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Index Note: Page numbers followed by “f” and “t” refer to figures and tables, respectively. A Abrasive scrubbers, 27 Absorbance spectrum, 98 Absorbed photon-to-current conversion efficiency (APCE), 101�102 Absorption probability, 37�38 Acetaminophen, 198�200, 267 Activated carbon (AC), 193�194 Active sites, 112 Active species, recombination of, 229 Adsorption, 40�41, 94�97, 170�171, 336�338, 347�348 Advanced oxidation process (AOPs), 129�130, 194, 205�206, 327�328 Advanced photocatalyst band structure study, 103�104 photoluminescence and surface photovoltage spectroscopy, 104 Tauc plot, 104 charge dynamics, 98�101 description of, 85�86 electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, 102�103 elemental composition characterization, 86�104 electron energy loss spectroscopy, 87�88 energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), 86�88 optical absorption, 97�98 oxidation and chemical state characterization atomic force microscopy (AFM), 93 electron microscope, 93�94 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), 93 gas adsorption-desorption analysis, 94�97 structural characterizations, 88�92 photoluminescence spectroscopy, 99�101 surface photovoltage and photocurrent spectroscopy, 101�102 Ag nanoparticles (NPs), 171�174, 314, 315f Algal/algae cell death, 312�313 cell inactivation, photocatalysts for, 322t cell wall, 312�313 inactivation of, 307�308 photocatalytic treatment of, 316�321 types of, 310�311 Alloys, usage of, 76 Ametryn, 293, 298 Amine, 336 Ampicillin, 340�342 Analgesics, 23 Anodic oxidation reaction, 45 Anthraquinones, 336 Antibiotics, 309 collective toxicities of, 171�174 consumption of, 3 degradation, 171�174 drugs, 3 occurrences of, 23 Antiseptics, 6�10 biocides in, 11t types of, 6�10 APCE. See Absorbed photon-to-current conversion efficiency (APCE) Aquatic environment, 21, 205 Aquatic organisms, survival of, 129�130 Aquatic solvents, 331�332 Aqueous environment, 193�194 Aqueous media, 143�144 toxic contaminants in, 207�208 Arrhenius's concept, 348�349 Artificial estrogen hormones, 4�5 Artificial photosynthesis, 38�39 Atenolol degradation, GCN and PDS for, 200 361 Atomic force microscopy (AFM), 93 Atrazine, 284�289 degradation, 284�288, 298 efficiency, 289 reactions, 288 initial concentration of, 288�289 molecular structure of, 287f photocatalytic removal of, 284�288 Attraction forces, 120�121 Au/GOCNIONPs nanocomposites, 176�177, 178f Au nanoparticles (NPs), 130�131 deposition, 137�138 particles, detachment of adhered, 154 precursors, concentration of, 134 Azo compounds, 336 B Bacteria/bacterial, 309 cell destruction, 311�312 cell inactivation, 312�313 composition of, 308�309 inactivation, 311�312 photocatalytic inactivation of, 318f Bactericides, 21 Ball milling, 333�334 Band bending, 230�232 potentials, 194�196 structure determination, 103 Bandgap, 37�38, 64f, 65, 103�104 absorption, 149�151 alignment, 76 concept of, 63�65 direct and indirect, 66f energy, 271 engineering alloying using alloy semiconductors, 74�76 codoping, 72�73 composite materials, 77 description of, 63�65 doping, 65�73 metal oxide photocatalyst, 67�73 nonmetal doping, 69�72 processes involved in, 65f quantum well structures, 76�77 transition metal dopants, 68�69 use of pseudomorphic materials, 77�78 materials, 65�66, 99�101 modification, 65 quantum well structure and, 77f semiconductors, 65�66 tuning of, 74 Band structure study, 103�104 photoluminescence and surface photovoltage spectroscopy, 104 Tauc plot, 104 Bandwidth, ultraviolet radiation of, 345�346 Benzoquinone, significant quenching of, 137�138 Bicarbonate anion, 146�149 Bimetallic-TiO2 heterostructure, 149�151 Biochar possesses, 292 BiOI/pCN heterojunction, 168�170 Biological (pathogens) contaminants, 305 Biological filters, 193�194 Bismuth catalysts, 236�237 impregnation, 271�272 oxyiodide microspheres, solvothermal synthesis of, 45 semiconductors, 222, 236�237 Z-scheme photocatalysts, 222�225, 223t Bisphenol A (BPA) formation ability for, 198�200 photodegradation of, 237 Bisphenol-A, degradation efficiency of, 330�331 Black phosphorus nanosheets, 238 Boron-doped samples, 43 Boron doping level, 72 Braun's lipoprotein, 309 Brilliant Red X3B degradation, 221�222 Bromates, 305�306 Brominated flame retardants, 29 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) equation, 94�97 surface area, 97 Bulk lattice parameters, 135 Burstein-Moss effect, 66�67, 67f 362 Index C Caffeic acid, 45 Caffeine, 23, 339 global average consumption of, 339 Calcination, 143�144 Carbamazepine, 1�2 degradation, 200 Carbonate radicals, 146�149 Carbon-based components, 222�225 Carbon nanodots, 55 Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), 167, 269�270 Carbon nitride, energy bandgaps of, 172f Carbon quantum nanodots (CQDs), zero-dimensional, 167 Carboxyl, 336 Carrier transfer pathways, 140 Catalytic/catalyst activity, 164, 316�321 efficiency, 168 higher concentration of, 348 performance, 211�214, 229�230 process, 296 Cavitation process, 46�47 CBZ, photodegradation of, 266 Cellulose membrane, 138�139 Cephalexin, 271 Characterization techniques, 85�86 Charge carriers, 37�38, 73 dynamics, 136 lifetime of, 99�101 population of, 101�102 recombination, 149�151, 330�331 separation, 138�139, 146�149 traditional, 232 Charge dynamics, 98�101 photoluminescence spectroscopy, 99�101 Charge generation processes, 130�131 Charge mobility, 314�316 Charge separation, 163�164 Charge transfer, 102 between encapsulated photocatalyst and MOF, 123 process of, 68�69 properties, 99�101 resistance, 146�149 Chemical contaminants, 305 Chemical oxidation, 130�131 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method, 53t Chitosan fiber, permeability of, 138�139 Chlorination process, 305�306 Chlorine, 305�306 Chlorotriazine herbicide, 291 Cibacron yellow LS-R dye, 348�349 Ciprofloxacin, 258, 265�266, 340�342 CN nanosheets, 269 Coagulation, 336�338 Codoping, common advantages of, 72�73 Coloring businesses discharge, 174�176 Columbic attraction, 230�232 Composites, 284, 289 materials, 38�39 photocatalysts, 289, 296�297 binary and ternary, 290t photocatalytic activity, 51�52 photon-harvesting capacity of, 141�143 semiconductor materials, 76 structures, fabrication of, 129�130 Compound making, high-resolution, 90�92 Conduction band (CB), 37�38, 196�197, 205�206, 306 Conduction band maximum (CBM), 103�104 Contaminants, emerging, 255�256 Contaminants of emerging concerns (CECs), 255�256 consumption of, 257 Conventional coprecipitation method, 332�333 Copper, 288�289 salts, 281 Copper tin sulfide (CTS), 74 crystal structures of, 74�75 optical bandgap of, 74�75 Coprecipitation method, 332�333, 346�347 Core electrons, emission of, 90�92 Cosmetics chemicals in, 26 ingredients, 25�27 363Index Cost-effective wastewater treatment technologies, 194 Counterelectrode, 54�55 Crystalline phases, 42�43 Crystal structure, 92 CTS. See Copper tin sulfide (CTS) Cytoplasm, 308�309 D DCF, photodegradation of, 260, 266, 267f Degradation, 284�288, 298 antibiotics, 171�174 capacity, 177 dyes, 174�178 of formic acid, 136�137 mechanism, 149�151 performance, 214�216 phenols, 179�185 photocatalytic. See Photocatalytic degradation process, 52�54 rate, 271�272 reactions, 143�144, 288 of triazine pesticides, 298 Degradation efficiency (DE), 225�226, 267, 289, 344�345 Deposition-precipitation method, 132�134 Deposition process, 132�134, 144�146 Detoxification, energy source for, 311 Dexamethasone (DXM) decomposition, 269�270 Dielectric medium, 141�143 Dimethoate's photocatalytic degradation, 344 Dip-coating technique, 42 Direct oxidation method, 45�46 Direct Z-scheme systems, 216�217 Disinfectants, 6�10 biocides in, 11t Diverse sources, 255�256 Dopants, 65�66 Doping, 65�73 nonmetal, 69�72 process, 288�289 in transition metals, 68�69 Double excitation process, 216 Drinking water, 256�257, 284 DRS, samples for, 98 Drug degradation, commonly used catalyst for, 265�273 Dunaliella salina, 321�323, 321f DXM degradation, 270f Dye molecules, 336�338 Dyes collective toxicities of, 171�174 degradation, 174�178 mixture of, 137�138photocatalytic degradation of, 336�339 structural form of, 336 E Ecosystems, 25, 255�257 Efficient charge transfer, 102 Electrochemicals decomposition method, 55 degradation, 311 deposition method, 54�55, 56t impedance spectroscopy, 102�103 performance, 167 Electrode/electrolyte surface, 102 Electrodeposition, 75�76 Electron-hole pairs (EHPs), 194, 338�339 drawback of, 197 recombination, 99�101 Electronic band structure, 38 Electronic conductivity, 210 Electronic transportation platform, 238 Electrons energy loss spectroscopy, 87�88 free movement of, 63 gain of, 88�89 microscope, 93�94 shells, 87 and trapping agents, 298 trapping energy of, 144�146 Elemental composition, 89�90 characterization, 86�104 electron energy loss spectroscopy, 87�88 energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), 86�88 Elemental mapping, 87�88 Emerging pollutants (EPs) 364 Index aquatic environments, 1�2 common, 28�29 concentration levels of, 18 description of, 1�2 drugs with endocrine disruption properties, 5�6 antiseptics and disinfectants, 6�10 surfactants, 10 ecosystems of, 2 in environment, 5f forms of, 23 future perspectives, 29 in groundwater, 21�23 in ocean, 23�24 pharmaceuticals and personal care products, 2�6 antibiotics, 3 estrogens and hormonal compounds, 3�5 from products, 6 removal of, 2 risks in aquatic environment, 25�29 cosmetic ingredients and personal care products, 25�27 pharmaceuticals, 27�28 schematic view of routes, 10 sources of, 2�10 in surface water, 10�21 in wastewaters, 1�2 in water bodies, 10�24 Endocrine disorders, 29 disruption, 5�6 disruptor compounds, sources and risks of, 7t Energy bandgap and position of Fermi level, 64f bands, 63, 163�164 Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), 86�88 Energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) spectra, 88, 89f Enol-GCN framework, 198�200 Enormity, 260 Environmental biodegradability, 284�288 Environmental pollutants, 25 Environmental remediation, 85�86, 162, 236�237 Environmental sustainability, 129�130 Environment Protection Agency, 255 EPs. See Emerging pollutants (EPs) Erythromycin, 267�268 Estrogenic compounds, 3 Estrogenic sex hormones, 4 Estrogens, 258 compounds, 3�5, 4f Ethinylestradiol (EE2), 5 Eukaryotic cells, hallmark of, 309 European Union, 255 F Feasible electron transfer, 153 Fermi energies, 207�208 Fermi level, 65, 166 of anatase, 130�131 Fertilizers in groundwater, 21 Flagella, 308�309 Floatation, 336�338 Food additives, 1�2 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), 85�86, 93 Free photoelectrons, 39�40 Free radicals, 336�338 rapid generation of, 146�149 Fungicides, 21 G Gas adsorption-desorption analysis, 94�97 Gas adsorption-desorption isotherm, IUPAC classification of, 96f GCN. See Graphitic carbon nitride (GCN) Global water quality assessments, 255 Gold particles, 42 Gram-negative bacterial infection, 309, 310f Gram-positive bacteria, 309, 310f Graphene, 238 Graphene aerogel (GA) composite, 176�177 Graphene oxide (GO), 168 Graphene ZnO tetrapods (GZnTPs), 334 Graphitic carbon nitride (GCN), 86�87, 214�216, 314�316 interfacial engineering of, 197�198 365Index Graphitic carbon nitride (GCN) (Continued) oxidation potential and reactions of, 194�196 photocatalysts, 197 for persulfate activation, 197�200 photocatalytic activity of, 163�170 S-scheme heterojunction, 166 type-II heterojunction, 164 Z-scheme heterojunction, 165�166 and support materials carbon nanotubes (CNTs), 167 description of, 167�170 2D graphene and derivatives, 167�170 zero-dimensional carbon quantum nanodots (CQDs), 167 Green environmental organization, 327�328 Green microalga, 321�323 Groundbreaking expansions, 65 Groundwater, 22�23, 256�257, 339 H Harmful algal blooms, 309�310 Harmful bacteria, inactivation of, 307�308 H-bonding, relative strength of, 122 Herbicides, 21 Heteroatoms, 69�70 Heterojunctions, 76, 146�149, 232 description of, 205�208 fundamental principles of, 206�210 photocatalyst, 49, 272 photocatalytic efficiency of, 165�166 S-scheme, 230�238 two-component materials of, 103 type-II, 211�216 types of, 165f, 208�209, 208f Z-scheme, 216�230 Heterostructured photocatalysts, 207�208 Hexazinone, elimination of, 293 Homogeneous solution, 41 Homojunction catalysts, 207�208 Honda-Fujishima effect, 161 Hormonal compounds, 3�5 Hormonal contraceptive therapies, 5 Hormones, 258 in aqueous environments, 260 occurrences of, 19 Hybrid catalytic systems, 221�222 Hydrogen bonding interactions, 121�122 evolution, 74 generation, 85�86 radicals, 132�134 Hydrosphere, 305 Hydrothermal conditions, 141�143 Hydrothermal methods, 42�45, 168�170, 180�182, 225�226, 333 Hydrothermal treatment, 141�143 Hydroxide ion, 296�297 Hydroxyl, 336 groups, 261 radicals, 63, 144�146, 194, 261, 264�265, 269�270, 272, 293, 338�339 Hysteresis loops, 94�97 I Impedance, formula of, 102�103 Imperfections, formation of, 69�70 Incident photon-to-current conversion efficiency (IPCE), 101�102 Individual components, 38�39 Industrialization, 129�130 Industrial wastewater, 327�328 Inorganic and organic counterparts, mechanism of, 114�119 Insecticides, 21 Interconnected mesoporous network, 149�151 Interfacial electron transfer process, 136 Intermediates, distribution of, 154 Intracellular organelles, 309 Intrinsic drawbacks, 151�152 Intrinsic semiconductors, 37�38 Ionic interactions, 121 Ionic solvents, 48�49 Iron oxide, 268�269 Irradiation, removal of, 305�306 Isoniazid degradation, possible pathway of, 273f photocatalytic decomposition of, 272 Isotherms, 94�97 366 Index K Kelvin equation, 97 Kubelka-Munk formula, 104, 171�174 L Levofloxacin hydrochloride (LVF) degradation, 168�170 Ligand engineering, 113 Ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT), 122�123 Light absorption, 237�238 ability, 229 capacity, 229�230 Light-harvesting capacity, 149�151 Light irradiation, 209 Light sample interaction, 98 Light source, emission wavelengths of, 136 Lipid bilayer, 309 Lipopolysaccharide, 309 glycolipids, 309 Lomefloxacin (LOM), 272�273 M Macroscopic litter, 24 Magnetron procedures, 52 Mass transfer process, 130�131 Mechanical strain, 112�113 Metal-based persulfate activation, 197 Metal-based photocatalyst, 162�163 Metal-based semiconductors, 314�316 Metal-free graphitic carbon nitride, 196�197 Metal-free semiconductors, 314�316 Metal hydroxide resolution, 331�332 Metal ions doped semiconductors, 284 release mechanism, 312 Metal node, 114 Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) photocatalyst active sites, 112 attraction forces, 120�121 charge transfer between encapsulated photocatalyst and, 123 cocatalyst, 114�115 container for photocatalyst, 123 crystalline nature, 112 crystal orbitals, 113, 113f description of, 109�113 elasticity/flexibility, 112 electronic properties, 118�119 hydrogen bonding interactions, 121�122 ionic interactions, 121 large surface area, 111 ligand engineering, 113 LMCT, 122�123 mechanical strain, 112�113 mechanism of inorganic and organic counterparts, 114�119 metal node, 114 noncovalent intermolecular interactions and energies, 119�120 organic linker, 114 pore size, 111 pore space, 111 promoting photocatalytic activity in, 122�123 property of, 111 relative strength of H-bonding, 122 repulsive forces, 120�121 schematic presentation of, 109�110, 110f as semiconductor, 116�118 structure integrity, 120�121 thermal response, 112 topology, 116 tunability, 111 types of noncovalent interaction, 121�122 unique, 111 Metal oxides, 264�265 Metal particles, aggregation of, 149�151 Metal sulfide semiconductors, 329 Metamitron, 291�292 initial concentration of, 291�292 removal of, 291�292 Methane, catalytic decomposition of, 51�52 Methylene blue (MB), 174�176, 334 degradation, 221�222 dye, 333�334 maximum degradations of, 331�333 367Index Methylene blue (MB) (Continued) solution, photocatalytic breakdown of, 45�46 Methyl orange (MO) dye, 55, 177, 334 degradation of, 221�222, 333�334, 348�349 Metribuzin, 292�293 composite photocatalyst for, 292�293 degradation of, 292 in water, 292�293 Metronidazole decomposition, photocatalyst for, 229�230Microbial cell membrane, 312�313 Microorganisms, 27�28, 312�313 growth of, 3, 6 photocatalytic disinfection of, 307�308 Microparticles, 24 Microwave-assisted method, 48�50, 50t Microwave irradiation, 334, 336�339 photocatalytic degradation of dyes, 336�339 Microwaves, interaction with, 48�49 Microwave-supported synthesis, 49 Mineralization, 41�42 process, 264�265 Minimum energy requirement, 46�47 Mixed morphologies, 46 Monolayer, formation of, 94�97 N Nanomaterials, 284 Nanometer-size structures, 263�264 Nanoparticles, 90�92, 316�321 morphologies, 45�46 Nanosheets, 92 Nanospheres (NSs), 141�143 Nanostructures, 330�331 Nanotubes, 92 Nanowires, 346�347 Narrow gap semiconductors, 129�130 Natural animal estrogen hormones, 4f Natural estrogen, 3�4 Natural photosynthesis, 209�210 Natural plant estrogen hormones, 4f Natural renewable resources, 161 NbNR-CN/rGA nanocomposites, 176�177 Nicotine, 1�2 Nitrate precursor, 49 Nitrogen co-doped nanoparticles, 72�73 Nizatidine, 271 Nonaquatic solvents, 331�332 Noncovalent interaction, types of, 121�122 Noncovalent intermolecular interactions, 119�120 Nonmetal doping in TiO2 photocatalyst, 69�70, 70f Nonmetals codoping, 72�73 Nonoxidative stress mechanism, 311�312 Nonrenewable resources, depletion of, 193�194 Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), 258 Norfloxacin, 258 NORMAN list, 255�256, 258 NR-Au composite, 143�144 n-type electron donors, 65�66 Nyquist diagrams, 217�221, 220f Nyquist plot, 103 O On-site (septic) waste treatment systems, 10 Optical absorption, 97�98 Organic additives, 41 Organic dyes, 174�176 Organic linker, 114 Organic micropollutants, kinds of, 179�180 Organic molecules, 227�229 Organic pollutants, 38, 44, 171�174, 296�297, 338�339 degradation, hybrid photocatalytic materials for, 184t mineralization of, 129�130 Organic toxins, photocatalytic destruction mechanism for, 311�312 Organisms, class of, 309�310 Overfishing, 310�311 Oxidants, oxidation potential and reactions of, 195t Oxidation process, 336�338 route, 40�41 368 Index Oxidation and chemical state characterization atomic force microscopy (AFM), 93 electron microscope, 93�94 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), 93 gas adsorption-desorption analysis, 94�97 structural characterizations, 88�92 Oxidative reaction, preliminary optimization of, 267�268 Oxidative species, 306 Oxidative stress mechanism, 311 Oxidization process, 296�297 Oxygen adsorption, 140 functionality, 168 vacancies, 153 Oxytetracycline, photocatalytic degradation of, 236�237 Ozonation, 305�306 P Parabens, 19 Pathogenic microbes, 334�336 Peak matching process, generation of, 89�90 Pechini method, 272 Penicillin, 258 Peptidoglycan cell walls, 309 Peptidoglycan layers, 308�309 Permanent toxic algal bloom, 306 Personal care products (PCPs), 1�2, 25�27, 256�258 Persulfate activation methods, 196�197 Pesticides, 21, 342�344 application in agriculture, 342 classification of, 281, 282f, 282t degradation of, 344 health problems caused by, 283, 283f metabolites, 1�2 occurrence of, 21 pollution, 342 removal from water, 284 residues of, 28, 283 water-contaminated, 342, 343t water, degradation of, 285t Pharmaceuticals, 1�2, 23�24, 24f, 27�28 concentrations of, 18 contaminants antibiotics, 258 estrogens and hormones, 258 nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), 258 personal care products, 258 drugs, toxicity and degradation, 339�342 human and veterinary, 339, 340f medicines, photocatalytic elimination of, 340�342 occurrences of, 23 wastewater, 270�271 in water bodies, 28 Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), 2�6, 255�258, 260. See also Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) active molecules in, 260 aquatic environment, 259 categorization of, 257�258 conjugate of CECs, 257 consumption of, 257 contamination, 260 conversion of dissolved, 260�261 degree of consumption of, 259 detection of, 259 ecosystem, 258�259 estrogens and hormonal compounds, 3�5 artificial estrogen hormones, 4�5 natural estrogen hormones, 4 examples of, 264�265 exposure to nontarget organisms, 260 liberation of, 256�257 primary treatment of, 260�261 purpose of usage, 257 residues of, 22 water depollution from, 260�261 Phenols degradation, 179�185, 183f, 237 efficacy, 179�180 process, 180�182 Phospholipids, 309 Photocarrier recombination, 176�177 369Index Photocarrier (Continued) separation rate, 180�182 Photocatalysis, 38�39, 154, 262�263, 306, 308�309, 313�314 bandgap in, 306 bismuth oxide, 271�273 fundamentality of, 197�198 knowledge in, 263�264 mechanism of, 56�57, 64f, 85�86 mechanistic representation of, 307f mechanistic view of, 306 photocatalyst-pollutant interaction in, 85�86 process of, 63, 67�68 surface properties in, 94�97 Photocatalysis-Fenton synergy system, 179�180, 181f Photocatalysts/photocatalytic, 44, 98�99, 169f, 206�207, 222�225, 229, 321�323 activity, 88�89, 136, 238, 338�339 advanced. See Advanced photocatalyst applications, 138�139 approach for creating, 41 bacterial inactivation, 319t behavior, 44 breakdown, 179�180 chemical vapor deposition synthesis method, 51�52 competence, 162 conduction band, 262�263 container for, 123 crystals, 37�38 definition of, 37�38 description of, 37�39 direct oxidation method, 45�46 effective application of, 65 efficiency, 72�73, 92 electrochemical deposition synthesis method, 54�55 elements in, 86�87 hydrothermal method, 42�44 initial generation, 47�48 materials, 56�57 and mechanisms, 63, 177, 261�264 microbial disinfection, 307�308 microwave-assisted method, 48�50 microwave-supported synthesis of, 49 nanoparticles, 316�321 optimization of, 92 oxidation, 170�171 performance, 144�146, 205�206, 236�237, 344�345 physical vapor deposition method, 52�54 and pollutants, 348 presence of, 38�39 primary parameters of, 67 principles of, 39�41 process, 51�52, 63, 161�163 efficiency of, 262�263 reactions, 39�40, 149�153, 230�232 beneficial for, 139 removal, 222�225, 284�293 atrazine, 284�289 metamitron, 291�292 metribuzin, 292�293 pollutants, 293 simazine, 289�290 terbuthylazine, 291 rupture, 321�323 semiconductors, 44�45 sol-gel process, 41�42 solvothermal technique, 44�45 sonochemical method, 48t sonochemical synthesis method of, 46�48 structural analysis of, 92 structural properties of, 92 surface of, 98�99 synthesis methods for, 39f, 314�316 treatment, 321�323 visible-light operating, 327�328 wastewater treatment, 170 water purification, 327�328 Photocatalytic degradation, 71f, 165�166, 197�198, 293�296 additional oxidants, 296 catalyst loading, 295 coexisting species, presence of, 295�296 of dyes, 348�349 initial concentration of pesticides, 294 light source, 294 mechanism, 206�207, 207f 370 Index medium pH, 295 performances, 222 of pharmaceutical compounds, 264�265 process, 39�40, 284�288 reaction time, 294�295 structure of pesticides, 294 surface area, 296 Photocatalytic inactivation, 313f algae, 309�311 bacteria, 308�309 description of, 305�308 of harmful algae, 316�323 of harmful bacteria, 314�316 photocatalytic microbial inactivation/ disinfection mechanism, 311�314 Photocorrosion resistance, 331 Photocurrent generation, 146�149 spectroscopy, 101�102 variation of, 101�102 Photodegradation mechanism, 176�177 reaction, 348�349 Photodeposition method, 134 reaction, 131�132 Photo-electrochemical solar water oxidation, 44 Photo-electrochemical water-splitting reaction, 261�262 Photoelectrons, 89 generation of, 90f Photoexcitation, 37�38 Photoexcited electrons, 72 Photo-Fenton catalytic synergy system, 179�180 Photogenerated charge, separation of, 238 Photogenerated electron-hole pairs, 327�328 Photogenerated electrons, 76 Photoinduced charge carrier separation efficacy, 174�176 transfer, 214�217 Photoinduced corrosion-dissolution, 330�331 Photoinduced electrons, 226�227 Photoluminescence, 104 spectroscopy, 99�101 studies, 69 Photoreactions, 207�208 photocarriers for, 174�176 Photosynthesis, phenomena of, 109 Phthalocyanines, 336 Physical vapor deposition (PVD) method, 52�54 Phytoestrogensources, 3 Pink color, formation of, 132 Plants, photosynthesis process in, 336 Plasmon decay, 154 Plasmonic material, modification by, 98 Plasmonic resonance effect, 314�316 Plasmon-induced photocatalytic activity, 144�146 Plotting, 103 P-n heterojunction, 209 example of, 214 Polar solvents, 48�49 Pollutants, 293 absorbance of, 344�345 adsorption and mineralization of, 327�328 complex structure of, 261 degradation of, 40, 194, 196�197 from factories, 334�336 mineralization of, 154 molecules, quantities of, 330�331 photocatalytic decomposition of, 237 photocatalytic elimination of, 232�236 types of, 205 Pollutants removal Au-TiO2, 130�131 chemical reduction, 132 description of, 129�130 gap analysis and challenges, 152�154 methods, 132�134 photocatalytic activity of Au-TiO2-based ternary heterojunctions, 135 photocatalytic performances, 135�152 activity of Au-TiO2, 136�140 Au-TiO2 nanostructures, 140�152 photodeposition method, 131�132 pros and cons of deposition methods, 134 Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), 5�6 371Index Polycondensation process, 163�164 Polystyrene sphere (PS), 140�141 activation, 196f, 198�200, 199f electrons from, 197�198 Porous structure, visualization of, 94�97 Porphyrin, 109 Positive empty space, 37�38 Potential bias, 85�86 Precipitation, 336�338 Precursor components, 44�45 Precursor material, 51 Predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) value, 18 Proximity with semiconductor, 167 Pseudocrystal ZnS, 78 Pseudomorph, 77�78 Pseudomorphic transformation strategy, 78 p-type dopants, 65�66 Push-pull electrons, 198�200 R Reaction sites, distribution of, 85�86 Reactive oxidative species (ROS), 194, 261, 312�321 formation ability for BPA, 197�200 mechanism of, 314�316, 317f Reactive species, mechanism of, 297f Recalcitrant pollutants, potential oxidizers for, 194�196 Receptor-ligand interactions, 312�313 Redox interactions, 40 Redox reactions, 98�99 Reduced graphene oxide (RGO), 217�221, 266 Reductive semiconductor, 165�166 Reflections, 97�98 Relative pressure, 94�97 Repulsive forces, 120�121 Response surface methodology, 268 RhB removal, 217�221 Rhodamine B (RhB), 334 Ring formation reactions, 272 Risks in aquatic environment, 25�29 cosmetic ingredients and personal care products, 25�27 pharmaceuticals, 27�28 Roxithromycin, 267�268 S Sacrificial electron donors, 131�132 Safe drinking water, 305 Schottky barrier, 130�131, 143�146, 232 Schottky contacts, 139 Schottky heterojunctions, 149�151, 210 Seaweeds, 309�310 Self-doping, 86�87 Semiconductor, 63, 76, 205�206, 210, 306 behavior, 66�67 electrode, 103 MOF photocatalyst as, 116�118 nanoparticles, 263�264 N-type and P-type, 64f photocatalysis/photocatalysts, 261, 262f, 327�328 supporters of, 263�264 surface of, 262�263 Semiconductor-assisted photocatalysis, applications of, 329 Semiconductor-I (SC-I), 164 Semiconductor photocatalyst, 101�102, 329�331, 336�338 description of, 161�163 g-C3N4 and support materials carbon nanotubes (CNTs), 167 description of, 167�170 2D graphene and derivatives, 167�170 zero-dimensional carbon quantum nanodots (CQDs), 167 photocatalytic activity of g-C3N4, 163�170 S-scheme heterojunction, 166 type-II heterojunction, 164 Z-scheme heterojunction, 165�166 wastewater treatment antibiotics degradation, 171�174 description of, 170�185 dyes degradation, 174�178 phenols degradation, 179�185 Semiconductor-supported heterogeneous catalyst, 162�163 Septicemia, endotoxic shock of, 309 Silver vanadium nanoparticles, 284�288 Simazine, 289�290 372 Index Simple hydrothermal method, 198�200 Solar architecture, 38�39 Solar energy, 38�39 potential of, 85�86 Solar evaporation, 154 Solar light-induced applications, 129�130 Solar light irradiation, 166, 217�221 Solar radiation, 67 Solar spectrum, 329 Sol-gel method, 69, 331�332 in TiO2 photocatalyst, 70�72 Sol-gel process, 41�42 Solids energy band structures in, 64f redox mediator, 222�225 and solid contact interface, 221�222 Solvothermal methods, 72, 75�76, 333 synthesis, 44�45 technique, 44�45 Sonochemical method, 46�48 Spatial distribution, 87�88 Spherical nanocrystals, 75�76 S-scheme heterostructure, 232�236 S-scheme photocatalysts, 194 for degradation of pollutants, 233t Step-scheme (S-scheme) heterojunctions, 210, 230�232 construction of, 236�237 hierarchical dual, 237 traditional, 231f Structural characterizations, 88�92 Structure integrity, 120�121 Subsequent catalytic reactions, 138�139 Sulfamethoxazole (SMX), 221�222, 260, 267�268 Sulfate radicals, 194�196 Superoxide radicals, 144�146, 149�151, 225�226, 229 Surface morphologies, 42�43 Surface photovoltage, 101�102 spectroscopy, 104 Surface plasma resonance effect, 222�225 Surface plasmon resonance, 229�230 Surface redox reactions, 216�217 Surface space charge region (SCR), 101, 101f Surface-to-volume ratio, 92 Surface waters, 256�257, 339 Surfactants, 10, 19, 25 Sustainable energy, 85�86 Synergistic effect, 72�73 Synthesis methods, 39f, 67�68 of photocatalysts, 295 Synthesis process, 331�334 ball milling, 333�334 coprecipitation method, 332�333 microwave irradiation, 334 sol-gel method, 331�332 solvothermal and hydrothermal methods, 333 Synthesized photocatalysts, 268 PL spectra of, 174�176, 175f Synthetic dyes, 205 Synthetic organic pesticides, 281 application of, 281�283 T TaON nanofibers, 236�237 Target pollutant, 262�263 Tauc plot, 104 TC, photocatalytic degradation of, 271 Terbuthylazine, 291 concentration and volume of, 291 degradation of, 291, 296�297 removal of, 291 Ternary heterojunction, 180�182 Ternary nanocomposite, 180�182 Tetracycline degradation, 138�139, 171�174 photocatalytic degradation of, 229�230 Thermal decomposition, 132�134 Thermal oxidation, 130�131 Thermal response, 112 Time-resolved spectroscopic methods, 85�86 TiO2 mono-doping and codoping of, 73 nanoparticles, 292�293, 316�321, 320f nanotube fabrication, 289 semiconductors, 77 Titania, 153 crystallinity of, 153 surface, 132�134, 139 373Index Titanium dioxide, 265�266 Titanium isopropoxide, 42 Titanium oxynitride film, 52�54 Toluene, photocatalytic degradation of, 46 Total surface water, 305 Toxic algal bloom, 311 Toxic by-products, 305�306 Toxic effects, 339 Traditional liquid Z-scheme, 216�217 Traditional techniques, limitations of, 305�306 Transition metal doping, 72 Transition metal elements, 69 Transmission electron microscope (TEM), 93�94 Triarylmethanes, 336 Triazine, 163�164 chemical stability of, 294�295 oxidative degradation, 298 photocatalytic degradation reactions of, 293 Triazine-based pesticides, 296�297 available removal methods for, 284 degradation of, 298 description of, 281�283 factors affecting photocatalytic degradation of, 293�296 additional oxidants, 296 catalyst loading, 295 coexisting species, presence of, 295�296 initial concentration of pesticides, 294 light source, 294 medium pH, 295 reaction time, 294�295 structure of pesticides, 294 surface area, 296 synthesis method of photocatalysts, 295 photocatalytic degradation mechanism of, 296�298 photocatalytic removal of, 284�293 atrazine, 284�289 metamitron, 291�292 metribuzin, 292�293 pollutants, 293 simazine, 289�290 terbuthylazine, 291 Triclosan, 1�2, 19, 27 Trimethoprim, 267�268 Tri-s-triazine, 163�164 Tungsten-doped zinc oxide, 344 Tungsten trioxide, 269�271 2D graphene, 167�170 Type-I heterojunction, 208 Type-II heterojunction, 165�166, 208�209, 211�216 g-C3N4 based, 215t, 228t photocatalysts for degradation of pollutants., 212t photoreaction mechanism of STZ by, 213f Type-III heterojunction, 209 U Ultrafiltration, 327�328 Ultrasonication, 225�226 Unique MOF photocatalyst, 111 United Nations World Water Development Report, 327�328 UV irradiation, 305�306 V Valence band (VB), 37�38, 205�206, 306 Valence band maximum (VBM), 103�104 Valence electrons, 63 Visible light, 294 response, 146 W Waals forces for interfacial charge transfer, 232�236 Wastewater, 136�137, 271 bioremediation of, 193�194 contaminants in, 170�171 persistent organic pollutants in, 261, 262f remediation, 193�194 TC in,271 types of, 258�259, 259f from variety of industries, 174�176 Wastewater treatment antibiotics degradation, 171�174 description of, 170�185 374 Index dyes degradation, 174�178 GCN-based photocatalysts for persulfate activation, 197�200 metal-free graphitic carbon nitride, 196�197 methods, 264�265 phenols degradation, 179�185 techniques, 170�171 Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), 2, 10, 256�259 biodegradation activities in, 27�28 efficient removal in, 26 pharmaceuticals in, 18, 20t Water contamination, 193�194, 327�328 drugs, 341t dyes, 336, 337t disinfection, 327�328 dye soluble in, 336 hospital waste in, 339 molecule, 296�297 pollution, 281�283, 305 purification technologies, 193�194 remediation, 349�351 soluble salts, 332�333 Water, antibiotics and pharma pollutants in adverse impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products, 260 description of, 255�256 pharmaceutical contaminants antibiotics, 258 estrogens and hormones, 258 nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), 258 personal care products, 258 pharmaceuticals, and personal care products, 256�258, 260�261 photocatalysis, 261�273 bismuth oxide, 271�273 commonly used catalyst for drug degradation, 265�273 iron oxide, 268�269 photocatalysts and photocatalytic mechanisms, 261�264 photocatalytic degradation of pharmaceutical compounds, 264�265 titanium dioxide, 265�266 tungsten trioxide, 269�271 zinc oxide, 266�268 sources, pathways, and occurrences, 258�259 World Health Organization (WHO), 284, 305 WWTPs. See Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) X Xerogel carbonization process, 72 XPS spectra, 91f high-resolution, 91f X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS), 90�92 X-rays, generation of, 87�88, 87f Z Zeolite incorporation, 267 Zinc oxide (ZnO), 266�268, 327�328 catalyst, 340�342 catalytic efficiency of initial concentration, 348 initial pH, 347�348 size, 345�346 structure, 346�347 temperature, 348�349 catalytic performance of, 348�349, 350t composite of, 347�348 crystallite size of, 345�346 disadvantages, 330�331 effective nanocomposites, 331 graphene nanocomposite, 333�334 nanocomposites, 344 nanoforms, 334�336 nanomaterials, 331 nanoparticles, 45�46, 49 nanostructures, 330�331 for photocatalytic degradation, 335t photocatalytic performance of, 348 pseudomorphic transformation of, 78 rock salt (NaCl) structure of, 329 simple degradation process of pollutants by, 330f thin films, 68�69, 68f 375Index Zinc oxide-based nanomaterials, 345�346 description of, 327�328 microwave irradiation, 336�339 pesticides, 342�344 pharmaceutical drugs toxicity and degradation, 339�342 semiconductor photocatalyst, 329�331 synthesis process, 331�334 zinc oxide, catalytic efficiency of, 344�349 Zirconium dioxide, 269�270 Z-scheme dual, 229�230 heterojunctions, 209�210, 225�226 mechanism, 225�226 photocatalysis, 226�227 photocatalytic/photocatalysts, 217�221, 226�227 376 Index Index
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