7. Does living setting influence training adaptations in young girls

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Does living setting influence training adaptations in young girls?
M. C. Gallotta, L. Guidetti, G. P. Emerenziani, E. Franciosi, C. Baldari
Department of Health Sciences, University of Rome ‘‘Foro Italico,’’ Rome, Italy
Corresponding author: Carlo Baldari, Department of Health Sciences, University of Rome ‘‘Foro Italico,’’ Piazza Lauro De
Bosis, 15, I - 00194 Rome, Italy. Tel: 0039 06 36733227, Fax: 0039 06 36733371, E-mail: carlo.baldari@iusm.it
Accepted for publication 8 July 2009
To assess whether rural or urban setting may influence
young girls’ fitness and coordinative abilities training adap-
tations following dance training. Forty-four dancers aged
11–12 years (21 urban, 23 rural) attended a 6-month dance
training while continuing to practice their habitual physical
activities (PA). Dancers’ fitness and motor coordination
abilities were assessed by pre- and post-intervention tests
(anthropometric measures, 1-mile run/walk, sit and reach,
standing long jump, hand grip and four field tests of
kinaesthetic discrimination and response orientation). PA
was assessed using a self-report recall measure. After the
intervention period, rural dancers significantly improved in
1-mile run/walk, lower limb kinaesthetic discrimination and
response orientation ability tests. Significant differences
between two groups in upper limb response orientation
ability test were found. Both groups showed a significant
increase in body height and weight. Multiple regression
analysis indicated that time in nonorganized PA predicted
some fitness and coordinative changes (1-mile run/walk,
lower limb response orientation and kinaesthetic discrimi-
nation ability tests) following the training period, although
the percentage of variance it could explain was moderate.
Our results showed that training adaptations of some fitness
and coordinative performances could be influenced by set-
ting characteristics that provided opportunities for different
types of PA.
Participation in physical activity (PA) during adoles-
cence can promote the development of fitness and
motor abilities (Okely et al., 2001), the maintenance
of strength, flexibility, balance and coordination and
it can aid the development of motor skills (Sleap &
Tolfrey, 2001). Sallis et al. (1998) have identified a
number of environmental, social and demographic
variables as determinants of children’s physical ex-
ercise. Setting (urban/rural) is an important condi-
tioning factor for participation in PA and for the
development of its components (fitness and coordi-
nation). A number of studies have been conducted to
identify the association between youths’ PA and
setting variables (Sallis et al., 1997, 1998, 2000;
Felton et al., 2002; Loucaides et al., 2004; Davison
& Lawson, 2006).
In a study with Greek-Cypriot children (Loucaides
et al., 2004), the opportunity to spend their free time
outdoor and to use open playgrounds and sports
facilities in the immediate distance from their own
home resulted particularly important for PA engage-
ment because children depended on adults for trans-
port to the places where they could be physically
active. Furthermore, a recent study provided evi-
dence that the availability of neighborhood facilities
for PA was relevant for youths, who were unable to
drive and whose activity was often limited to the
immediate distance they were able to walk or bicycle
(Cohen et al., 2006). Adults usually take children to
the places where they can be physically active by car
or other means of transport; because of wider dis-
tances, this happens to be more frequent in cities
than in small villages. A cross-sectional study of
adolescents provided evidence for a link between
the presence of smaller or local roads, where the
traffic was limited and speed limits were low, making
easier to move by walking or biking, and the possi-
bility for youths to manage autonomously own free
time and sport activities (Nelson et al., 2006). There-
fore, cities offer many possibilities to play organized
sport activities, but few possibilities to practice free
and nonorganized daily PA.
It has been well documented that the ease of access
to safe and outdoor sites in the rural communities
promoted many types and levels’ activity of children
such to favor the development of fitness parameters
and coordinative abilities (Tsimeas et al., 2005).
Children who live in urban centers spent more time
playing video games or watching TV than rural
children who spent most of their free time in recrea-
tional and outdoor activities (Loucaides et al., 2004).
The combination of factors such as availability of
open-spaces and neighbors’ safety could aid children
to spend more time in outdoor free activities.
According to Johns and Ha (1999) lack in availability
and proximity to PA facilities and spaces reduced
Scand J Med Sci Sports 2011: 21: 324–329 & 2009 John Wiley & Sons A/S
doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01009.x
324
time that children spent outdoor and therefore their
possibility to practice PA. Considering characteris-
tics such as safety, availability of spaces and children
time amount spent in outdoor activities, small rural
communities provided favorable settings to PA prac-
tice. In fact, as reported by Sallis et al. (2000) time
spent outdoor was a factor highly correlated to
children’s activity level.
Recently, some authors studied whether living in
urban or rural settings could affect aspects of physi-
cal fitness in children (Pen˜a Reyes et al., 2003;
Tsimeas et al., 2005), but to the best of our knowl-
edge, no study was conducted to investigate possible
influences of setting on training adaptations.
Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess
whether rural or urban setting may influence young
girls’ fitness and coordinative abilities following
modern-jazz dance training.
Materials and methods
Participants
Forty-four healthy female modern-jazz dancers aged 11–12
years volunteered to participate in this study. Twenty-one
dancers lived in the metropolitan districts of Rome. Twenty-
three dancers lived in a small rural community (Sant’Oreste)
located about 50 km north of the city of Rome. Their anthro-
pometric indices at both baseline and follow-up were shown in
Table 1. All participants were dance beginners. They regularly
trained 1 h twice a week.
The institutional review boards of the University of Rome
‘‘Foro Italico’’ approved the investigation. Informed consent
forms were obtained from both parents and dancers before
study participation.
All dancers involved in this study continued to practice
their habitual (organized and nonorganized) PA.
Physical fitness and coordination assessments
Pre- and post-intervention anthropometric measurements as-
sessed dancers’ weight, height and body fat. Weight and height
were measured using a scale and a stadiometer to the nearest
0.5 kg and 0.1 cm, respectively. Triceps and calf skinfolds
thickness was measured to the nearest 0.2mm using a calliper
(Harpenden, St. Albans, UK) on the right side of the body. All
skinfolds were taken three times by the same experimenter to
ensure consistency in results with the average of the three
values used as a final value. To predict body fat (%FM) the
equation described by Slaughter et al. (1988) was selected for
this investigation.
Pre- and post-intervention tests assessed dancers’ physical
fitness (EUROFIT, 1988; The Cooper Institute, 2006) and
coordinative abilities (Hirtz et al., 1985).
Fitness field tests included the following:
� The 1-mile run/walk test to assess aerobic power and
cardiorespiratory endurance. Subjects were instructed to
run/walk to cover the distance as fast as possible. Walking
could be interspersed with running; subjects were allowed to
walk but not to stop if they were exhausted. The test was
scored in minutes and seconds.
� The sit and reach test to assess lower back/upper thigh
flexibility.Subjects were instructed to reach as far as
possible with one leg straight while sitting at a sit-and-reach
box. The subjects removed their shoes before performing
the test. The measurement was performed on one side (right,
left) at a time, with the knee fully extended alternatively.
The score was recorded to the last whole centimeter.
� The standing long jump test to assess explosive leg power.
Subjects stood at a starting line marked on the ground with
feet slightly apart. A 2 ft take-off and landing were used,
with swinging of the arms and bending of the knees to
provide forward drive. The longest distance jumped was
measured in centimeters, the better of two trials.
� The hand-grip test to assess static grip strength. Subjects
were holding the dynamometer in one hand in line with the
forearm and hanging by the thigh. Maximum grip strength
was then determined without swinging the arm. The better
of two trials for dominant hand was recorded.
The motor coordination tests included four tests from a
battery for field evaluation of coordinative abilities that was
validated by Hirtz et al. (1985) through administration to a
large and representative sample of school-aged children (i.e.,
criterion-related concurrent validation, test–retest and split-
half reliability evaluation). The Hirtz’s selected tests assessed
kinaesthetic discrimination and response orientation abilities.
To avoid possible confounding between the coordinative
ability to be measured and the effectors involved in test
performance (EUROFIT, 1988), both kinaesthetic discrimina-
tion and response orientation were tested separately with two
tests, both primarily involving upper limb and lower limb
effectors.
� Backwards ball throw test to assess upper limb kinaesthetic
discrimination ability. Subjects performed a one-hand over-
head throw backwards with a tennis ball. They were
instructed to center a ground target located 250 cm behind
the performer. The target had a 20 cm diameter. After a
Table 1. Anthropometric indices at both baseline and follow-up in urban and rural dancers
Indices Urban dancers Rural dancers
Pre Post Pre Post
Height (m) 1.46 � 0.05 1.50 � 0.05** 1.51 � 0.07§ 1.53 � 0.07**
Weight (kg) 42.61 � 8.94 44.21 � 8.67* 47.63 � 11.27 48.70 � 11.16*
BMI (kg/m2) 19.92 � 3.52 19.60 � 3.36 20.88 � 4.16 20.73 � 3.89
FM (%) 25.98 � 6.09 26.95 � 8.17 25.85 � 7.53 26.19 � 8.54
Data are means � SD.
*Po0.01;
**Po0.001 post vs pre;
§Po0.05 rural vs urban.
Setting influences on training adaptations
325
training throw, subjects performed five consecutive trials.
Five points were assigned for a centered target. Scores of 4,
3, 2, 1 and 0 were assigned with increasing distance of the
contact point of the ball from the target and the mean score
was computed.
� Low jump test to assess lower limb kinaesthetic discrimina-
tion ability. Subjects jumped with the legs together from a
plinth to a ground marking at a set distance (1m). They
were instructed to land with their heels on the marking. The
test was performed twice and the distance of each heel from
the marking was measured in centimeters for each trial.
Distance values were collapsed across heels and trials to
obtain one mean value.
� Hanging target throw test to assess upper limb response
orientation ability. An experimenter was in front of the
participant, 3m apart, and lifted a hoop of 80 cm diameter
hanging from a 60-cm-long rope to the horizontal axis. He/
she let it go down for the participant who tried to throw a
tennis ball through the swinging hoop during its back swing.
After a training throw, subjects performed five consecutive
trials. Two, 1 or 0 points were, respectively, assigned if the
ball passed through, touched or passed outside the hoop.
The mean score was computed.
� Orientation shuttle run test to assess lower limb response
orientation ability. Subjects were requested to run three
times, as quickly as possible, from a start marker toward
one of five numbered goal markers located behind them.
The goal markers were 3m apart from them and 1.5m apart
from another on a hypothetical circumference arc. The
sequence of goal markings to be reached was not known
previously. The next marking number was announced when
the participant returned to the start ball and touched it for
the next run to begin without pausing. After demonstration
by an experimenter, subjects performed the test that was
scored in seconds.
Verbal description and demonstration of all tests were given
to subjects before testing.
PA measurement
We developed a PA questionnaire asking the dancers to recall
the typical number of hours/week during which they partici-
pated in activities and sports. This PA self-report measure
investigated the participation in organized and nonorganized
PA. Organized PA were defined as structured or formal
activities, with the attendance in regular classes. Nonorga-
nized PA were defined as leisure and not structured or formal
activities that did not involve regular training, including out-
door PA.
Participants were asked to report their PA participation
during a normal week for organized and nonorganized PA
separately. They reported the hour’s amount and the perceived
intensity of each kind of activity. Dancers answered about the
intensity using a five-point Likert-type rating of perceived
effort (15 very weak/low-intensity PA, 55 very strong/vigor-
ous PA) (Bartholomew & Miller, 2002). Information was
given with regard to ‘‘low-intensity physical activity’’ and
‘‘vigorous physical activity.’’ More precisely, dancers were
informed that ‘‘low-intensity physical activity happens when
you are a little tired’’ while ‘‘vigorous physical activity
happens when you are tired, your heart rate raises enough
and your breathing is difficult.’’
We computed each dancer’s amount of PA participation
multiplying hours/week by perceived intensity score (ACSM,
2006) (Table 2).
Dancers’ training
Both groups proceeded according to the same 6-month dance
training, prepared and conducted by the same teacher. Dan-
cers were introduced to the foundations of the modern-jazz
dance style. Technical training was accompanied by athletic
training. The content of each dance class was based on
modern-jazz technique and fitness components, including
strength and flexibility. All classes consisted of preparatory
exercises and stretching (warm-up: 20–25min of duration with
an intensity of 3–5 OMNI RPE scores) (Robertson et al.,
2005), locomotor work across the floor (diagonals: 10–15min
of duration with an intensity of 3–4 OMNI RPE scores), and
the learning of dance phrase combinations (choreographies:
about 30min of duration with an intensity of 3–5 OMNI RPE
scores). The duration of the three lesson phases was almost the
same during the training progress, while the intensity progres-
sively increased in terms of complexity and execution difficulty.
The last two months of the dance training program mainly
focused on the preparation of the final dance exhibition.
Statistical analysis
A priori power analysis (Faul et al., 2007) indicated that 21–23
participants per group were required to detect a medium effect
size (f5 0.20 or 0.25) given a coefficient of correlation r5 0.70
or 0.50 with 90% power and a5 0.05, using between–within
subjects mixed design.
All results were expressed as mean � SD. Repeated mea-
sures analysis of variance (ANOVA) with covariates orga-
nized (dance and all other types of organized PA) and
nonorganized PA amount, weight, height, body mass index
(BMI) and %FM at follow-up was calculated to compare the
performance variation gain accounting for group (rural and
urban). Moreover, for each test scores evaluated after the
training period, we calculated the absolute variation (D) with
respect to its pre-training value (POST training–PRE training
value). A multiple linear forward regression analysis was then
performed toexamine the relationship of organized PA
amount, nonorganized PA amount and anthropometric in-
dices at baseline to fitness and coordinative changes following
the training period.
Individual anthropometric indices were analyzed using a
2 � 2 repeated measures ANOVA with group (rural vs urban)
and intervention (post vs pre) as factors. Significant interac-
tions were further analyzed by means of planned pairwise
comparisons.
A significance level of Po0.05 was accepted.
Table 2. Physical activity amount in urban and rural dancers (hours/
week � perceived intensity score)
Group Organized physical activity Nonorganized
physical
activity**
Total
amount
Dance All other types*
Urban 8 � 2 10 � 8 2 � 4 20 � 12
Rural 7 � 3 4 � 4 10 � 5 22 � 5
Data are means � SD.
*Po0.05;
**Po0.01 urban vs rural.
All other types of organized physical activity: weightlifting, figure skating/
figure roller skating, classical ballet, artistic gymnastics/acrobatics,
surfing.
Gallotta et al.
326
Results
Some fitness and coordinative ability tests signifi-
cantly differed between urban and rural dancers after
the training period. Analysis of covariance results in-
dicated significant improvements of rural dancers in
1-mile run/walk (F5 10.799, P5 0.011), lower limb
kinaesthetic discrimination (F5 11.604, P5 0.004)
and response orientation (F5 4.655, P5 0.047) abil-
ity tests. Significant differences between two groups
in upper limb response orientation ability test were
found (F5 4.601, P5 0.048). No difference between
groups following the training period was observed
for the hand-grip, sit and reach, standing long jump,
and backwards ball throw tests. The application of a
multiple linear regression analysis indicated that time
in nonorganized PA predicted some fitness and
coordinative changes (1-mile run/walk, lower limb
response orientation and kinaesthetic discrimination
ability tests) following the training period, although
the percentage of variance it could explain was
moderate (28–38%). Specifically, multiple regression
analysis indicated that 39% of the variability in the 1-
mile run/walk test change was significantly accounted
for by dancers’ weight at baseline (P5 0.039) and
nonorganized PA amount (P5 0.063). As shown by
b-regression coefficients, the major predictor of the 1-
mile run/walk test change was dancers’ weight at
baseline followed by nonorganized PA amount (Table
3). Regression analysis also indicated that 28% of the
variability in lower limb response orientation ability
test change was significantly accounted for by dance
training amount (P5 0.004) and nonorganized PA
amount (P5 0.051). The b-regression coefficients in-
dicated that the nonorganized PA amount was the
major predictor of the lower limb response orientation
ability test change (Table 4). Finally, regression ana-
lysis indicated that 35% of the variability in lower
limb kinaesthetic discrimination ability test change
was significantly accounted for by dancers’ BMI at
baseline (P5 0.008) and nonorganized PA amount
(P5 0.025). The major predictor of the lower limb
kinaesthetic discrimination ability test change was
BMI at baseline (Table 5).
Finally, as shown in Table 1, all dancers’ height
significantly gained after the intervention period with
an increase of body weight. BMI and %FM did not
significantly change after the intervention period in
both groups. On the whole, rural dancers were taller
and heavier than the urban dancers.
Discussion
The aim of the study was to assess whether rural or
urban setting could influence young girls’ fitness and
coordinative abilities following modern-jazz dance
training. To our knowledge, this is the first study that
examined selected physical fitness and coordinative
components in urban and rural young girls referring
to dance-training adaptations. Our hypothesis was
that after the same dance-training period urban and
rural dancers could differ in the development of some
coordinative and motor skills. We would have ex-
pected that the rural group, compared with the urban
group, had showed significant or significantly more
pronounced improvements on coordinative ability
and fitness tests, due to different setting character-
istics. On the whole, results of the motor tests
confirmed our hypothesis. In fact, differential effects
of rural and urban settings emerged on test assessing
cardiorespiratory endurance and in two tests asses-
sing coordinative abilities, according to the hypoth-
esis that setting characteristics had an impact on
youths’ training adaptations. In particular, the more
Table 3. Multiple liner forward regression with change in one mile/run
walk test over the 6-month dance training, as the dependent measure*
Variables SE b t P
Weight 0.00 0.46 2.27 0.039
Nonorganized physical
activity amount
0.00 � 0.41 � 2.01 0.063
*F5 4.75, P5 0.025, R25 0.39, adjusted R25 0.31.
Variables used: organized physical activity amount, nonorganized physi-
cal activity amount and anthropometric indices at baseline (weight,
height, BMI and %FM).
Table 4. Multiple liner forward regression with lower limb response
orientation ability test over the 6-month dance training, as the dependent
measure*
Variables SE b t P
Nonorganized physical
activity amount
0.04 0.54 3.11 0.004
Time spent in dancing 0.10 0.35 2.04 0.051
*F5 5.35, P5 0.011, R25 0.28, adjusted R25 0.23.
Variables used: organized physical activity amount, nonorganized physi-
cal activity amount and anthropometric indices at baseline (weight,
height, BMI and %FM).
Table 5. Multiple liner forward regression with lower limb kinaesthetic
discrimination ability test over the 6-month dance training, as the
dependent measure*
Variables SE b t P
BMI 0.32 � 0.44 � 2.85 0.008
Nonorganized physical
activity amount
0.23 � 0.37 � 2.38 0.025
*F5 7.22, P5 0.003, R25 0.35, adjusted R25 0.30.
Variables used: organized physical activity amount, nonorganized physi-
cal activity amount and anthropometric indices at baseline (weight,
height, BMI and %FM).
Setting influences on training adaptations
327
space availability and safety of rural neighborhoods
(Loucaides et al., 2004; Davison & Lawson, 2006)
where to practice nonorganized PA (e.g., walking,
running, cycling) could justify the selective improve-
ment of the aerobic fitness in the rural group (Table
3). The present data agreed with several studies in
which rural children were fitter than their urban
counterparts (Wilczewski et al., 1996; Pen˜a Reyes et
al., 2003; Fjørtoft, 2004). Moreover, setting charac-
teristics showed additional positive effects on tests
assessing coordinative abilities, according to the
hypothesis that a rural contest provided specific
support to the coordinative development (Tables 4–
5). A rural setting represents a valid opportunity to
practice nonorganized PA, and therefore to avail of a
wide range of different stimuli that improve coordi-
native abilities (Fjørtoft, 2004). Nonorganized and
outdoor PA could be useful conditions for playing
many coordination-demanding activities, such as
functional, constructive or symbolic plays (Frost,
1992). Therefore, multivariate PA provided specific
support to the selective improvement of rural dancers
in lower limb kinaesthetic discrimination ability. On
the other side, the necessity to adapt the actions to
different environmental conditions justified the im-
provement in response orientation ability that is a
coordinative ability involving both motor control
and perceptual-motor adaptation components (Hirtz
et al., 1985). The selective improvement of rural
dancers’ kinaesthetic discrimination and response
orientation abilities could not be attributable to a
differential improvement of the power of the effectors
primarily involved in the coordinative performance.
In fact, lower limb strength assessed by the standing
longjump test did not significantly differ between the
two groups after the training period.
It is to note that rural and urban dancers signifi-
cantly differed in the upper limb response orientation
ability test independently by the training period,
indicating that setting where they were active suffi-
ciently stimulate selective adaptations.
After the 6-month dance training period, all dan-
cers’ height significantly increased while accounting
for growth and maturation, with a relative increase
of body weight. BMI and %FM did not significantly
change after the intervention period in both groups,
although we would expect reductions in adiposity
following the training period due to the increase of
total PA amount. Berkey et al. (2000, 2003) found
evidence that increasing total recreational PA over 1
year was associated with a relative BMI decline and
with a reduction of adiposity in older children and
adolescents. We could assume that in our study,
dancers’ BMI and %FM did not significantly change
after the intervention period because a 6-month
period was too short to induce significant changes
in body composition. Moreover, it was possible that
some dancers could have reach puberty during the
training period. The growth spurt due to puberty is
combined with a change of the body proportions and
with an increase of FM through adolescence in girls
(Malina & Bouchard, 1991). Therefore, the impact of
girls’ adolescence on body composition, changes in
FM, and percent fat resulted in a gradual increase of
fatness that not produced significant changes in
adiposity of our dancers.
Findings from this study confirmed that the urban
setting offered more opportunities to practice orga-
nized PA, but less opportunities to practice nonorga-
nized and outdoors PA than the rural setting
(Loucaides et al., 2004). The larger and safer spaces
available in rural communities, and consequently the
time that youths spent outdoor and the type of
activities they practice were salient determinants of
coordinative abilities training adaptations induced by
the participation in nonorganized PA. Moreover, the
usual proximity to home of sites used for PA in a rural
setting allowed youths’ active transport (walking/bik-
ing) to these sites, providing a further opportunity to
be active (Grow et al., 2008) and therefore to improve
the training adaptations of some fitness performances.
Perspectives
Our results showed that training adaptations of some
fitness and coordinative performances could be in-
fluenced by setting characteristics that provided
opportunities for different types of PA. This influ-
ence was supported by the significant association
between improvements in rural group and participa-
tion in nonorganized PA.
Considering the predictive value of PA in childhood
and adolescence for adult PA involvement (Kraut et
al., 2003; Telama et al., 2005) and the health-related
potential of PA (Strong et al., 2005), all children
should be encouraged to adopt an active lifestyle to
reach health benefits, using the PA opportunities that
living setting offers. It would be helpful to create safe
and spatial environments that allow children to prac-
tice nonorganized PA in urban communities improv-
ing the effectiveness of training programs.
Further research including the estimation of PA
(organized and nonorganized) intensity (e.g., heart
rate and blood pressure monitoring) is needed to
evaluate the impact of setting characteristics on
parameters of health-related fitness.
Key words: motor skills, physical fitness, environ-
ment, adolescence.
Acknowledgement
We thank Romina Giacomini for the development and reali-
zation of the dancers’ training.
Gallotta et al.
328
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