in guard, vogue; ‹ea› as in bread, heavy, etc. These 
are difficult for writers and sometimes for readers. 
 
VOWEL DIGRAPHS 
A vowel digraph is two letters with the first letter making a long sound and the second letter is silent. We call this: 
"first one does the talking, the second keeps on walking." 
 
In English include EA (teach), EE (free), EY (key), IE (piece),), OO (book), OA (road) and UE (true), AU (audience), EO 
(people), IO (region), AI (main), OU (soul). 
The digraph oo has two sounds. One is the sound heard in hook. The other sound is the sound heard in tooth. 
BLEND OR CLUSTER 
It is a combination of two or more letters, where all of the sounds can be distinguished. 
CONSONANT BLEND OR CLUSTER 
Two or three consonants are blended together, each consonant sound may be heard in the blend. Some examples of 
consonant blends are: 
bl–black, cl–clap, fl–flip, gl–glass, pl–play, sl–slip, br–brick, cr–crab, dr–drop, fr–from, gr–grab, pr–press, tr–trap, sc–
scale, sk–skip, sm–smell, sn–snail, sp–spill, rl–world, st–stop, sw–swell, str–stray (in which there are two clusters: s+t 
and t+r), xth–sixth (in which the cluster is x + th). 
One of the most difficult clusters to be pronounced is RL, as in WORLD. Check the correct way to pronounce it: 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wIoD11Q8WQk&feature=related 
DIPHTHONGS OR TWIN-VOWELS OR GLIDING VOWELS 
Vowel diphthong refers to the blending of two vowels sounds, both vowel sounds are usually heard and they make a 
gliding sound.: 
 
 
HIATUS 
In phonology, hiatus or diaeresis refers to two vowel sounds occurring in adjacent syllables, with no intervening 
consonant. When two adjacent vowel sounds occur in the same syllable, the result is instead described as a diphthong. 
The English words hiatus and diaeresis themselves contain a hiatus between the first and second syllables. 
So: Hi – a – tus / di·aer·e·sis 
SEMIVOWEL OR GLIDE 
A semivowel (or glide) is a sound, such as English /w/ or /j/ (‘y’), that is phonetically similar to a vowel sound but 
functions as the syllable boundary rather than as the nucleus of a syllable. 
TRIPHONES 
Triphones is union of a diphthong plus one vowel. The first sound is always that of a diphthong. If a vowel comes after 
a diphthong, a small tick is attached to that diphthong in the opposite direction. This tick will indicate that there is a 
vowel after diphthong but will not indicate which is that vowel. 
e.g. diary - loyal – genuine - renewal – denial. 
THE LETTERS Y AND W 
1. THE LETTER ‘Y’ 
Sometimes, the letter y is a consonant, and other times it is a vowel. The rule for telling the two apart is simple: 
The letter ‘y’ is a consonant if it is at the beginning of a syllable. If ‘y’ is anywhere else in the syllable, it is a vowel. 
In general, the ‘Y’ is a consonant when the syllable already has a vowel. Also, the ‘Y’ is considered a consonant 
when it is used in place of the soft J sound, such as in the name ‘Yolanda’ or ‘Yoda’.In the names ‘Bryan’ and 
‘Wyatt’, the ‘Y’ is a vowel, because it provides the only vowel sound for the first syllable of both names. For both 
of these names, the letter ‘A’ is part of the second syllable, and therefore does not influence the nature of the ‘Y’. 
Examples of ‘Y’ as a Consonant: yes - yam - yell - yellow - yogurt – yacht. 
Examples of ‘Y’ as a Vowel: gym - my - cycle - baby - hairy - sky – valley – fairy. 
2. THE LETTER ‘W’ 
The ‘w’ came late to the Roman alphabet. Emperor Claudius tried to give this letter its start duringthe alphabet 
reforms, but the early version was dropped after his death in 54 CE due to spiteful rumors that the ‘w’ only served 
the emperor’s whim and not the common good. Anglo-Saxon writing of the seventh century revived the forgotten 
‘w’, this time in the runic script that took precedence in Britain after the fall of the Roman Empire. 
‘W’ becomes a semi-vowel when it becomes part of a diphthong. You hear it most commonly in combination with 
‘a’, ‘e’, and ‘o’. For example, we have the ‘aw’ in ‘claw’, the ‘ew’ in ‘few’, and the ‘ow’ in ‘show’. Sound out the 
word where it's used to make the final determination for ‘w’. If it glides, it’s a vowel. If not, it’s a consonant. 
Examples of ‘W’ as a Consonant: winged – wren – why. 
Examples of ‘W’ as a Vowel: awe – bow – dew – ewe – jaw – known – lawn. 
Finally, is there a case where the ‘w’ is a vowel on its own? Yes and no. According to the American Heritage 
Dictionary, this happens in the word spelled ‘cwm’, pronounced ‘koom’ and meaning ‘a steep hollow at the upper 
end of a mountain valley’. The word is originally from the Welsh, a Brythonic branch of the Celtic languages, and a 
language in which ‘w’ is a standard vowel, not just a semi-vowel. English comes from the Anglo-Saxon and has 
clashed with the Celtic for centuries. ‘Cwm’ is great to use in Scrabble games and for stumping your friends, but as 
an example of using ‘w’ as a single vowel, forget it. Although it is sometimes used as an example of a word in 
which ‘w’ is a vowel, it is more often used as an example of a rare English word without a vowel. 
COUNTING PHONEMES 
Let's try counting a couple of words. 
How many phonemes are there in: 
 
a) rich? 3 /r/ /i/ /ch/(digraph) 
b) pitch? 3 /p/ /i/ /tch/(digraph) 
c) bring?– 4 /b/ /r/ /i/ /ng/(digraph) 
d) shoot? 3 /sh/ (digraph) /o/ (digraph) /t/ 
e) shy? 2 /sh/ (digraph) /y/ 
f) six? 4 /s / /i / / k / /s/ as the "x" has two distinct speech sounds. 
g) brought? 4 /b/ /r/ /ou/ /ght/ 
h) through? 3 /th/ /r/ /ough/ 
i) thorough?4 /th/ /o/ /r/ /ough/ 
j) cane? 3 /c/ /a/ /n/ 
k) Bible? 5 /b/ /i/ /b/ /l/ /e/ 
 
Propomos esta atividade para que você faça uma revisão de transcrição fonética de maneira bastante lúdica. Insira 
abaixo de cada quadradinho a palavra que possui a letra com o som correspondente. As palavras já se encontram 
divididas por categorias. Divirta-se! 
 We propose you this activity so that you can have a review on phonetic transcription in a playful way. Under each 
square place the word that contains the matching sound. The words have already been divided into categories. 
Have fun! 
 
Voiceless consonants 
cake – chair – fun – hat – pay – shoe – sit – think - top 
Voiced consonants 
away – boy – day – father – go – jaw – lamp – me – no – red – rouge – sing – very – you - zoo 
Objetivo da Questão: Trabalhar com transcrição fonética e suas particularidades como consoantes surdas e 
sonoras. (Work with phonetic transcription and its particularities such as voiced and voiceless consonants) 
 
THE CONSONANTS 
CONSONANT AND CONTOID 
A consonant is a speech sound made by partially or completely blocking the flow of air through the mouth (using 
the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate). 
CONSONANTS – include sounds which could be classified phonetically as vowels (Y, W). 
CONTOIDS – don’t include sounds which could be classified phonetically as vowels (Y, W). 
Consonant classification 
For consonants, we need to know six things to arrive at a classification: 
PLACE OF ARTICULATION: The place of articulation is where in the vocal tract the obstruction of the consonant 
occurs, and which speech organs are involved. 
 
 
 
 
MANNER OF ARTICULATION: How air escapes from the vocal tract when the consonant or approximant (vowel-
like) sound is made. 
STOPS (PLOSIVES): involve the stoppage and sudden release of air. 
 
NASALS: the air escapes through the nose. 
 
FRICATIVES: involve the constricted flow of air producing a kind of hissing sound. Fricatives are sometimes referred 
to as "spirants" but this term is now considered obsolete. 
 
The strong fricatives are often termed “sibilant” fricatives. 
 
AFFRICATES: a combination of stop + fricative. 
 
LATERAL: flow of air channeled through the sides of the tongue: 
 
RETROFLEX: similar to the lateral but involving a backward curving of the tip of the tongue. 
 
RETROFLEX: similar to the lateral but involving a backward curving of the tip of the tongue. 
 
NOTE: What about the letters /c/, /q/, & /x/ ? 
You may have noticed that the letters /c/, /q/, /x/ do not have a phoneme listed. This happens because they are 
not listed as a pure phoneme, as the sounds that they represent can be represented by other letters or spellings. 
For example: 
- the letter c can be represented by the phonemes /k/ or /s/ as in can, cent. 
- the letter x as in fox can be represented by two phonemes /ks/. 
- the letter q can be represented by two phonemes /kw/ as in queue. 
ORAL OR NASAL 
NASAL: the air escapes only through the nose. 
 
ORAL: the air escapes partly through the nose and partly through the mouth. 
VOICED OR VOICELESS 
• voiced: involving vibration of the vocal cords. 
• voiceless: no vibration of the vocal cords. 
CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT FLAP, GLOTTAL, GLIDE and APPROXIMANT 
FLAPPING RULE OR TAPPING 
Intervocalic alveolar flapping (more accurately 'tapping') is a phonological process found in many dialects of 
English, especially North American English and Australian English, by which T and D surface as the tap [ɾ]: 
There is a Lenition, i.e, a kind of consonant mutation. Lenition means 'softening' or 'weakening' (from Latin lenis = 
weak), and it refers to the change of a consonant considered 'stronger' into one considered 'weaker' (or fortis → 
lenis). 
- after vowel: butter, buddy, better; 
- after r: barter; 
- after l: faculty (but not immediately post-tonic: alter → al[tʰ]er, not *al[ɾ]er). 
GLOTTAL 
Glottal is a phonological phenomenon that occurs in everyday informal English. The phonetic symbol for a glottal 
stop is ʔ. In a true glottal stop there is complete obstruction to the passage of air, and the result is a period of 
silence. Hold your breath. 
 It happens: 
With a t-sound before unstressed vowel: 
Fountain – Foun - tain (like a hiccup); 
Cur – tain; 
Bu – tton. 
 Before a final T: 
I can’t ; 
Let me know. 
GLOTTAL 
In front of a p, t or k if there is not a vowel immediately following: 
e.g. captive - kÆʔptiv; 
catkin’ kÆʔtkin; 
arctic’ a:ʔktik. 
 NOTE: A similar case is that of tʃ when following a stressed vowel, as in in ‘butcher’ bυʔtʃə. 
To learn more: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=edxwQK1zBxw 
APPROXIMANT (VOWEL-LIKE) 
Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough or 
with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Approximants are divided into the following two 
sub-classes: 
Liquids: 
lateral approximants like [l] (as in less); 
non-lateral approximants like [ɹ] (as in rest). 
 semi-vowels - also known as "glides”. They are vowels masquerading as consonants. 
 
Examples of Y as a Consonant - yes - yam - yell - yellow - yogurt – yacht. 
Examples of Y as a Vowel - gym - my - cycle - baby - hairy - sky – fairy. 
Examples of Y as a Semivowel – valley. 
 Examples of W as a Consonant – winged – why – swell. 
Examples of W as a semivowel – bow – jaw –known – lawn. 
VOICED AND VOICELESS SOUNDS 
An important way in which one speech sound may differ from another is in voicing or the lack of it. We say that a 
sound is voiced if our vocal cords vibrate as we pronounce it; a sound is voiceless if it is pronounced without such 
vibration. Press your thumb and forefinger lightly against the sides of your larynx (the central part of your throat, 
where sounds are made); then pronounce /z/ and /s/ alternately. You should be able tofeel the vibration of the 
vocal cords as you say /z/, and notice no vibration as you say /s/. In other words, /z/ is a voiced sound and /s/ is 
voiceless. 
Voiced 
Involving vibration of the vocal cords 
 
Voiceless 
No vibration of the vocal cords 
 
PRONOUNCING FINAL CONSONANTS 
A final consonant is any consonant that is the last sound in a word. Consonant sounds that end words are very 
important. They can determine grammatical as well as word meaning. Careful production of final consonant is 
necessary to convey your message correctly and to sound like a native speaker. 
Words pronounced with a final consonant often have “e” as the final letter. When “e” is the last letter in a word, it 
is usually silent; a consonant is actually the last SOUND. 
Examples: 
made – phone – bite – have 
PRONOUNCING PAST TENSE VERBS 
/d/ When the pronunciation of the infinitive ends in a vowel or voiced consonant. 
 
/t/ When the pronunciation of the infinitive ends with a voiceless consonant. 
 
/ d/ When the pronunciation of the infinitive ends with an alveolar stop consonant – /d/ or /t/. 
 
PRONUNCIATION OF PLURAL NOUNS, GENITIVE CASE AND PRESENT TENSE VERBS (THIRD PERSONS) 
The -s is pronounced like /z/ after voiced sounds. 
 
The -s is pronounced like /s/ after voiceless sounds. 
 
The -s is pronounced with an additional syllable - similar to "iz" - after the following endings, both voiced and 
voiceless which are sibilant. 
 
NOTE: Therefore, if a verb ends in one of these sounds, the present tense will have one more syllable than the 
simple form. 
Examples: 
fix (1 syllable)-->fixes (2 syllables) 
kiss (1 syllable)-->kisses (2 syllables) 
wash (1 syllable)-->washes (2 syllables) 
watch (1 syllable)-->watches (2 syllables) 
memorize (3 syllables)-->memorizes (4 syllables) 
exercise (3 syllables)-->exercises (4 syllables) 
To learn more: 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wsv4TWhuuXY&feature=related 
MOST COMMON ERRORS WITH THE ENGLISH CONSONANTS MADE BY PORTUGUESE NATIVE SPEAKERS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THE VOWELS 
In class number three we saw: A vowel is a speech sound made by allowing breath to flow out of the mouth, 
without closing any part of the mouth or throat. 
PARTICULARITIES OF THE VOWEL SOUNDS IN ENGLISH: 
Vowels sounds are always voiced. 
TENSENESS: This is another distinctive feature in speech sounds that deserves attention. Tenseness, produced by 
the tension of the vocalization muscles, is a characteristic that occurs in English vowels (long vowel sounds) while 
nonexistent in Portuguese. Let’s see the so-called Long and Short Vowel Sounds better. 
THERE ARE NO NASAL VOWELS IN ENGLISH. Vowels preceding nasal consonants are nasalized, but there is no 
phonemic distinction between nasal and oral vowels (and all vowels are considered phonemically oral). However, 
the word "huh" is generally pronounced with a nasal vowel. 
PARTICULARITIES OF THE VOWEL SOUNDS IN ENGLISH: 
• Notation - In the International Phonetic Alphabet the signːis used for vowel length. 
• Diacritics – Macron (ā) is used to indicate a long vowel; Breves (ă) are used to mark short vowels. 
PARTICULARITIES OF THE VOWEL SOUNDS IN ENGLISH: 
The following is a map demonstrating the vowel inventory of most American English speakers: 
http://www.utexas.edu/courses/linguistics/resources/phonetics/vowelmap/index.html 
 
 
PARTICULARITIES OF THE VOWEL SOUNDS IN ENGLISH: 
 Schwa → It is a sound that appears only in unstressed syllables. It occurs in the vowel that comes 
immediately after or before the stressed vowel. 
 
 
SHORT AND LONG VOWEL SOUNDS 
 
For more examples go to: 
http://www.fonetiks.org/engsou2am.html. 
The video below will consider 15 vowel sounds because it includes some diphthongs. It’s worth taking a look. 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o9uBSTs2e1A. 
If you still have doubt about the differences concerning the following sounds, 
 
check the following site: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nh6uuwkA3o8&feature=related. 
Notice that both sounds are short. 
SHORT AND LONG VOWEL SOUNDS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
SHORT AND LONG VOWEL SOUNDS 
LIST OF SHORT VOWEL WORDS 
 • Short ‘a’ words - act, apt, ask, bat, bad, bag, cat, cap, cab, dad, dab, Dan, fan, fat, fad, gap, gab, gal, gas, ham, 
has, had, hat, jab, jam, lab, lad, lag, lap, man, mad, mat, map, nap, pan, Pam, pad, pal, ran, ram, rag, rat, Sam, sad, 
sag, sat, sap, tab, tan, tad, tag, tap, van, vat, yam, zap. 
• Short ‘e’ words - Ben, bed, beg, bet, den, fed, gem, get, gel, hen, hem, jet, Ken, keg, led, leg, let, men, met, net, 
pen, peg, pet, red, set, ten, Ted, vet, yet, wed, wet. 
• Short ‘i’ words - bin, bid, big, bit, dim, did, dig, dip, fin, fig, fit, gin, gig, him, his, hid, hit, hip, jib, Jim, jig, jip, kin, 
Kim, kid, kit, lid, lit, lip, nip, pin, pig, pit, rim, rid, rig, rip, sin, sit, sip, tin, tip, win, wit, zip, zit. 
LIST OF SHORT VOWEL WORDS 
• Short ‘o’ words - bop, con, cod, cog, cot, cop, Don, dog, dot, fog, God, got, hog, hot, jog, jot, lob, log, lot, lop, 
mob, mom, mop, nod, not, pod, pot, rod, rot, son, sod, ton, Tom, tot, top, won. 
• Short ‘u’ words - bun, bum, bus, bud, bug, but, cud, cut, cup, dug, fun, gun, gum, Gus, gut, hum, hug, hut, jug, 
jut, lug, mug, nun, nut, pun, pug, pup, rub, run, rum, rug, rut, sub, sun, sum, tug. 
LIST OF LONG VOWEL WORDS 
• Long vowel ‘a’ words: mail – gain – bake – ape – paint - gray – nail – main. 
• Long vowel ‘e’ words: sea – seal – fear – beef – wheat – sheep – tea. 
• Long vowel ‘i’ words: hide – pie – dive – ride - cry. 
• Long vowel ‘o’ words: road – coat – hole – rope – stove – grow – toe. 
• Long vowel ‘u’ words: suite – June – true – new – chew – fruit – tune – use – clue. 
VOWEL DIGRAPHS (LONG VOWEL SOUND) 
VOWEL DIGRAPHS (LONG VOWEL SOUNDS) 
A vowel digraph is two letters with the first letter making a long sound and the second letter is silent. It is usually 
called: "first one does the talking, the second keeps on walking." 
In English include EA (teach), EE (free), EY (key), IE (piece),), OO (book), OA (road) and UE (true), AU (audience), EO 
(people), IO (region), AI (main), OU (soul). 
ATTENTION: friend (the long sound is the ‘–e’, the ‘-i’ is a silent letter). 
Diphthongs may have a long vowel sound or the sound may be neither long nor short 
 
R - CONTROLLED VOWEL (ALSO KNOWN AS R - COLORED VOWELS OR MURMUR DIPHTHONGS) 
ar - car, star, arm, shark; 
er - sister, brother, waiter, barber, butter, hammer, shutter; 
ir - shirt, skirt, girl, bird; 
or - corn, fork, cord; 
ur - church, nurse, curve, burger. 
 
SIGHT WORDS 
Sight words are also called IRREGULAR WORDS or OUTLAW WORDS. They are words that not follow these rules of 
long and short sound. 
WHOM — This should have a short vowel sounds because it has a closed syllable, like sat and cot, but it has a long 
sound. 
AGAIN, AGAINST, SAYS AND SAID — These should have long a sounds because of the ai vowel combination, like 
say and pain (digraph) but they have short sounds. 
BEEN — This should have a long e sound, like seen, but it has a short sound 
The vowels ‘i’ and ‘o’ have the long vowel sound when followed by two or more consonants. Exceptions: MONTH, 
FRONT, OTHER, AMONG. (SHORT VOWEL SOUND). 
 
When the vowel ‘o’ is followed by ‘i’, the two-vowel rule is not followed, as in ‘BOIL’. – neither long nor short. 
CHECKED AND FREE VOWELS 
In phonetics and phonology, checked vowels are those that must usually be followed by a consonant in a stressed 
syllable, while free vowels are those that may stand in a stressed open syllable with no following consonant. In 
General American, the five checked vowels are: 
 
 
 
CONTRASTING PORTUGUESE AND ENGLISH VOWEL SOUNDS 
The English /iy/ and /I/ are very likely to be perceived and produced as Portuguese /i/, thus neutralizing the 
contrast between words like: 
 
Since the English phonemes /iy/ and /I/ carry a very heavy functional load,any neutralization in this area becomes 
a problem of major significance. 
 
See more: American Accent – ‘heel’ (long) or ‘hill’ (short)? Pronunciation of English vowels: 
Take a look the video "heel" (long) or "hill" (short) ? Pronunciation of English vowels 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3dasuQ9u8i0&feature=fvwrel 
for more information on these sounds. 
CONTRASTING PORTUGUESE AND ENGLISH VOWEL SOUNDS