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Article 
The articles can be spared in definite (the) 
and indefinite (a and an). Basically, article is a 
determiner. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns.
A / AN / THE + NOUN
I just use a or an with singular nouns and I 
use a before consonant sound and an before vowel 
sound. Attention: some words that begin with a 
vowel letter in writing have a consonant sound and 
some words that begin with a consonant letter in 
writing have a vowel or silent sound:
Ex: They are a united group from the American 
College. /y/
Everytime you have “uni”, you need use a 
before
Ex: She had a one-year-old child when she arrived 
at the USA. /w/
Ex: He’s a FBI agent /é/
Definite article is used with singular or 
plural nouns. Its necessary who says the sentence 
know about the noun. They always use definite 
article when you talking about monument and 
places in plural or begin with united and kingdom. 
To the end, they use this article when talking 
geographic topics, like islands, river etc, and times, 
like morning, night etc.
Nouns 
A noun is a word that refers to a thing, a 
person, an animal, a place, a quality, an idea, or an 
action. It’s usually a single word, but not always 
like school bus. 
Like in Portuguese, we have in English 
common nouns and proper nouns. A common noun 
refers to a person, place, or thing but not the name 
of a particular case. A proper noun, by other hand, 
is the name of a particular person, place or thing 
and usually begins with a capital letter. 
Collective nouns is a noun that names a 
group of people or thing, “family”, “gang”, “piles 
of money” are exemples of this case. Usually, we 
can see collective nouns in single form even 
representing a group.
Gerunds are nouns that are identical to 
present participle (-ing form) of a verb. We use this 
case when we are talking about the ideia of the 
action and not about the action. This topic deserves 
attention because is so easy confusing it with verb. 
To be more practical, remember the verb with “ing” 
is always after the verb to be flexed (am, is or are).
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Cont nouns and noncount nouns are 
different because the cont nouns can be used after 
a, an or a number (or another word that means 
“more than one”). It have both singular and plural 
forms and can be used with singular or plural verbs. 
As for noncount nouns has the only one 
form and are used with singular verb forms, it 
refers to something that can’t be counted.
Its not always possible to identify a noun 
by its form. However, some word endings can show 
that the word is probably a noun, like:
- Age
- Ance/ence
- Er/or
- Hood
- Ism
- Ist
- Ilude
- Ity/ty
- Ment
- Ness
- Ship
- Tion/sion
Personal Pronouns 
It’s necessary to understand the pronoun 
replaces or refer to a noun. We chose the pronoun 
correct in function of two elements: the noun to be 
replaced and its role in the sentence. Just the 
pronouns in the third singular person includes the 
genre of the replaces noun. To resume, the personal 
pronouns referes to the person of a discourse.
The subject pronouns is the pronouns can 
be replace the nouns that act like a subject of the 
sentence.
The object pronouns is used to replace 
nouns that represents the object, direct or indirect, 
of the sentence. 
Pay attention: the subject shows before the 
verb and the object after the verb. In general, the 
concurses don’t ask to differences object direct or 
indirect.
Other topic to pay pay attention is the 
possessive adjectives. It’s NOT pronouns, but it’s 
determinants. It’s works like adjectives, so shows 
before the nouns that modify. Possessive adjetive is 
different possessive pronouns. Possessive pronouns 
replaces the possessive nouns in form of subject or 
object in the sentence. The noun replaced doesn’t 
show in the sentence, so it need to clear in the 
context. To differentiate between, a possessive 
adjective always have a noun before, because it’s 
accompanying the noun. As possessive pronouns 
replace nouns, which appear before, at another 
point in the text, they are not next to the possessive 
pronoun in the sentence.
Reflexive pronouns have two functions: to 
make a reflection about who do the action or who 
suffers the action, or to intensify the action. The 
reflexive pronouns and the intensive pronouns are 
identical, but have different functions in a sentence. 
The reflexive pronouns refer to the subject in the 
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sentence, because the subject in the action also 
represents the direct or indirect object.
Still talking about intensive pronouns, they 
intensify the subject in the sentence and can be 
removed without the sentence loose the sense or 
change the what it means. But, in this case, the 
emphasis in the subject is loosed. The intensive 
pronouns can be inserted immediate after the 
subject or at the end of the sentence.
Demonstrative 
Pronouns 
Demonstrative pronouns are used by show 
something, somewhere or someone. They can act 
like an adjectives, before the noun, or as a noun 
pronoun.
When it’s next who speak:
• Singular: this
• Plural: these
When it’s far who speak:
• Singular: that
• Plural: those
When we used in a text, we need think that 
not refer to geographic point but to a concept 
spoken before.
Infinitive Pronouns 
The indefinites pronouns are the pronouns 
used when we refer to people or things without 
saying exactly who or what they are. One and body 
referes to a person. We can see some and every in 
affirmatives sentences 
Relative Pronouns 
We use relative pronouns to connected 
informations into a sentence. Relative pronouns 
serve to refer an item, before mentioned, avoiding 
repetition. In this way, they can be a subject or 
object of the verb.
The interrogative pronouns “where, when, 
why and what” can be used to refer a place, time, 
reason and things.
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If “who” be not in between commas, we 
can use “that”
Interrogative 
Pronouns 
The interrogative pronouns always starts 
with “wh” and we use this at the beginning the 
sentence when we made a question, like “where, 
when, who, why, what, whom,” or “how”. 
Sometimes we use “how” + “time” or “much” to 
know an exact information.
When the verb needs an object and this 
object is a person, we should use “whom” not 
“who”. Ex: whom did you meet at the beach? I met 
Pablo there.
Determiners 
Determiners are words that belong to 
various classes of grammar and works with the 
noun. This is a word placed before a noun to 
provide information such as quantity, ownership 
and specificity. We can be:
• Article: the, a, an
• Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
• Pronouns and possessives determiners: my, your, 
his, her, its, our, their
• Quantifiers: a few, a little, much, many, a lot of, 
most, some, any, enough
• Numbers: one, ten, thirty
• Distributives: all, both, half, either, neither, each, 
every
• Difference words: other, another
• Pre-determiners: such, what, rather, quite
We used “many” and “few” when the noun 
is countable (have a singular and plural form). 
“Much” we use for uncountable nouns like water. 
In English, everything is liquid is uncountable. In 
the same way, “little” is used for uncountable 
nouns. 
Numerals 
Words indicating number are called 
numerals. They are adjectives, nouns or adverbs. 
The most commun divisions about numerals are 
cardinal and ordinal. Ordinal numeral adjectives 
(first, second, third…) denote the position or order 
of an object in a series. All the cardinal and ordinal 
numerals may become nouns and take a plural.
Certain numerals adjectives (single, 
double, triple…) indicate how many times a thing 
is taken or how many like parts it consists. Numeral 
adverbs also can indicate how many times an action 
takes place.
Adjectives: 
Comparatives 
An adjective is a word that tell us more 
about a noun. Its describes or modifies a noun. We 
use comparative adjectivesto show change or make 
comparisons. “Than” is used when we want to 
compare one thing with another. We use “the” + 
comparative adjectives to show that one thing 
depends on another (ex: the faster you drive, the 
more dangerous it is). When we want to describe 
how something or someone changes we can use 
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two comparative with “and” (ex: everything is 
getting more and more expensive). 
Wr usually add “er” to one-syllable words 
to make comparatives:
Old → older
Tall → taller
Fast → faster
If an adjective ends in “e”, we add “r”:
Large → larger
If an adjective ends in a vowel and a 
consonant (CVC), we double the consonant:
Big → bigger
If an adjective ends in a consonant and “y”, 
we change “y” to “ier”
Happy → happier
We use “more” to make comparatives for 
most two syllable adjectives and for all adjectives 
with three or more syllables 
Interesting → more interesting
These common two-syllable adjectives, 
you can either add “er/r” or use more.
handsome → handsomer or more handsome.
Some adjectives are irregular
Good → better
Bad → worse
Far → futher 
Adjectives: 
Superlatives 
The superlative degree also makes a 
comparison, but it’s happen between more than 3 
things about the same kind. 
As in comparative forms, we will separe 
the adjectives like large or small and modify its 
ends. It’s important to remember before the adjetive 
superlative we always use the article “the”.
We usually add “eat” to one-syllable words 
to make comparatives (ex: old → oldest)
If an adjective ends in “e”, we add “st” (ex: 
large → largest)
But, if an adjective ends in a vowel and a 
consonant, we doble the consonant (ex: big → 
biggest)
And if an adjective ends in a consonant and 
“y”, we change “y” to “iest” (ex: happy → 
happiest).
We use “the most” to make comparatives 
for most two syllable adjectives and for all 
adjective with three or more syllables. But, there 
are adjectives that you can use “most” or add “est” 
(ex: polite). 
The adjectives good, bad and far have 
irregular comparatives:
• Good → best
• Bad → worst
• Far → furthest
Prepositions 
A preposition is a word (or a group) used 
before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to show 
direction, time, place, location, station relationship, 
or to introduce an object. Sometimes, they don’t 
have a literal translation to Portuguese, the 
prepositions in English can makes sense just in 
English. You should be attentive to context.
To refer to a direct, use “to, in, into, on and 
onto”. 
To refer to one point in time, use the 
prepositions “in, at, and on”. In must be used with 
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parts of the day (not specific times), months years 
and seasons.
We use “at” with the time of day. Also use 
“at” with noon, night and midnight. “On” should be 
used with days.
To refer to extended time, use the 
prepositions “since, for, by, during, from…to, 
from…util, with and within”.
To refer to a place, use the prepositions 
“in” when we can point itself, “at” the general 
proximities, “on” the surface, and “inside” to 
something contained. 
To refer to an object higher than a point, 
use the prepositions “over” and “above”. To refer to 
an object lower than a point, use “below, beneath, 
under and underneath”.
To refer to an object close to a point, use 
“by, near, next to, between, among and opposite”. 
Word Formation: 
Compounds 
A compound noun can be formed by 
joining two nouns together. As you can use a 
gerund to compound a word. The gerund classify a 
noun, saying what type it is or what’s its purpose is. 
Word Formation: 
Prefixes 
Prefixes are the part you put before a word 
to make a specify sense.
• Anti → against
• Auto → self
• Co → together
• Ex → previously, not is more
• Inter → between
• Mini → small
• Mis → badly, wrongly
• Mono → one
• Multi → many
• Out → more, better 
• Over → too much
• Post → after
• Pre → before
• Pro → in favor of
• Re → again
• Semi → half
• Sub → under, less
• Super → big, more
There are some negatives prefixes meaning 
“not”:
• Un - ex: unhappy
• In - ex: independent 
• Il (+l) - ex: illegal
• Im (+b/m/p) - ex: immoral
• Ir (+r) - ex: irrational
• Dis - ex: dishonest
• Non - ex: non-smoking
• De - ex: decentralization
Conjuntions 
Basically, conjunctions are words that link 
other words, phrases, or clauses together. In 
English, we separe the conjunction on three groups:
• Coordinating conjunctions: they help us to 
joining clauses, ex: for, and, nor, but, or, yet and 
so
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• Correlative conjunctions: we use they in pairs, 
like: either/or, neither/now and not only/but also
• Subordinating conjunctions: in this case, the 
clauses depend on each other to make sense, so 
you have to connect them. Ex: because, since, as, 
although, though, while, whereas, etc.
Simple present 
It’s used to describe habits, unchanging 
situations, general truths, and fixed arrangements. 
So, you don’t use simple present for speak about 
actions that’s happen while you speak. For this 
situation, we have present continuous. Simple 
present refer to repeated actions. You can use it to 
give instructions or directions. When you use to 
express fixed arrangements, present or future, is so 
important know the exact hour. An another 
situation to use simple present is express future 
time, after some conjunctions: after, when, before, 
as soon as, until.
We need pay attention when use the third 
person singular in the affirmative forms. In this 
cases, the verb always ends in “s”. If the nerds 
ending in “y”, changes it to “ies” and add “es” to 
verbs ending in “ss”, “x”, “sh” and “ch”. Negative 
and questions forms use the auxiliar verb “do” or 
“does” (for third person of the singular) + the 
infinitive of the verb
Simple past 
The simple past tense is used to talk about 
a completed action in a time before now. The time 
of the action can be in the recent past or the distant 
past and action duration is not important.
You always use the simple past when you 
say “when” something happened, so it’s associated 
with certain past time expressions.
For regular verbs, add “ed” in the end of 
the verb. If the verb ending in consonant + y, you 
need change y → ied. It’s important remember the 
verbs in simple forms is only changed in 
affirmative sentences. In negative and questions 
formes we use “did”, that is the past form of the 
auxiliar verb “do”. 
Simple future 
In simple forms, the act have beginning, 
middle and end. The simples future refers to a time 
later than now and expresses facts ir certainty. The 
simple future is mark by the word “will” + the 
principal verb without changes. We use the simple 
future to predict a future event, with I or we when 
express a spontaneous decision and to express 
willingness. In the negative form, express 
unwillingness. With you, to give orders. In 
interrogative forms, you can be used to give an 
invitation.
Although isn’t common now, used to use 
the verb “shall” for express the same ideia of will. 
In the negative form, will + not → won’t.
The future can also be express with “going 
to” + verb. In this construction we use verb to be + 
going to + verb. We use “going to” to refer a 
something was programed.
Present Continuous 
W h e n s o m e o n e u s e s t h e p r e s e n t 
continuous, they are thinking about something that 
is unfinished or incomplete.
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The present continuous describe an actions 
is going on at this moment or actions that is going 
on during this period of time or a trend.But, the 
present continuous also can be used to describe an 
action or event in the future, which has already 
been planned or prepared. As the event was planned 
before, you know when this action will happen, so 
when we use present continuous in the future, we 
have an adverb to indicate a time too.
Sometimes, we use this time to describe a 
temporary event or situation. Is this cases, is so 
importantpay attention in the context. With 
“always, forever, constantly”, to describe and 
emphasize a continuing series of repeated actions. 
Some verbs are not usually used in the continuous 
form, like verbs to refer to a state:
- To feel
- To hear
- To see
- To smell
- To taste
- To fear
- To dislike
- To hate
- To hope
- To like
- To love
- To mind
- To prefer
- To regret
- To want
- To wish
- To assume
- To believe
- To consider
- To doubt
- To forget
- To imagine
- To know
- To mean
- To notice
- To recognize
- To remember
- To understant 
The present continuous is formed by 
subject + to be (am/is/are) + verb(ing)
Past Continuous 
We use this time to tell a story, it’s marked 
by verb to be + verb with ing and serve to describe 
an unfinished action that was interrupted by another 
event or action, so you see past continuous with 
another verbal time. Also, we can use this to 
express a change of mind. In negative form, the 
word “not” is added to verb to be and the principal 
verb staying with ing. Is so common use “while” 
when the actions are happen in the same time, but if 
one action is interrupted by other, we use “when”.
Future Continuous 
The future continues indicates that 
someting will occur in the future and will still 
happening during a time. In other words, it refers to 
an unfinished action or event that will be in 
progress at a time later than now. The future 
continuous tense is only used with actions verbs, 
because it is possible to do them for a duration. We 
use this time to:
• Projecting ourselves into the future;
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• Predicting or guessing about future events;
• In the interrogative form, it can be used to ask 
politely for information about the future;
• To refer to continuous events that we expect to 
happen in the future;
• When combined with “still”, the future 
continuous refers to events that are already 
happening now and that we expect to continue 
some time into the future
The verbs will appear like this:
The subject + will be + verb with ing
Present Perfect 
We don’t have a literal translation for 
present perfect in Portuguese. It’s necessary make 
some adaptations. The present perfect is formed 
from the present tense of the verb have and the past 
participle of a verb. The auxiliar verb shouldn’t be 
translated.
Have/has + past participle (ed)
The present perfect is used to describe an 
action or situation that started in the past and 
continue in the present. Other situation is an action 
performed during a period that has not yes finished. 
Also, it’s repeated action in an unspecified period 
between the past and now. And finally, an actions 
when the time is not important.
The adverbs ever and never express the 
idea of an unidentified time before now and it’s 
always placed before the main verb. Never means 
at no time before now, and is the same as not. So, 
you must not use never and not together. Already 
refers to an action that has happened at an 
unspecified time before now. It suggest that there is 
no need for repetition. Yet is used in negative 
statements and questions, to mean (not) in the 
period of time between before now and now, (not) 
up to and including the present. Yet is usually 
placed ar the end of the sentence.
We can define a period of the time before 
now by considering duration, with for + a period of 
time. Also, we can define a period of time before 
now by considering starting point, with since + a 
point in time
Past Perfect 
The past perfect refers to a time earlier than 
before now. It’s used to make it clear that one event 
happened before another in the past. It does nor 
matter which event is mentioned first - the tense 
makes it clear which one happened first. The past 
perfect is formed from the past tense of the verb 
have and the past participle of a verb.
Had + past participle
We use the past perfect simple to talk about 
time up to a certain point in the past. Also, we can 
use this time to show the order of two past events. 
The past perfect shows the earlier action and the 
past simple the later action. Other situation is use 
the past perfect followed by before to show that an 
action was not done or was incomplete when the 
past simple action happened. We often use the 
adverbs already, still, just, ever or never with the 
past perfect.
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Future Perfect 
The future perfect tense refers to a 
completed action in the future. When we use this 
tense we are projecting ourselves forward into the 
future and looking back at an action that will be 
completed some time later than now. It is most 
often used with a time expression. 
The future perfect is composed of two 
elements the simple future of the verb “to have” 
(will have) + the past participle of the main verb
Will have + past participle (ed)
Present Perfect 
Continuos 
The present perfect continuous tense shows 
that something started in the past and is continuing 
at the present time. Also, this represents actions that 
have just finished, but we are interested in the 
results. The present perfect continuous ir made up 
of two elements: 
Have/has been + present participle (ing)
It’s important to remember that continuous 
forms just accept actions verb, verbs that refers to 
feelings or states should be used on simple present 
perfect (ed). This verbs such as: know, hate, hear, 
understand, want)
Past Perfect 
Continuos 
The past perfect continuous tense shows 
that an actions that started in the past continued up 
until another time in the past. In other words, it’s 
indicate something that began in the past, continued 
in the past, and also ended at a defined point in the 
past. Also, we can use this for reported speech. It’s 
equivalent of the past continuous and the present 
perfect continuous in direct speech.
Had been + present participle (ing)
Modal verbs 
Modal verbs show possibility, intent, 
ability, necessity. They’re a type of auxiliary verb 
and need be used together with the main verb of the 
sentence. May indique, from the context, something 
is possible. Might, although indicate a possibility 
too, referes something more remote to happen. 
• Can: habilidade, possibilidade, permissão
• Could: habilidade, possibilidade, permissão 
(passado de can)
• May: possibilidade, permissão, pedido
• Might: possibilidade, pedido (passado de may)
• Must: proibição, obrigação, dedução
• Shall: convite, sugestão
• Should: sugestão, conselho, recomendação 
(passado de shall)
• Will: probabilidade futura
• Would: desejo, convite (passado de will)
How can I differentiate?
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• May: is used in contexts more formal
• Can: is used in informal contexts, like when 
you’re talking to a friend
• Could: it's a middle ground
Shall was very used in old English. Today, 
it’s used to make an invitations. Should is more 
common and besides used to make an invitations, is 
used to give an advices. In general, we associate 
“would” to a conditional situation.
The semi modal can be used in others 
structures. The semi modal verbs are:
• Ought to: is similar to should
• Had better: show what you prefer 
• Dare: in geral, is used to give a advice in 
negative form
• Need
• Used to: to referes an old custom
• Have to: similar to must, it’s a advice more 
intense
• Going to: used to a plan that you know when 
turn real
The perfect modal verbs called that 
because they use a modal verb (could, should, 
might/may, must) followed by a perfect tense 
construction (“have” + past participle)
Active x Passiva 
Voice 
The main difference between voices is that 
in action voice the question is who made the action 
while the passive voice you asked who suffered the 
action. Both cases have the subject, but in passive 
voice you have the verb to be + the main verb in 
the past participle (ending with ed), while the active 
voice just use the verb in past participe. Finally, 
after the verbyou look the object in active voice 
and passive agent in passive voice.
In others words, the active voice asserts 
that the person or thing represented by the 
grammatical subject performs the action 
represented by the verb. The passive voice makes 
the subject the person or thing acted on or affected 
by the action represented by the verb. Sometimes, 
in passive voice, we don’t matter about by who the 
action was realized. 
To change from active to passive voice or 
the other way around, just follow the examples:
Phrasal Verbs 
A phrasal verb combines a normal verb 
with an adverb or a preposition to create an entirely 
new verbal phrase - the phrasal verb. The meaning 
of a phrasal verb is usually unrelated to the 
meanings of the verb as an entirely new and 
independent word.
In terms of word order, there are two main 
types of phrasal verb:
• Separable
• Inseparable
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Phrasal verbs with two particles are also 
inseparable. Even if you use a personal pronoun, 
you put it after the particles.
Zero Conditional 
The zero conditional is used to make 
statements about the real word, and often refers to 
general truths, such as scientific fats. In these 
sentences, the time is now or always and the 
situation is real or possible. 
In zero conditional sentences, the tense in 
both parts of the sentence is the simple present. As 
in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses 
is not fixed. You may have to rearrange the 
pronouns and adjust punctuations when you change 
the order of the clauses, nut the meaning is 
identical. In zero conditional sentences, you can 
replace “if” with “when”, because both express 
general truths.
If clause (condition) → main clause (result)
Ex: if this thing happens that thing happens
The zero conditional is also often used to 
give instructions, using the imperative in the main 
clause (ex: if Pablo phones, tell him to meet me at 
the cinema)
First Conditional 
We use the first conditional when we talk 
about future situations we believe are real or 
possible. The first conditional describes a particular 
situation, whereas the zero conditional describes 
what happens in general.
In first conditional sentences, the structure 
is usually:
If/when + present simple → will + infinitive
It is also common to use this structure with 
unless, as long as, as soon as or in case instead of it
Second Conditional 
We use second conditional to talk about 
things in the future that probably not going to be 
true. Also, we can use second conditional to talk 
about something in the present which is impossible, 
because it’s not true, like: “if I were you, I wouldn’t 
mention it”. The second conditional uses the past 
simple after if, then “would” and the infinitive:
If cause (condition) → main clause (result)
If + simple past → would + verb
Third Conditional 
The third conditional refers to an 
impossible condition in the past and its probable 
result in the past. These sentences are truly 
hypothetical and unreal, because it is now too late 
for the conditional or its result to exist. There is 
always some implication of regret with third 
conditional sentences. The reality is the opposite of, 
or contrary to, what the sentence expresses. In third 
conditional sentences, the time is the past and the 
situation is hypothetical.
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In third conditional sentences, you can use 
modal verbs in the main clause instead of “would” 
to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a 
recommendation about the outcome. The structure 
is:
If clause (condition) → main clause (result)
If + past perfect → perfect conditional or perfect 
continuous conditional
Gerund 
The gerund looks exactly the same as a 
present participle, but it is useful to understand the 
difference between the two. The gerund always has 
the same function as a noun (although it looks like 
a verb). The gerund can be the subject of the 
sentence, like “eating people is wrong”. The gerund 
can be showing after prepositions, ex: “she is good 
at painting”, or after phrasal verbs, ex: “Jim ended 
up buying a new TV after his old one broke”. There 
are some phrasal verbs that include the word “to” 
as a preposition, for exemple “to look forward to, to 
take to, to be accustomed to, to get around to, to be 
used to”, It is importante to recognize that the word 
“to” is a preposition in these cases because it must 
be followed by a ground. It is not part of the 
infinitive form of the verb. You can check whether 
“to” is a preposition or part of the infinitive. If you 
can put the pronoun “it” after the word “to” and 
form a meaningful sentence, then the word “to” is a 
preposition and must be followed by a gerund. 
Also, we can use the gerund in compound nouns, 
for exemple “I am giving Sally a driving lesson”. 
Every time we’re giving a name for something, 
we’re making a subject. Finally, the gerund can be 
finding after some expressions, like “couldn’t, 
can’t, no use, be worth”
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