Vitamin-Trace Mineral Supplements

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NUTRIENT INFORMATION
Vitamin/Trace Mineral Supplements
for the Elderly1
Donald B. McCormick*
Department of Biochemistry and Program in Nutrition and Health Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
ABSTRACT
The fraction of population that is elderly has been increasing, as has the consumption of vitamin/trace mineral supplements, which is now a
multibillion dollar industry. Yet the rationale for such supplement intake by the majority may be questioned. Some of the current
recommendations for micronutrient intake by the elderly are extrapolations from recommendations made for younger adults, whereas other
recommendations are based on measurements of biochemical indices not proven to reflect a deficient level in the elderly. Suggestions that the
elderly need more than the recommended daily allowances largely rest on the assumption that they should have biochemical indices similar to
younger adults despite decreased energy intake with decreased physical and metabolic activities of the elderly. Although some individuals
require supplementation because of problems with intake, absorption, or metabolism, there is little or no proof that boosting micronutrient
intake above what can be achieved in well-balanced diets, some of which already contain fortified foods, will lead to a healthier outcome for
most elderly individuals. There is not only the potential for unnecessary and occasionally harmful excess administered to some, but there is a cost
that now runs in the billions of dollars and adds to the costs of covering multiple chronic disease conditions. Hence, some caution should be
exercised in public health promulgations concerning routine use of supplements for those in this age group (>65 y of age) and of both sexes until more
research establishes clear connections between the need for micronutrients and nutrient-related health in the elderly. Adv. Nutr. 3: 822–824, 2012.
Introduction
The population that is considered elderly (>65 y of age) is
increasing in most developed countries as a result of “suc-
cessful aging” and declining birth rates (1). A review of
the economic analysis of nutrition interventions, such as
was published in Nutrition Reviews, on chronic disease pre-
vention (2) offers some guidelines that may be brought to
bear on the use of supplements in the elderly. In earlier con-
siderations of the daily recommended dietary allowances,
the oldest age category was older than 51 y; however, ranges
of 51 to 70 y and also older than 70 y are now considered.
Although the literature now provides some studies of older
individuals, many of the recommendations for such elderly
were and still are based on extrapolations from younger per-
sons. Often the biochemical indices that have been adjudi-
cated as indicating insufficient intake or use of a nutrient
for younger adults are assumed to also indicate insufficiency
in an elderly population. This is despite the absence of any
clinical signs of pathology and the possibility that there
may be lowered requirements of certain micronutrients as
there is for energy intake as a result of aging. These argu-
ments do not abrogate the possibility that some elderly indi-
viduals may have such a degree of appetite suppression that
supplementation is necessary; however, often greater con-
cern for the gustatory quality of meals served, especially in
homes for the elderly and hospitals, may alleviate some of
this problem.
Current status of knowledge
Clearly there are some physiologic and metabolic factors
that alter physiologic and metabolic needs in the elderly
(1). Accompanying reduction of activity and total energy
expenditure there is a decreased need for energy intake, al-
though an increase in nutrient density is deemed desirable.
Even though energy expenditures decrease in the elderly,
there is no indication that requirements for thiamin, ribo-
flavin, and niacin are different than in other adults. Some
arguments have been made for increasing the intake of
vitamin B-6 where there may be some alteration in metab-
olism rather than absorption (3). Increased incidence of
atrophic gastritis and in some cases an increase in homo-
cysteine in the elderly argue for some increase in vitamin
B-12 and folate. Because absorption and metabolism of
1 Author disclosure: D. B. McCormick, no conflicts of interest.
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: biocdbm@emory.edu.
822 ã2012 American Society for Nutrition. Adv. Nutr. 3: 822–824, 2012; doi:10.3945/an.112.002956.
vitamin C do not seem to change with aging, there is no
evidence that indicates an increased need in the nonsmoking
elderly. There is also no evidence that either absorption or
utilization of vitamin E changes with age (4). Clearly there is
a decrease in skin synthesis of vitamin D and, after its metab-
olism in the liver to 25-hydroxycholecalciferol, the further
conversion to the hormonally active 1a,25-dihydroxycholecal-
ciferol is impaired. So too is the gut response to the hormone,
which leads to a specific protein-mediated uptake of calcium.
Hence, an augmented need for vitamin D is expected in some
elderly. For postmenopausal women, a daily intake of 800 to
1000 IU of vitamin D was found in 2012 by Gallagher et al.
(5) to support recommendations made in 2010 by The North
American Menopause Society (6). In discussion of these
findings, McClung (7) concludes with the statement that “En-
thusiasm among many practitioners for use of and the poten-
tial benefits of high doses of vitamin D supplements has
outstripped the available evidence supporting that usefulness.
Our recommendations to our patients must be based on solid
evidence, not on hopes or hypotheses.” Even more broadly as
concerns older women, it has been reported that the use of di-
etary supplements of commonly used vitamins andminerals is
not associated with reduced mortality, but rather many sup-
plements were associated with increased risk of total mortality
compared with corresponding nonuse (8). As for the essential
trace minerals, cessation of the menstrual period in women
leads to some decrease in the iron requirement; however, there
is still need for some iron that functions in essential nonheme
roles as well as for zinc and other nutrients that may help offset
the decrease in immunocompetence with aging. Evidence is
insufficient to support an age effect on copper requirements
(9). Dietary intakes of chromium are often less than estimated
for the adequate intake suggested for all adults; however, there
is insufficient evidence to suggest a pathophysiologic conse-
quence of decreases in levels of the mineral in serum, hair,
and sweat with aging (10). Serum selenium concentrations
in some elderly have been found lower than normal, but no
pathologic conditions related to selenium insufficiency have
been reported in the United States (11,12). Toxicity becomes
an observed danger with excess of some micronutrients
such as some of the fat-soluble vitamins and most trace ele-
ments. The tolerable upper intake levels are not well estab-
lished for many of the micronutrients. Cost is an important
consideration. Each year there is increasing cost for age-
related multiple chronic disease conditions such as diabetes,
heart disease, chronic respiratory conditions, and cancer
(13,14). With regard to heart disease, the dubious use of vita-
min-mineral supplements has already been addressed (15). Mi-
cronutrient supplementation for cancer patients is also not
recommended at present, as it has been reported that although
benefit may accrue in those with low nutrient intake, cancer is
actually promoted in those with higher nutrient status given
supplements or to achieve pharmacologic exposures (16).
Conclusion
From all of the above, it is apparent that changes in require-
ments for the elderly do not suggest massive supplement use
covering most micronutrients. Rather, generally minor die-
tary shifts can accommodate most needs, with supplements
included only where there is evidence of serious limitation
of intake.Given that a large proportion, perhaps half or
more of the elderly in the United States use vitamin/trace el-
ement supplements (17) and that such use now totals in the
billions of dollars (18), it seems reasonable to ask whether
the cost-benefit ratio is a worthy public health investment.
In 1 review in the medical literature (19), it was suggested
that all adults should take a multivitamin and mineral sup-
plement, and the elderly should take 2. It has recently been
stated that adequate intake of vitamins in the elderly is still a
concern and that where dietary manipulation is difficult,
fortified foods and dietary supplements can be a pragmatic
solution (20). However, there are arguments that may tem-
per any large and all-encompassing suggestions (18). There
is little or no proof that boosting micronutrient intake above
what can be achieved in a well-balanced diet will lead to a
healthier life that can be extended beyond the genetic set
point we inherit. It appears that the exuberance of some
should be tempered by such evidence-based findings as are
currently available. As stated in a recent report (16), “The
hypothesis that groups with low nutrient status may benefit
from supplementation has yet to be formally tested.” These
are clinically certifiable problems that must be addressed.
This can be contrasted with the practice of taking vitamin/
trace element supplements without proven need.
Recommendations
It would be helpful for all health professionals who commu-
nicate their views on micronutrient needs for any age group
to be familiar with such knowledge as detailed in books on
vitamins (21), minerals (22), and the interactions of these
micronutrients with regard to human nutrition (23,24).
Additionally, further research focused on the nutrient needs
of the elderly, a growing proportion of our population,
should be continued to add depth and certainty to our
knowledge. Well-informed professionals might then offer
advice to a public that can be reinforced with the certainty
that more is not always better.
Acknowledgments
The sole author had responsibility for all parts of the
manuscript.
Literature Cited
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Vitamin/trace mineral supplements for the elderly 823
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supplementation in postmenopausal women: a randomized trial. Ann
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824 McCormick
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 /PTB <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>
 /SUO <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>
 /SVE <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>
 /ENU <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>
 >>
 /Namespace [
 (Adobe)
 (Common)
 (1.0)
 ]
 /OtherNamespaces [
 <<
 /AsReaderSpreads false
 /CropImagesToFrames true
 /ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
 /FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
 /IncludeGuidesGrids false
 /IncludeNonPrinting false
 /IncludeSlug false
 /Namespace [
 (Adobe)
 (InDesign)
 (4.0)
 ]
 /OmitPlacedBitmaps false
 /OmitPlacedEPS false
 /OmitPlacedPDF false
 /SimulateOverprint /Legacy
 >>
 <<
 /AddBleedMarks false
 /AddColorBars false
 /AddCropMarks false
 /AddPageInfo false
 /AddRegMarks false
 /ConvertColors /ConvertToCMYK
 /DestinationProfileName ()
 /DestinationProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
 /Downsample16BitImages true
 /FlattenerPreset <<
 /PresetSelector /MediumResolution
 >>
 /FormElements false
 /GenerateStructure false
 /IncludeBookmarks false
 /IncludeHyperlinks false
 /IncludeInteractive false
 /IncludeLayers false
 /IncludeProfiles false
 /MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
 /Namespace [
 (Adobe)
 (CreativeSuite)
 (2.0)
 ]
 /PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
 /PreserveEditing true
 /UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
 /UntaggedRGBHandling /UseDocumentProfile
 /UseDocumentBleed false
 >>
 ]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
 /HWResolution [2400 2400]
 /PageSize [792.000 1224.000]
>> setpagedevice