World War II

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World War II
In this depth study, students will investigate wartime experiences through a study 
of World War II. Th is includes coverage of the causes, events, outcome and broad 
impact of the confl ict as a part of global history, as well as the nature and extent 
of Australia’s involvement in the confl ict.
Th is depth study MUST be completed by all students.
depth study
2.0 World War II (1939–1945)
The explosion of the USS Shaw during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, 7 December 1941
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Technology changed greatly throughout World 
War II. When war broke out, trench warfare, cavalry 
and World War I-era battleships were still in use. By 
1945, weapons introduced during the war included 
jet aircraft, ballistic missiles, radar-guided anti-
aircraft guns and missiles, assault rifl es, bazookas, 
Napalm and the atomic bomb. Advances were also 
made in medicine, communications, electronics, 
and industry, all of which had a major impact on the 
rest of the 20th century.
In World War II, civilians became involved in 
warfare in new ways. The strategic bombing of 
cities on both sides probably killed over one million 
civilians and caused tremendous damage. The 
Holocaust claimed the lives of an estimated six 
million Jews, as well as around fi ve million people 
from other persecuted groups (such as Gypsies, 
communists and homosexuals). The health impacts 
of the atomic bombings of Japan in 1945 lasted for 
several generations. 
World War II was one of the defi ning events of the 20th century. Th e war was 
played out all across Europe, the Pacifi c, the Middle East, Africa and Asia. 
Th e war even briefl y reached North America and mainland Australia. 
World War II
(1939–1945)
depth study
Many rows of stone heads now stand in the ground at the Mauthausen war memorial 
in Austria, the site of a Nazi concentration camp during World War II.
Key inquiry questions 
2.1 What were the causes of World War II and what course did it take?
2.2 What were some of the most signifi cant events of World War II?
2.3 How did the events of World War II affect people around the world and in Australia?
2.4 How did the events of World War II shape Australia’s international relationships?
2
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61chapter two world war II (1939–1945) 6160 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum
1910
bigpicture
World War II
December 1941
Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and Singapore— 
the Pacific war begins
22 June 1941
Beginning of Operation Barbarossa 
(German invasion of the USSR)
19 February 1942
Darwin bombed and Australia 
put on ‘total war’ footing
Signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919
1919
The Paris Peace Conference is held and 
the Treaty of Versailles is signed, leaving 
Germany humiliated.
30 April 1945
Hitler commits suicide 
in Berlin, leading to the 
surrender of Germany
1 September 1939
Germany attacks Poland 
and German troops cross 
the border, causing Britain 
and France to declare war 
on Germany. All countries in 
the British Empire, including 
Australia, also declare war 
on Germany.
1940
Fall of France, Belgium, Norway, 
Denmark, the Netherlands to 
Germany; Dunkirk evacuation
Source 2.1 Timeline of key events of World War II
Although World War I had been called the ‘war to end all wars’, only 20 years 
after its conclusion the world was once again plunged into war. The Paris 
Peace Conference paved the way for World War II, and the Great Depression 
also played a role in destabilising world economies and political systems 
making them ripe for conflict. 
Specific ideologies such as Nazism, fascism and communism also shaped 
the events that led to the outbreak of war in September 1939. As was the case 
in World War I, Germany was again seen as the main aggressor. Germany’s 
invasion of Poland was the final trigger that brought most of Europe into the 
war. Italy and Japan were allies of Germany and, for a short time, so was 
the USSR. France and Britain were again allies, and Australia was involved 
through its membership in the British Empire. The USA entered the war in 
December 1941, following the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor.
1933
Hitler becomes 
chancellor of 
Germany leading 
the National 
Socialist German 
Workers Party 
(better known as 
the Nazi Party)
A Jewish-owned shopfront after Kristallnacht 
9–10 November 1938
A series of attacks take place on Jewish homes, businesses and 
synagogues across Germany and Austria. The attacks become 
known as Kristallnacht (or the Night of the Broken Glass).
USS Arizona sinking 
in Pearl Harbor, 
7 December 1941; 
the USA enters the 
war the next day
The conquest of Kiev 
in June 1941
July–November 1942
Kokoda Trail campaign fought between 
Australia and Japan in New Guinea
Kokoda Trail campaign
6 June 1944
D-Day landing of Allied troops in Europe
American troops in landing craft in Normandy, France
8 May 1945
VE (Victory in Europe) 
Day—marks the end of 
the war in Europe
6–9 August 1945
The USA drops two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities 
of Hiroshima (6 August) and Nagasaki (9 August) leading 
to Japan’s surrender and end of war in the Pacific
Aerial view of Hiroshima, Japan, after the atomic bomb was dropped
15 August 1945
VP (Victory in the Pacific) 
Day—marks the end of 
the war in the Pacific
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63chapter two world war II (1939–1945)62 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum
Source 2.2 Adolf Hitler salutes a parade of Nazi Brownshirts in Nuremberg, Germany, 1927.
2.1 What were the causes of World War II and what course did it take?
World War II started a generation after ‘the war to end all wars’. Certainly the 
treaties devised at the end of World War I played a role, creating resentment 
in countries like Germany and Austria. Japan also resented the humiliating 
abandonment of a racial equality clause at the Paris Peace Conference. 
Fascism emerged in European countries as a response to economic recession 
and the rise of communism. National aspirations and imperial ambitions 
helped ignite a conflict that would eventually erupt in theatres of war across 
four continents.
In the case of World War II, there were many short- and long-term factors that 
contributed to the outbreak of conflict. The terms of the Versailles peace treaty that had 
ended World War I, and the economic impact of the Great Depression both played a role 
in the beginning of World War II. Specific individuals 
and ideologies also shaped the events that led to the 
outbreak of hostilities in September 1939.
Australia became involved in World War II because 
of its relationship with Britain. In September 1939, the 
Second Australian Imperial Force (AIF) was established 
and recruiting began. Australian troops were dispatched 
to fight in the Middle East and Europe. However, 
following the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941 and the 
fall of Singapore in February 1942, the theatre of war 
moved into the Pacific region. The Australian Prime 
Minister, John Curtin, made Australia’s first independent 
declaration of war, against Japan.
Causes of World War II
The Paris Peace Conference
The Paris Peace Conference was held by the victorious 
Allies in 1919, to negotiate the peace terms of the 
defeated nations (see Source 2.3). The Treaty of 
Versailles imposed a series of harsh terms on Germany, 
which can be seen as contributing to the outbreak of 
World War II. 
The notorious ‘war guilt clause’ blamed Germany 
for starting the war, and forced the Germans to pay 
a massive war reparations bill, which was only 
fully repaid in 2010. German territory was given to 
neighbouring France, Denmark, Belgium, Poland and 
the newly formed Czechoslovakia. Germany’s colonies 
were divided between the Allies, includingAustralia, 
which claimed German New Guinea and Nauru. 
The treaty also limited the German army to just 
100 000 men, abolished conscription, disbanded the 
air force, and limited the production of weapons and 
munitions in German factories. This created an unstable 
economy with mass unemployment, as well as a sense of 
resentment and bitterness. 
The conference also alienated some of the Allies. Italy 
was outraged that it received few benefits for joining the 
Allies, contributing to the rise of fascism in this 
disillusioned nation. The conference also laid the seeds of 
the war in the Pacific. 
Japan was permitted to keep Chinese territory it 
had seized from Germany but unsuccessfully tried to 
introduce a ‘racial equality’ clause to the treaty, which 
was opposed by the British delegation and by Australia 
in particular. Japan’s failure to ensure its equality with 
the other powers contributed to the breakdown in 
Japan’s relations with the West, and the rise of Japanese 
nationalism and militarism.
Source 2.3 British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, French Premier Georges 
Clemenceau and US President Woodrow Wilson walk together in Paris during 
negotiations for the Treaty of Versailles.SA
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Spain
Portugal
France
Germany
East
Prussia
Czechoslovakia
Great
Britain
Norway
Sweden
Denmark
Netherlands
Belgium
Finland
Poland
Hungary
Romania
Bulgaria
TurkeyGreece
Albania
Yugoslavia
AustriaSwitzerland
USSR
Estonia
Latvia
LithuaniaIrish Free State
Italy
Africa
0 600 km
N
0213_SAL_BAH4
22-11-11
Europe after WW1
Disputed areas
64 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum 65chapter two world war II (1939–1945)
The rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party
At the end of World War I in 1918, Germany was 
defeated and Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated (gave up 
the throne of ruler of Germany). A new democratic 
government, known as the Weimar Republic, was 
established instead. Many Germans blamed the new 
government for agreeing to the terms of the Treaty of 
Versailles, which made it very unpopular. 
The new government also had serious economic 
problems to deal with. Workers went on strike, German 
currency depreciated in value, and the economy suffered 
as foreign investors took their money out. 
Source 2.5 A Nazi poster featuring Adolf Hitler. The poster 
reads ‘Long live Germany!’ and shows the Nazi flag with 
swastika, the symbol of the Third Reich
Source 2.6 A German housewife using millions of Deutschmarks to light her stove. 
During the hyperinflation of 1923, the heat from burning the currency for cooking was 
of more value than the currency itself.
Sources 2.7 and 2.8 Nazi propaganda posters showing the 
swastika and the eagle (both symbols of the Third Reich)
fo
c
u
s 
o
n
 …
Source 2.4 Europe after the Treaty of Versailles
significance: the League of Nations
The League of Nations was established as part of the 
Treaty of Versailles in 1919. The League was the brainchild 
of US President Woodrow Wilson. The idea was that the 
League would settle disputes between nations by imposing 
sanctions, with the aim of preventing another world war. 
Only as a last resort would troops be sent in.
One of the major weaknesses of the scheme was that the 
USA did not join the League. Although the US President had 
masterminded it, the US Congress refused to join. Wilson’s 
party, the Democrats, were defeated at the 1920 election. It 
seemed that a majority of Americans wanted to return to their 
isolationist position and not become caught up in world 
affairs.
The League had no armed forces of its own, and had little 
power to force members to comply with its directions. It had 
some minor successes in the 1920s, such as peacefully 
dividing Upper Silesia between Germany and Poland, but the 
League failed in its central aim of preventing another world 
war. By 1939, Japan, Germany, Italy and the USSR had all 
terminated their membership of the organisation.
In addition to these problems, the government of the Weimar Republic 
had to deal with the threat of paramilitary groups such as the Nazi 
Brownshirts (Sturmabteilung or storm troopers) and the Communist Red Front.
Adolf Hitler took advantage of the conditions created by this political 
instability and the Great Depression. After a failed attempt to seize power 
in 1923, for which he served eight months in prison, Hitler was appointed 
Chancellor of Germany in 1933. He set up a totalitarian government that 
ensured its popularity by reducing unemployment and inflation, and by 
promising to restore Germany’s national pride. 
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66 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum 67chapter two world war II (1939–1945)
The Great Depression
Another significant event that 
contributed to the outbreak of World 
War II was the Great Depression. The 
Great Depression was a period of severe 
economic hardship that began in 1929 
and lasted until the late 1930s. Germany 
was one of the worst affected nations 
during the Depression, with mass 
unemployment becoming a major 
problem (see Source 2.11). The instability 
this caused made the extreme and rather 
simplistic policies offered by Hitler and 
the Nazis attractive to many Germans in 
desperate economic circumstances. This 
gave Hitler the opportunity to rise to 
power.
Japanese imperialism
At the end of World War I, Japan was 
a modern industrialised nation and a 
global power. It had fought with the 
Allies during the war, and a Japanese 
delegation attended the Paris Peace conference. Japan was disappointed by the outcomes 
of the Conference, however. The racial equality proposal was rejected and Japan’s 
territorial gains were limited to small former German colonies like the Marshall and 
Mariana islands and some territory in China. In 1923, the Anglo-Japanese Treaty ended, 
while the United States excluded Japanese migrants from 1924. This combination 
of factors drove Japan away from cooperation with the West. By 1933, Japan had 
withdrawn from the League of Nations. 
Throughout the inter-war period, Japanese politics was dominated by nationalist and 
militarist movements. Out of these movements came the idea of a ‘Greater East Asian Co-
prosperity Sphere’. This was the idea that East Asia could exist free of Western colonialism, 
with Japan as the leaders of a bloc of Asian and Pacific nations. This idea quickly became 
linked to Japanese imperialism, and provided justification for the invasion of China in 1937. 
The struggle for dominance in Asia and the Pacific developed into the Pacific theatre (arena) 
of World War II, especially after the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941. 
fo
c
u
s 
o
n
 …
significance: Nazi ideology
In order to understand the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazis 
in Germany, it is important to examine the extreme right-wing 
movements that gained widespread popularity in Europe and other 
parts of the world in the 1920s and 1930s. 
Right-wing paramilitary groups
The start of the Great Depression in 1929 led to widespread global 
unemployment. Extreme right-wing movements became popular 
in many parts of the world. Some of these movements developed 
into paramilitary groups (groups that are armed like the traditional 
military but are outside the control of the state). These groups 
generally believed in extreme authoritarian social and economic 
policies and totalitarian forms of government. They were also 
fiercely opposed to communism. In Italy and Spain, right-wing 
groups seized power and set up fascist regimes. Almost every 
nation in the world had extreme right-wing movements, including 
Australia, Britain, Canada and the USA, but they were far smaller 
and less popular in countries with strong democratic traditions.
The Nazi Party
In Germany,one of the extreme right-wing groups that emerged 
after World War I was the Nazi Party. Nazism was characterised 
by the strong and charismatic leadership of Adolf Hitler, supported 
by a small, powerful inner circle of people. Its ideology was built on 
German nationalism, anti-communism, anti-Semitism, a belief in the 
‘stab-in-the-back myth’ (the idea that Germany was not defeated 
in World War I, but was betrayed by the socialists and Jews on 
the home front), and the idea that ethnic Germans were racially 
superior to all other races. The Nazi Party attempted to seize power 
in 1923 in Munich in an uprising known as the ‘Beer Hall Putsch’. 
This uprising failed, and the ringleaders, including Hitler, received 
short prison sentences. After this incident, Hitler was determined 
to win power legally at the ballot box. In 1933 he was appointed 
Chancellor of Germany after negotiating a deal with other leaders. 
In November 1932, the Nazi Party had received 37.3 per cent 
of votes, more than any other party but not a majority. This was 
Germany’s last free election until the defeat of the Nazis in 1945.
The Third Reich
In Nazi Germany, also known as the Third Reich, there was little or 
no personal freedom. People were encouraged to report on friends, 
neighbours and even family members suspected of disloyalty to the 
regime. Propaganda was used to convince citizens of the beliefs of 
the regime and to silence critics. Punishments were severe and often 
involved torture and internment in concentration camps. Jews were 
the primary targets of Nazi persecution. Writers, artists, playwrights, 
university professors and others traditionally associated with free 
thinking were also targets of Nazi persecution.
Ceremonies, uniforms, symbols, marches, music and rallies were 
used by the Nazis to create a sense of belonging. There was a 
particular attempt to gain the support of young people through 
organisations such as Hitler Youth. The huge Nuremberg rallies held 
in the 1930s played an important role in gaining popular support for 
the Third Reich.
The Holocaust was the most extreme consequence of the Nazi 
ideology. Beginning in 1941, it claimed the lives of six million Jews—
one-third of the entire world Jewish population, including 1.5 million 
children. Another five million people from other groups were also 
targeted and murdered by the Nazis. These included Roma and 
Sinti (Gypsy) people, Poles, homosexuals, Jehovah’s Witnesses, 
Freemasons, political dissidents, and those with intellectual and 
physical disabilities.
When France fell to the German invasion in 1940, much of northern 
France was occupied by German troops. The southern and eastern 
regions of France that remained under French control became known 
as ‘Vichy France’. In these areas, the government introduced policies 
that supported German anti-Semitic initiatives, while in Denmark, 
the authorities resisted Nazi attempts to exterminate their Jewish 
communities. With the help of fellow Danes, most Danish Jews 
managed to escape to neutral Sweden.
Source 2.10 Jews captured during the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. Nazis are 
rounding up the people to take them to concentration or extermination camps.
Source 2.9 Nuremberg Rally, 1933
Check your learning
1 Identify the main causes of World War II.
2 What were the aims of the League of Nations? Why did it fail to achieve 
them?
3 What military restrictions did the Treaty of Versailles impose on 
Germany? 
4 Why was the Weimar Republic unpopular in Germany in the 1920s? 
5 Why did Japan turn away from cooperation with the West in the 
build-up to World War II?
Source 2.11 The queue outside 
a slaughterhouse, Berlin 1931
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68 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum chapter two world war II (1939–1945) 69
Adolf Hitler
significantindividuals
For generations, the name Adolf Hitler 
has been linked with the idea of ‘evil’. 
What is often forgotten is that Hitler 
exploited democratic processes to 
seize unparalleled power and impose 
his ideology on the world. 
Early life
Hitler was born in the Austrian village of Braunau in 1889. He was very close to his mother 
Klara but is said to have had a bad relationship with his father who died when Adolf was 13. 
Hitler showed early academic promise in primary school but dropped out of secondary school 
at 16 and went to Vienna to become an artist.
During his time in Vienna, Hitler was a drifter. He was twice rejected by the Academy of Fine 
Arts. Historians debate whether Hitler already held anti-Semitic views before he moved to 
Vienna, or whether his experiences there caused him to look for others to blame and inspired 
his hatred of Jewish people. 
During World War I
Despite his Austrian birth and his father’s position in the Austrian public service, Hitler became 
a strong believer in German nationalism. He evaded conscription into the Austro-Hungarian 
army by travelling across the border to Munich, where he enlisted in the German army in 
1914. Hitler served as a message runner on the Western Front, a job that was considered 
fairly ‘safe’. Despite this perception, he was wounded in October 1918, and was in hospital at 
the time of the armistice. He passionately opposed the armistice, and this influenced his later 
ideology. During the war, Hitler’s superiors thought he lacked leadership skills, so he was never 
promoted beyond the rank of corporal.
Key influences and ideas
Hitler was influenced by a number of competing ideologies, such as German nationalism, 
ideas of ‘racial purity’, anti-communism and, arguably most importantly, by anti-Semitism.
Anti-Semitism (hostility towards and persecution of Jews) existed in German society, and in 
other European countries, long before the Nazi Party came to power in 1933. In fact, anti-
Semitism can be traced back as far as the ancient world. 
After World War I, Hitler was a strong believer in the ‘stab-in-the-back’ myth that Germany 
was not defeated in World War I, but was instead betrayed from within by the working class 
and ‘the Jews’. Hitler was sent to spy on the German Workers’ Party (DAP) in 1919, but found 
that his personal ideology began to blend with that of the DAP. He joined the DAP and in 1920 
convinced fellow party members to change the party’s name to the National Socialist German 
Workers’ Party, better known as the Nazi Party. 
The Nazis wanted to make Germany great again after its defeat in World War I. As part of 
this goal, they used pseudoscientific theories about race that have since been discredited. 
These theories divided the human family into a hierarchy of distinct racial groups. The Völkisch 
(nationalist) movement and the pseudoscientific eugenics movement (see ‘Beginnings of the 
Holocaust’) influenced their thinking. The Nazis believed that ‘Aryan’ Germans were a ‘master 
race’ destined to rule the world. Jews were seen as the single most dangerous threat to this 
plan because of their supposed racial differences, economic power and social values.
The Nazis used anti-Semitic propaganda to influence the German public. Jews everywhere 
were portrayed as acting as a single unit. Anti-Semitism was emphasised as a ‘racial’ 
prejudice rather than a religious one. In order to achieve their ‘Aryan’ society, other races 
considered by the Nazis to be ‘weak’ or ‘polluting’ were to be 
removed from society. In addition to the Jews, these groups 
included Slavs and Sinti/Roma people (Gypsies), as well as non-
‘racial’ groups such as those with disabilities, Jehovah’s Witnesses 
and homosexuals. While Nazi persecution of these groups was 
widespread, Jews in particular were made a scapegoat for many 
of Germany’s problems. 
Rise to power
The Nazi Party’s first attempt to seize power in 1923 was a 
disaster. Hitler was charged with treason (betrayal of country), but 
receivedfriendly treatment from the court. His defence was based 
on the claim that he had honourable and nationalistic motives. 
The judge allowed Hitler to discuss his ideas with few restrictions. 
He eventually served only eight months in prison enjoying many 
privileges such as daily visits from friends and family, and no forced 
labour. Hitler used this time to write Mein Kampf, a book outlining 
his ideology, experiences and plans for the Nazi Party.
On his release from jail, Hitler decided that the Nazis should try 
to gain power using the political system rather than attacking it. 
His party gained a small number of seats in the Reichstag (the 
German legislative assembly) during the 1920s, but it was the Great 
Depression that gave them their real opportunity. By 1932 the Nazi 
Party was the largest single party in the Reichstag and Hitler was 
appointed Chancellor of Germany in January 1933 by President 
Hindenburg. After Hindenburg’s death in 1934, Hitler, combined the 
roles of Chancellor and President, making himself the supreme ruler 
or Führer of Germany. Hitler’s government then began implementing 
Source 2.13 Hitler is sworn in as the new Chancellor in January 1933 by President Hindenburg (right).
Source 2.12 Hitler held crowds mesmerised 
for hours with his speeches.
Check your learning
1 What special treatment did Hitler receive when he was 
tried for treason after the Nazi Party’s first attempt to 
seize power in 1923? Why do you think that was?
2 What were some of the key characteristics of Hitler’s 
ideology? 
3 How did the Great Depression help Hitler and the 
Nazis rise to power?
many of the plans and policies described in Mein Kampf. These 
included the expansion of the military, systematic persecution of 
the Jewish community, compulsory sterilisation for many Jewish 
and Sinti/Roma people, as well as those with disabilities and the 
expansion of Germany’s borders. 
World War II
For the first three years of the war, the Germans seemed to have 
the upper hand and Hitler’s popularity remained strong. However, 
in 1942 Germany suffered severe military losses in North Africa and 
Russia. German cities were regularly bombed by the Allies and, as 
things began to change, life in wartime Germany became harsh. 
Some Germans began to turn against Hitler. There were at least 17 
recorded assassination attempts against him and many more were 
rumoured to have occurred. Hitler gradually withdrew from public 
life and directed operations from his ‘bunker’ in Berlin. He took his 
own life as the Soviet Army overran Berlin on 30 April 1945. SA
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Oxford - Big Ideas - History 6
Fig 0689_CAS_HIS6
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70 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum 71chapter two world war II (1939–1945)
The build-up to war in Europe
Under Hitler’s government, Nazi Germany violated 
the terms of the Treaty of Versailles by increasing 
the size of the military, reintroducing conscription, 
re-establishing an air force, and expanding the 
production of weapons and ammunition. 
One of Hitler’s aims in the 1930s was to regain the 
territories lost by Germany in World War I. In 1936, 
German troops entered the Rhineland, a region of 
western Germany that had been demilitarised after 
the war. In 1938, Germany annexed Austria (a process 
known as the Anschluss) and threatened to invade 
Czechoslovakia (see Sources 2.14 and 2.15). The British 
and French response was to largely tolerate these actions 
in the hope that they could avoid war with Germany. 
This policy of appeasement merely encouraged Hitler 
to order further acts of aggression.
The failure of appeasement
In the late 1930s, Britain and France were desperate to avoid another 
war with Germany. Even though the Anschluss and the presence of 
German troops in the Rhineland were violations of the Versailles peace 
treaty, Britain and France did not react aggressively (see Source 2.17). 
This helped convince Hitler that these nations would not go to war over 
German territorial expansion. 
The treaty had given the Sudetenland region, which had a population 
of around three million ethnic Germans, to the new nation of 
Czechoslovakia. In 1938, Hitler demanded that the region be returned to 
Germany. Representatives from Britain, France, Italy and Germany met in 
Munich in September, and agreed to return Sudetenland to Germany (see 
Source 2.18). In return, Hitler agreed not to make any further claims over 
disputed territory in Europe. Despite these assurances, Germany invaded 
the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939. 
The failure of appeasement resulted in Britain and France adopting a 
harder line against Germany. When Hitler began demanding the return of 
territories in Poland, Britain formed an Anglo-Polish alliance to guarantee 
Poland’s security. In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland; and 
Britain, France and the British Dominions, including Australia, declared 
war on Germany. 
Source 2.14 German territorial expansion in Europe, 1936–1939
Source 2.17 British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain 
arrives back from his meeting with Hitler in 1938, holding the 
agreement which he said would deliver ‘peace for our time’.
Source 2.15 Austrian troops salute Hitler as Germans march into 
Austria after the annexation (known in German as der Anschluss).
Source 2.18 Sudeten women respond to the entry of Hitler’s troops to their territory. 
What could be the explanation for the response of the woman on the right?
Source 2.16 German troops march through the centre of 
Warsaw, Poland, in 1939.
Check your learning
1 Identify some of the ways in which Germany 
violated the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.
2 What was the appeasement policy? In what way 
did it fail?
3 Why did Hitler claim to want the Sudetenland 
returned to Germany? 
The war in Europe
For the first two years of the war, Nazi Germany and its 
allies enjoyed considerable military success. In a series of 
military campaigns, they used new tactics and equipment 
to establish an empire that stretched from the English 
Channel to the Soviet Union; from Norway to the African 
countries of Algeria and Libya. 
Poland
The invasion of Poland, launched on 1 September 1939, 
was the first example of what became known as Blitzkrieg 
(‘lightning war’) tactics (see Source 2.19). Despite the 
British and French commitment to support Poland, the 
speed of the German advance made it virtually impossible 
for either power to offer practical military support. By 
the end of September, Poland was divided between Nazi 
Germany and the Soviet Union with which Hitler had 
signed a pact in August (see Source 2.16).
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Panzers were German tanks 
that were used as the major 
strike force in Blitzkrieg actions.
Defenders used barbed wire, tank 
traps and deep ditches in an attempt 
to slow the German advance.
Motorised vehicles—such as 
trucks, armoured personnel carriers 
and motorcycles—moved infantry 
into the battle zones.
Field artillery provided 
supporting fi re.
Junkers 87s (or Stukas) were German dive-
bombers used to attack enemy tanks and defensive 
positions. As the bombers fl ew over and attacked 
their targets, sirens located on the undercarriage 
would sound, terrifying the people below.
Heinkel111s and Dornier 17Zs 
were high-altitude bombers.
72 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum 73chapter two world war II (1939–1945)
Source 2.19 An artist’s impression of the Blitzkrieg 
Blitzkrieg
German attacks such as the one 
shown here became known 
as Blitzkrieg (‘lightning war’) 
tactics. This innovative approach 
coordinated air and land forces to 
overrun the enemy. Slower-moving 
ground forces, often using horse-
drawn transport, ‘mopped up’ the 
shattered defenders and occupied 
their territory.
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74 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum 75chapter two world war II (1939–1945)
Source 2.23 German bombers during the Battle of Britain, 1940
The Battle of Britain
Germany then turned its attention to defeating 
Britain. The plan for an invasion required the Luftwaffe 
(German air force) to destroy Britain’s air force, 
before an amphibious assault could be launched. If 
the Royal Air Force could be destroyed, the Luftwaffe 
could prevent the Royal Navy from interfering with 
a German invasion fleet. Facing stiff resistance, 
Germany eventually changed its tactics to focus 
on bombing Britain’s industrial cities, a period of 
the war known as the Blitz. The British air force, 
which included around 450 Australians at the start 
of the war, was extremely successful in resisting the 
German attacks from July 1940 to May 1941. About 35 
Australian pilots took part in the Battle of Britain. By 
then, Germany was focused on the invasion of Russia, 
and the threat to Britain had passed. 
Source 2.24 British propaganda poster with 
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill’s words: 
‘Never was so much owed by so many to so few’
The Phoney War
The period after the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, is known as the ‘Phoney War’. Although 
Germany, France and Britain had declared war on each other, up until April 1940, there were no major battles. 
There were some sea battles, but Britain and France did not attack Germany on land; instead the British built 
up their strength and prepared to defend France against German attack. The Phoney War ended in April 1940, 
when Germany attacked and defeated Denmark and Norway.
The Battle of France
In May 1940, Germany invaded the 
Low Countries (Belgium, the 
Netherlands and Luxembourg) and 
France using Blitzkrieg tactics. Despite 
outnumbering the Germans, the 
Allied forces were unable to deal with 
the speed of the German attack. The 
British government evacuated 
338 000 British and French troops 
from the port of Dunkirk, in northern 
France (see Source 2.21). On 22 June 
1940, France surrendered (see Source 
2.22), although some military units 
outside of France rejected the 
surrender and continued fighting 
Germany as the Free French Forces. Source 2.20 German troops drive into Poland. 
Source 2.21 The Dunkirk evacuation 
Source 2.22 
Adolf Hitler at the Eiffel 
Tower following the fall 
of France in 1940
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76 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum chapter two world war II (1939–1945) 77
Premier of the Soviet 
Union—Joseph Stalin
Stalin joined the Bolsheviks (a militant 
communist organisation) in 1903, and 
became the organisation’s main operative 
in his home region of Georgia. When the 
Bolshevik Revolution installed a communist 
government in Russia in 1917, Stalin 
became an increasingly important political 
figure. By World War II, Stalin was the 
Premier and undisputed leader of the 
Soviet Union. He signed a non-aggression 
pact with Nazi Germany in 1939, which 
also divided Eastern Europe into German 
and Soviet spheres of influence. In 1941, 
Germany invaded the Soviet Union, 
violating the pact and starting the war 
on the Eastern Front. Stalin was heavily 
involved in Soviet military planning, in that 
he personally attempted to organise the 
defence of Russia. After a series of defeats 
and retreats, Stalin placed greater trust in 
his generals, and allowed them to develop 
plans to defeat Germany. Stalin proved 
to be a ruthless negotiator at the wartime 
and post-war conferences, and laid the 
groundwork for the ‘Sovietisation’ of 
Eastern Europe and the Cold War.
French General—Charles 
de Gaulle
Unlike the other Allied leaders, Charles de 
Gaulle held no official government role. 
When World War II broke out, he was a 
colonel in the French army. When his unit 
achieved a rare victory during the Battle 
of France, the French Prime Minister, Paul 
Reynaud, appointed de Gaulle to his War 
Cabinet. In this role, de Gaulle argued 
against surrendering to Germany. When 
France surrendered, de Gaulle rejected 
the decision and fled to Britain to continue 
fighting. Around 7000 French soldiers, as 
well as some from other occupied nations 
like Belgium, had joined de Gaulle’s ‘Free 
French Forces’ by the end of 1940. 
De Gaulle frequently clashed with the other 
Allied leaders. Despite this, he proved a 
charismatic and intelligent leader. His Free 
French Forces continued to grow, and 
eventually merged with the French Army 
of Africa in 1943. By the time of the D-Day 
landings, de Gaulle’s Free French Forces 
numbered 400 000 men. They played a 
significant part in the liberation of France, 
and de Gaulle assumed the role of Prime 
Minister of the Provisional Republic of 
France from 1944 to 1946. 
Check your learning
1 Did President Harry Truman regret 
his decision to authorise the 
atomic bombings of Hiroshima and 
Nagasaki? Why did he authorise the 
bombings?
2 What was different about Charles de 
Gaulle’s role as an Allied leader? 
3 Conduct further research on one of 
these Allied leaders, covering the 
following:
a Identify how he came to power. 
b Decide what you think his most 
significant decision during World 
War II was. 
c Analyse his importance after 
World War II. 
In wartime, political and military leaders 
assume a more prominent role than 
they do in peacetime. They are often 
held responsible for the success or 
failure of wars. 
Initially, they decide whether to declare 
war or stay neutral and decide how 
many troops to commit. They are also 
ultimately responsible for the actions of 
their troops, including the responsibility 
for upholding the laws of warfare. In 
World War II, the Allied leaders had 
monumental decisions to make, and 
had to accept the consequences of 
their actions. The political and military 
leaders discussed here are among 
the most important individuals of the 
Allied forces. Their actions changed the 
course and outcomes of the war.
significantindividuals
President of the United 
States—Harry Truman
Truman’s predecessor as President of the 
USA, Franklin D Roosevelt, was President for 
most of the war. His Vice-President, Harry 
Truman, however, was left with arguably the 
most significant decision of the war.
When Roosevelt died on 12 April 1945, 
Truman became President. It was only then 
that Truman was briefed on the ultra-secret 
Manhattan Project—the research and 
development plan for the atomic bomb. In 
July 1945, Truman joined the other Allied 
leaders for the Potsdam Conference. While 
in Potsdam, he was informed that the atomic 
bomb had been successfully tested. At 
Potsdam, the Allied leaders agreed on the 
terms of surrender to be offered to Japan. 
When Japan rejected this ultimatum, Truman 
authorised atomic strikes on the Japanese 
cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. These 
bombings forced Japan to unconditionally 
surrender. Despite the consequences of the 
bombings, Truman never publicly regretted 
his decision, and said that ‘under the same 
circumstances, I would do it again’.
Prime Minister of 
Great Britain— 
Winston Churchill
Churchill had been involved in politics 
since 1900, and was behind the disastrous 
Dardanelles campaign (including theAustralian attack at Gallipoli) during World 
War I. He held several different positions 
between the wars, and became a vocal 
critic of the late 1930s appeasement policy. 
He was appointed to the War Cabinet by 
Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain on 
the day Britain declared war on Germany, 
and became Prime Minister in May 1940. 
Churchill’s main contribution to the war effort 
was to maintain the morale of the British 
people through his rhetoric and charisma, 
steering the nation through the Battle of 
Britain, the Blitz and the D-Day Landings. 
Despite his popularity as a wartime leader, he 
was defeated in the 1945 elections.
Wartime political and military leaders
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78 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum 79chapter two world war II (1939–1945)
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significance: code-breakers
Throughout the war, many different methods were used to send secret messages and 
instructions from command headquarters to troops fighting all over the world.
A British team of code-breakers worked to intercept and decrypt secret messages being sent 
by German forces. The code-breaking centre was based in the Government Code and Cypher 
School at Bletchley Park in England. One of the most brilliant code-breakers was Alan Turing 
who after the war played a major role in the development of the computer.
The most common machine used to encrypt and decrypt secret messages being sent back 
and forth between German military command posts and troops out on the battlefield was the 
Enigma machine. With the help of earlier encryption technology by Polish mathematicians, 
Turing worked to develop a machine called the ‘bombe’, an electromagnetic machine that was 
used to decipher German Enigma-machine-encrypted signals during the war. 
The technology associated with code-breaking during the war was not only significant because 
it influenced the outcome of battles and events, but also because of the fact that much of this 
technology went on to be adapted for use in modern-day electronic products like computers.
Source 2.27 Alan Turing
Source 2.29 A machine called a ‘bombe’, used to decipher German Enigma 
machine messages
The Rats of Tobruk
Italy entered the war on Germany’s side in June 1940. 
Its leader, Mussolini, planned to conquer Egypt from 
the Italian territory of Libya. However, Australian 
troops spearheaded a British counterattack into Libya, 
capturing Bardia, Tobruk and Benghazi early in 1941. 
Hitler sent General Rommel with German forces to 
support the Italians in Libya. Rommel drove the British 
back into Egypt, although a force of Australian and 
British troops held on to Tobruk. German propaganda 
described these men as ‘trapped like rats’, but the 
‘Rats of Tobruk’ proved very aggressive and successful, 
despite primitive conditions and a complete lack of 
air support (see Source 2.25). Royal Australian Navy 
ships braved enemy air attack to bring in supplies 
and evacuate wounded. By September 1941 most of 
the Australians had been replaced by Polish troops. 
Rommel did capture Tobruk in June 1942. 
Source 2.25 Some of the Rats of Tobruk (AWM 041790)
Source 2.26 German troops were defeated as much by the 
weather as by the Russians on the Eastern Front in 1941–42.
Operation Barbarossa
The peak of the Axis campaign in Europe was the Blitzkrieg invasion of 
the Soviet Union, which began in June 1941. Code-named Operation 
Barbarossa, it is still the largest military operation—in terms of manpower, 
area covered and casualties—in human history. The Axis force was made 
up of over three million troops, 3600 tanks and 4300 aircraft. 
In 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union had signed a treaty, agreeing 
to remain neutral if either was attacked. The invasion in 1941 broke 
this agreement. There were several reasons for the invasion. The large 
landmass of Eastern Europe was to provide Lebensraum (‘living space’) for 
ethnic Germans, and would provide useful resources for the war effort. 
The motivations were also ideological. The Nazis hated communism and 
considered Russia’s Slavic peoples to be racially inferior to Germans. 
Despite the fact that Hitler had outlined a plan to invade the Soviet 
Union in Mein Kampf, the invasion caught the Soviets unprepared. Germany 
won several major battles and captured huge areas of territory, while the 
Soviet army was forced to retreat. By November 1941, German forces were 
within striking distance of Moscow, the capital of the USSR.
However, the German forces were unable to capture Moscow. They were 
unprepared for the harshness of the Soviet winter and were met by stubborn 
resistance (see Source 2.26). When the winter of 1941–42 ended and the 
Germans could manoeuvre again, Hitler directed his forces to southern 
Russia and its oilfields. Their advance eventually came to a halt at Stalingrad 
(now known as Volgograd) in September 1942, in a battle that would become 
one of the bloodiest in history. The German army eventually surrendered 
at Stalingrad in February 1943. Nevertheless, the Nazi forces still occupied 
a great area of the USSR, and their control extended over most of continental 
Europe. 
Check your learning
1 Using the text above and the map (Source 2.31) list 
all of the countries that were controlled by the Axis 
powers by the end of 1942.
2 What were Blitzkrieg tactics? Why do you think they 
were so effective?
3 What was the ‘Phoney War’? How did it end?
4 Who were the ‘Rats of Tobruk’? Why do you think 
they were called that? 
Source 2.28 A German Enigma machine
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KEY
Axis powers
Countries collaborating 
with Axis powers
Conquered territories
Neutral countries
Allied powers
0 200 400 600 km
N
IRELAND
BRITAIN
NORWAY
DENMARK
SWEDEN
FINLAND
POLAND UKRAINE
OSTLAND
OCCUPIED FRANCE
VICHY
FRANCE
SPAIN
PORTUGAL
FRENCH NORTH AFRICA
Crete Dodecanese Is.
(Italy)
Cyprus (GB)
ITALY
SWITZERLAND
GREATER
GERMANY
NETHERLANDS
BELGIUM
LUXEMBOURG
ALBANIA
MONTENEGRO
CROATIA
BANAT
SERBIA
SPANISH MOROCCO
CORSICA
SARDINIA
ROMANIA
BULGARIA
GREECE
TURKEY
RUSSIA
SLOVAKIA
HUNGARY
N O R T H
S E A
A T L A N T I C 
O C E A N
B A L T I C
S E A
B L A C K S E A
M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A
80 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum 81chapter two world war II (1939–1945)
Source 2.32 The crew of a B-17 Flying Fortress bomber, 17 November 1943
Check your learning
1 Why were Germany’s military tactics less effective after 
1943?
2 Was the Allied bombing of German cities and airfields a 
significant factor in the defeat of Germany?
3 What military campaign was D-Day the start of? Which 
countries were involved in this campaign?
4 Identify some of the main factors that led to the end of the 
war in Europe.
fo
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contestability: conflicting reports 
surrounding Hitler’s death
In the years following the defeat of Germany in World War II, 
there were many conflicting reports about Hitler’s death and 
what was done with his body. Numerous conflicting accounts 
of what actually happened were published in the days and 
months following the event.
Some reports claimed that Hitler had committed suicide with 
his wife Eva Braun and that, afterwards, their bodies were 
burnt. Some reports claimed that the bodies had been buried 
and were recovered by Soviet troops when Berlin fell and that 
they were shipped back to Russia. Other reports claimed that 
Hitler’s body was never found at all. 
While there was little evidence to support the idea that Hitler 
had escaped, many alleged sightings of Hitler were reported 
all around the world in the years following the war. In addition 
to these reports, the FBI kept detailed records on Adolf Hitlerfor 30 years after the war, and is rumoured to have fully 
investigated any report that alleged he was still alive. 
The tide of war turns in Europe
By 1943, the German tactics had lost the element of surprise, and 
their wartime success had peaked (see Source 2.31). Britain, the 
British Dominions, the USA, the Soviet Union and the Free French 
Forces formed an alliance to force Germany and its allies into an 
unconditional surrender.
From 1943, the Soviet army inflicted a series of defeats on Germany. 
By 1945, Germany had been forced out of most of Eastern Europe; with 
Soviet troops occupying Russia, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia and 
the Baltic States. The Russians continued their advance into Germany, 
and reached the German capital, Berlin, in April.
 In Western Europe, the Allies began major bombing campaigns on 
Germany from 1942, initially focusing on destroying airfields but later 
bombing industrial cities. This campaign failed to significantly affect 
German morale or industries, and on its own could not win the war. The 
Allies developed a plan to invade France. On 6 June 1944, around 160 000 
Allied troops landed on the beaches of Normandy, in Northern France. 
This operation, known as ‘D-Day’, precipitated the Liberation of France in 
August 1944 (see Source 2.30).
 
Source 2.30 American troops storming a beach 
at Normandy, France, on D-Day
Source 2.33 The front page of the News Chronicle (London), 
2 May 1945, announces the death of Adolf Hitler. Source 2.31 Europe and North Africa at the height of Axis power in 1942
The end of the war in Europe
In September 1944, Allied ground troops invaded Germany 
from the west. The Allies continued bombing major German 
cities, including Berlin. In April, the Soviets encircled 
Berlin and launched a final assault. Hitler remained in 
Berlin, to direct the defence of the city from his bunker. 
Although most of the city’s population was mobilised, the 
Soviets seized Berlin after a week of fighting in the streets. 
Hitler committed suicide on 30 April (see Source 2.33), and 
Germany officially surrendered on 7 May 1945. 
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Vladivostok
KOREA JAPAN
ALEUTIAN IS
HAWAII
MIDWAY IS
Pearl Harbor
GILBERT IS
MARSHALL IS
WAKE I.
SOLOMON IS
AUSTRALIA
May 1942
June 1944
Leyte Gulf
October 1944
June 1942
August 1942–
February 1943
MARIANA IS
IWO JIMA
MONGOLIA
CHINA
HONG KONG
THAILAND
SINGAPORE
BORNEO
SUMATRA
JAVA CELEBES
NEW GUINEA
PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS
OKINAWA
MANCHURIA
FORMOSA
Nagasaki Hiroshima
Shanghai
Tokyo
TIMOR
SOVIET UNION
0 1000 km
N
KEY
Paci�c areas controlled
by Japan
Major battles
Furthest extent of
Japanese control
Route of the Allied advance
P A C I F I C
O C E A N
C O R A L S E A
S O U T H
C H I N A
S E A
E A S T
C H I N A
S E A
0 500 km
N
Beijing
Changsha
Nanjing
Qingdao
Shanghai
Shantou
Hong Kong
South China Sea
East China Sea
C H I N A
BURMA
INDIA
TAIWAN (Formosa)
MONGOLIA
KOREA
MA
NC
HU
RIA
Yan
gtze
 R.
Japanese occupation
THAILAND
FRENCH
INDOCHINA
82 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum 83chapter two world war II (1939–1945)
Source 2.37 Poster used to rally Australian 
support following the Japanese attack on 
Darwin (AWM ARTV09225)
Source 2.36 
The extent of the 
Japanese Empire 
in Asia and the 
Pacific in 1942
in the region. The ‘Singapore Strategy’ was also a key part of Australia’s military defence 
planning which was based on British assurances that, should Japan ever attack South-
East Asia, the main British fleet would be sent to Singapore to tackle the Japanese navy 
and protect Australia. The Japanese first bombed Singapore on 8 December 1941, the day 
after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. On the same day, the Japanese landed forces on the 
north-east coast of Malaya (now Malaysia).
Malaya and Singapore were defended by a force of around 85 000 Allied troops, 
including the 8th Division of the Second AIF, and the British believed that it could 
withstand any attack. They also believed that the Japanese were incapable of fighting their 
way down to Singapore through the rugged terrain of the Malay Peninsula. Convinced 
that any threat to Singapore would come from the sea, the Allies focused their defences on 
the coast. 
Despite a strong Allied presence in Malaya, the Japanese army won a series of battles 
over six weeks. After being held in reserve, the Australian 8th Division was deployed to stop 
the Japanese advance in January 1942. It suffered heavy casualties before being ordered to 
retreat to Singapore. 
 The Japanese siege of Singapore lasted for just a week and, despite outnumbering their 
enemies, the Allies surrendered on 15 February 1942. In the Malaya–Singapore campaign, 
Australian soldiers made up at least 70 per cent of the Allies’ battle casualties. In addition to 
the 50 000 Allied soldiers taken prisoner in Malaya, around 80 000 were taken prisoner after 
the fall of Singapore. Among them were nearly 15 000 Australians. Controversially, a small 
number of soldiers, including the Australian commander Gordon Bennett, escaped on ships 
to avoid capture. The vast majority of soldiers could not escape and one-third of them did 
not survive the Japanese prisoner of war (POW) camps. 
The war in Asia
In 1936, Japan signed an agreement with Germany 
known as the Anti-Comintern Pact. This was followed 
in 1940 by the Tripartite Pact, which cemented the 
Axis powers’ alliance. In 1937 Italy joined the pact. 
Despite these alliances, Japan’s invasion of China in 
1937 is not generally considered to be part of World 
War II (see Source 2.34). The event that symbolises 
Japan’s entry into World War II was the attack on Pearl 
Harbor (see Source 2.35). 
The attack on Pearl Harbor
When World War II began in Europe, the attention 
of Britain, France, the USA and even Australia was 
diverted away from Japan. Despite evidence of 
Japanese aggression, there was still a belief that the 
Japanese did not pose a significant threat. 
The attack on the American naval base at Pearl 
Harbor, Hawaii, on 7 December 1941 alerted the Allies to 
the nature of the Japanese threat. Japan hoped to destroy 
America’s Pacific fleet, as a preventative strike to stop 
American interference in the Pacific. While the attack 
on Pearl Harbor seemed to be successful, the damage 
inflicted on the American fleet was less than originally 
thought. Rather than preventing American intervention, 
the attack caused the USA, Australia and the Netherlands 
to declare war on Japan. Germany declared war on the 
USA, drawing it into the European war.
Source 2.34 Japanese occupation of China at the start of World War II
Source 2.35 A recreation of the attack on Pearl Harbor in the 2001 Hollywood 
film Pearl Harbor
Check your learning
1 What nations were involved in the Tripartite Pact? 
2 What was Japan’s main reason for attacking Pearl Harbor? 
3 Why was the attack on Pearl Harbor less successful than initially thought?
War in the Pacific
For the first two years, Japan appeared to have the upper 
hand. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese 
forces quickly occupied Malaya, Singapore, Hong Kong, 
the Philippines, Guam and Wake Island. They also 
conquered Burma in the west, and pushed south through 
French Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos) and 
the Dutch East Indies to reach Australia’s doorstep in 
New Guinea (see Source 2.36). Britain and the USA had 
seriously underestimated Japan’s military ability. This, 
together with the element of surprise and the imaginative 
use of combined naval and air forces by the Japanese, gave 
Japan an early advantage. 
The fall of Singapore
The fall of Singapore was the largest surrenderof a 
British-led force in history. It was a defining moment 
of the war in the Pacific. It also had major implications 
for Australia’s international relationships. At the time, 
Singapore was a British colony and the key naval base 
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84 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum 85chapter two world war II (1939–1945)
In the Battle of Midway (4–7 June 1942) Japanese naval 
forces attempted to lure several US aircraft carriers into a 
trap to capture the strategically important Midway Islands. 
US code-breakers intercepted Japanese communications. 
The US Navy destroyed four aircraft carriers and more than 
200 Japanese aircraft, severely weakening the Japanese 
war machine. The USA would use this weakness to prevent 
supply ships taking war materials, such as oil, munitions 
and food, to Japanese forces in the region. Historians have 
described the Battle of Midway as ‘the most stunning and 
decisive blow in the history of naval warfare’.
New Guinea 
Japanese forces occupied parts of the north-east of New Guinea in early 
1942. As the Japanese navy was halted at the Battle of the Coral Sea, Japan’s 
only option to seize Port Moresby seemed to be an overland assault along 
the Kokoda Track. Surrounded by steep mountains and jungle, the track was 
frequently a river of sticky mud, and it was extremely slippery on the slopes. 
The Australian troops defending the track provided stronger resistance than their enemies expected, stalling the 
Japanese advance until reinforcements arrived (see ‘examining evidence’). At the same time, members of the AIF 
and CMF (Citizen Military Forces) inflicted Japan’s first decisive defeat of the war at the Battle of Milne Bay. The New 
Guinea campaign was fought on Australian territory, and the Australians were the first army to halt Japan’s relentless 
drive through the Pacific. With the USA increasing its involvement in the Pacific Theatre, New Guinea was a major 
turning point in the war.
The drive to Japan
With increased US involvement in the Pacific, Japan became drawn into a war of attrition, meaning that both 
sides attempted to wear each other down to the point of collapse, even though forces and supplies were depleted. 
Under pressure to replace its depleted forces, particularly after the disastrous Battle of Midway, Japan threw 
inexperienced recruits into the frontlines. Japan’s war industries could not keep up with the need to replace its 
ships and aircraft. Japan gradually lost the resources to undertake major offensives. With Japan on the back foot, 
the Allies made two successful counterattacks in 1943. These campaigns reduced casualties by simply avoiding 
many Japanese bases in the Pacific. The Australian army was given the job of ‘mopping up’ in the wake of many 
of the areas retaken by the Allies. This ‘mopping-up’ role was highly controversial. Many people thought the 
remaining Japanese forces were already isolated and posed little threat, and that the campaign was simply a 
waste of Australians’ lives.
For the remainder of the war, Australia’s role changed. The size of the military was decreased, and more emphasis 
was placed on moving Australians into war-related industries. Australia’s task was often seen as providing other 
nations with the food and resources needed to defeat Japan and Germany. Many Australians continued to be involved 
overseas, however. The Second AIF had already been deployed in Greece, Crete, North Africa and Syria. Australians 
of the 9th Division played a leading role in the siege of Tobruk (1941) and the decisive battle of El Alamein (1942). 
Hundreds of Australians took part in the D-Day landings in Normandy, and small Australian units were deployed to 
Borneo, Burma and India. Australian nurses continued to have a role to play in the Pacific. Around 45 Australians even 
volunteered for a secret guerrilla mission against the Japanese in China. 
By late 1944, American B-29 bombers had bases from which they could strike Japan’s home islands. These raids 
were highly effective because most Japanese buildings, made of paper and wood, burned easily. On 8 March 1945, a 
single raid on Tokyo killed 83 000 people, mainly civilians. As US forces got closer to mainland Japan, they found that 
the Japanese defence was becoming tougher and more desperate. Japanese pilots would carry out suicide missions 
(Kamikaze), crashing their planes into US ships. The US government, in an attempt to bring the war to a swift end, 
began to consider new options.
Source 2.39 The burning of the USS Lexington following the 
Battle of the Coral Sea, 1942
The Battle for northern Australia
The fall of Singapore brought the war much closer to 
Australia than had ever been anticipated. After World 
War I, Australia’s army and air force (the RAAF) had 
received little funding. While the navy had received 
roughly double the government funding of the army, 
battleships were extraordinarily expensive to build, and 
the Australian fleet was too small to ensure Australia’s 
security against Japan. Australia’s defence planning had 
always assumed that Britain would protect its former 
colony, but Britain was focused on its own survival in the 
European war. With Australia dangerously unprepared 
to face the Japanese threat, Prime Minister John Curtin 
recalled the 6th and 7th Divisions of the Second AIF, and 
appealed to the United States for assistance. 
From December 1941, women and children began to 
be evacuated from Darwin and surrounding areas in fear 
of a Japanese attack. On 19 February 1942, Japan launched 
an assault on Darwin (see Source 2.38). Officially, around 
250 people were killed, although the real death toll 
continues to be debated. Most other Australians were 
unaware of the seriousness of the attack. The government 
played down the bombing and the number of deaths. A 
Royal Commission into the events surrounding the attack 
revealed that some people, including members of the 
defence forces, had panicked under fire. There were also 
stories that some people had looted bombed buildings 
or simply fled the city.
By November 1943, Darwin had suffered 64 air raids. 
Other towns in the Northern Territory, Queensland and 
Western Australia were also struck. In total, there were 97 
airborne attacks on northern Australia and approximately 
900 Allied troops and civilians were killed. Several ships 
and almost 80 aircraft were lost. Many people felt that 
the bombing of Darwin was the beginning of a full-scale 
invasion of Australia. 
There is still controversy as to whether the Japanese 
planned a full-scale invasion of Australia.
War comes to Sydney Harbour
On 31 May 1942, three Japanese midget submarines, 
launched from a group of five larger submarines further 
out to sea, entered Sydney Harbour. The submarines sank 
a ferry carrying military personnel. Twenty-one people 
were killed before Australian forces sank the submarines. 
A week later, two larger submarines surfaced off the coast 
at Bondi, shelling several Sydney suburbs and the nearby 
city of Newcastle. While little damage was done, the 
appearance of Japanese vessels emphasised to Australians 
that the war was now much closer to home. 
Source 2.38 Bomb damage to the Darwin post office and surrounding buildings 
as a result of the first Japanese air raid
Check your learning
1 Identify and locate on the map (Source 2.36) the countries and 
areas taken over by the Japanese between 1937 and 1942.
2 Why were the British so convinced that any attack on 
Singapore would come from the sea? 
3 Why do you think that official reports of the bombing of Darwin 
severely underestimated the seriousness of the attack?
4 In what way was Australia unprepared to face the threat of 
a Japanese invasion in 1942? 
5 What was Prime Minister John Curtin’s response to the threat 
of invasion?
Turning pointsIn March 1942, Japanese forces established bases on mainland 
New Guinea, with the objective of capturing Port Moresby. From 
there, they could launch regular bomber raids against northern 
Australia. With this threat looming, Curtin agreed to place all 
Australian forces under the command of the American General 
Douglas MacArthur, formerly the commander of the 
US-controlled Philippines. While American forces were 
assembling in Australia, and the battle-hardened soldiers of 
the Second AIF were returning to defend Australia, it was left 
to inexperienced Australian militia units to stop the Japanese 
advance to Port Moresby.
Several battles are identified as key turning points in the Asia–
Pacific war zone. At sea the most significant were the Battle of the 
Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway. Both involved the navies of the 
USA and Australia in cooperative ventures (see Source 2.39).
The Battle of the Coral Sea (4–8 May 1942) was fought off the 
north-east coast of Queensland and south of New Guinea. It 
prevented the Japanese from launching a sea-based assault on Port 
Moresby. This forced them to make a land-based assault via the 
Kokoda Track. 
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86 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum chapter two world war II (1939–1945) 87
before the Australians had to retreat further, mounting small-
scale delaying actions along the way. Further battles took place 
at Mission Ridge and Imita Ridge, before the Japanese troops 
began to run out of supplies and their advance stalled. In October, 
Australian troops launched a counterattack along the Trail, gradually 
forcing the Japanese back. By 2 November, Kokoda was back in 
Allied hands. Months of hard fighting lay ahead before the Allies 
could shift the Japanese from their bases at Buna and Gona.
Significance 
The Kokoda campaign was arguably the most significant military 
campaign in Australia’s history. Although it is generally accepted 
that Japan did not plan to invade mainland Australia during World 
War II, this was a real fear at the time. Given the limited information 
available to them, the soldiers of Maroubra Force believed they 
were fighting the ‘battle to save Australia’. Had the militia units of 
Maroubra Force not held up the Japanese advance until the AIF 
arrived to reinforce them, the war in the Pacific would have gone 
on for much longer, and cost even more lives.
The campaign is made even more incredible by the conditions in 
which it was fought. Sources 2.41 and 2.42 provide an insight into 
the experiences of soldiers on the Kokoda Trail.
Source 2.41
Legacy
Approximately 625 Australians were killed fighting along the Trail, 
while at least 16 000 were wounded and more than 4000 suffered 
from serious illnesses like malaria. In the immediate aftermath of 
the campaign, members of Maroubra Force were hailed as ‘the 
men who saved Australia’. It also had an immediate impact on 
the organisation of both the American and Australian armies. The 
Australian troops on the Trail had been poorly supplied because 
of the unreliability of air drops. Both the Australian and American 
militaries developed new techniques for dropping supplies after 
their experiences at Kokoda. 
Despite the significance of the Kokoda campaign, the Gallipoli 
campaign during World War I is usually the focus of public 
commemoration in Australia, and ANZAC Day is Australia’s 
national day of commemoration. Some critics of ANZAC Day 
argue that Kokoda would be a more appropriate focus of national 
commemoration than Gallipoli. They suggest that the Kokoda 
campaign was fought in defence of Australia, whereas Gallipoli was 
an invasion of a foreign nation that posed no threat to Australia. 
Some people also argue that the spirit and lessons of Kokoda are 
more relevant to modern Australia than the ‘ANZAC spirit’. 
They’d wish they were down with Satan, instead of this hell on earth, 
Straining, sweating, swearing, climbing the mountain side, 
‘Just five minutes to the top’; my God how that fellow lied, 
Splashing through mud and water, stumbling every yard 
One falls by the wayside when the going is extra hard
Extract from ‘The Crossing of the Owen Stanley Range’, 
by Private H McLaren
Source 2.42
You are trying to survive, shirt torn, arse out of your pants, whiskers 
a mile long, hungry and a continuous line of stretchers with wounded 
carried by ‘Fuzzy-Wuzzies’ doing a marvellous job. Some days you 
carry your boots because there’s no skin on your feet … 
Private Laurie Howson, 39th Battalion, diary entry 
Check your learning
1 What was significant about the units that made 
up Maroubra Force at the start of the Kokoda 
campaign?
2 Describe the conditions the soldiers fought in 
along the Kokoda Trail.
3 What are the arguments for and against Kokoda 
and Gallipoli being the focus of Australia’s 
national commemoration of war? 
4 Research the ‘Fuzzy-Wuzzies’ mentioned by 
Private Howson in Source 2.42. What role 
did they play in the Kokoda campaign? Has 
the contribution of the ‘Fuzzy-Wuzzies’ to the 
campaign been officially recognised?
The Kokoda Trail (also known as 
the Kokoda Track) is a roughly 
96-kilometre-long narrow path in New 
Guinea, connecting Port Moresby to 
the village of Kokoda. In 1942, the 
Japanese navy had been frustrated 
in its attempts to seize Port Moresby, 
forcing the army to launch an overland 
assault on the town via the Kokoda 
Trail. If Japan had successfully seized 
Port Moresby, it could have used the 
town as a base to attack northern and 
eastern Australia. Prime Minister John 
Curtin had recalled the AIF to defend 
Australia, but that was taking time. 
This meant the Kokoda campaign was 
initially fought by underequipped militia 
units dubbed ‘Maroubra Force’. 
The Kokoda campaign
examiningevidence 
‘A fighting retreat’
Maroubra Force was assembled as the risk of a Japanese assault on Port Moresby increased. 
Some units were kept around Port Moresby in reserve, while a smaller force was posted to 
the village of Kokoda in July 1942, and tasked with defending the airfield there. This force 
was composed entirely of CMF and local Papuan Infantry units, and was underprepared for 
frontline combat. The soldiers had received little training in jungle warfare, and were equipped 
with old, outdated weapons. Many of these young men had only recently turned 18. 
The first clash of the Kokoda campaign occurred on 23 July, when a small Australian platoon 
slowed the Japanese advance across the Kumusi River, before falling back to Kokoda. On 29 
July, 80 men defended Kokoda against a Japanese attack, suffering heavy casualties as they 
engaged in hand-to-hand fighting. The next morning, they retreated further along the Trail to 
the village of Deniki. They suffered heavy casualties attempting to retake Kokoda on 8 August, 
as well as during the retreat along the Trail. This retreat was followed by a two-week break 
in the fighting, when the survivors from the defence of Kokoda met with reserves from Port 
Moresby and prepared to defend the Trail at Isurava. 
The Battle of Isurava was a major turning point in the Kokoda campaign. Maroubra Force 
defended the Trail valiantly, but was outnumbered and suffered heavy casualties on the first 
day of battle. At Isurava, however, the first substantial reinforcements from the AIF began to 
arrive, providing a vital boost for the depleted Maroubra Force. The battle lasted four days, 
Source 2.40 A still from the film Kokoda—39th Battalion
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88 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum 89chapter two world war II (1939–1945)
bigideas
2.1 What were the causes of World War II 
and what course did it take?
Remember
1 List the locations where Australian soldiers fought in World 
War II.
2 Explain what is meant by the policy of appeasement.3 Which nations were alienated or angered by the results of the 
Paris Peace Conference?
4 What was the main role of the Australian army after the 
successful campaign in New Guinea? What was controversial 
about this role? 
Understand
5 Outline some of the ways in which the early years of the war 
in Europe and the war in the Pacific were similar. How were 
they different?
6 Describe the Blitzkrieg tactics used by Germany in World War II. 
Why do you think these tactics stopped being so effective later 
in the war? 
7 Why do you think it was significant that it was Australian militia 
units that fought at Kokoda? Do you think the battle would be 
as significant if American units had fought there instead? 
8 Why do you think there was less public enthusiasm for World 
War II in Australia than there had been at the start of World 
War I?
Apply
9 Research the experiences of Australian prisoners of war (POWs) 
in the Pacific, and the experiences of Soviet POWs in Germany 
and Eastern Europe. Prepare a PowerPoint presentation that 
compares and contrasts the experiences of these two groups. 
10 Explain the perspective of each of the following over the 
decision to recall the AIF to defend Australia during World 
War II:
a a soldier in the 6th or 7th Division of the Second AIF
b the Prime Minister of Australia, John Curtin
c the Prime Minister of Britain, Winston Churchill
d a family living in far north Queensland.
Analyse
11 Study the two propaganda posters used by the Nazis at the 
Nuremberg Rallies (Sources 2.7 and 2.8), held between 1927 
and 1938 to celebrate the Third Reich. 
a What impression do they create of the Nazi regime and the 
Third Reich?
b What aspects of the posters (such as signs, symbols, 
colours) help to create this impression?
12 During the fall of Singapore, the Australian commander Gordon 
Bennett escaped the city and returned to Australia after a 
difficult two-week journey. Bennett believed that it was his duty 
to escape, and was initially praised by the Australian Prime 
Minister John Curtin. The vast majority of the soldiers under 
Bennett’s command became Japanese prisoners of war, and 
many of them were killed. 
a As a class, debate whether Bennett’s actions were justified. 
b Research General Douglas MacArthur’s escape from 
the Philippines to Australia. Can you see any similarities 
between the two escapes? What are the important 
differences? 
Evaluate
13 Conduct a class debate on one of the following topics:
•	 Hitler himself was not personally significant. Any dictator 
could have seized power in Germany at that time.
•	 The West pushed Japan into militarism and aggression.
14 During the Battle of Britain, British pilots were instructed to 
shoot down German sea rescue planes if the pilots thought 
the planes might be being used for surveillance purposes. 
According to the Geneva Conventions, which outline the 
conduct of warfare, this was a war crime. Discuss in groups 
whether shooting down rescue planes is acceptable conduct 
when your nation is fighting for its survival. Compare your 
responses with those of other groups.
15 The Gallipoli landing is generally regarded as Australia’s most 
significant wartime engagement. However, some argue that 
Kokoda was more successful and involved similar or even greater 
heroism and courage. It has even been suggested that Kokoda 
Day should replace Anzac Day as Australia’s national day of 
commemoration. 
 Research the arguments for Kokoda being a more significant battle 
for Australians than Gallipoli. Do you think Kokoda should replace 
Gallipoli as the focus for Australia’s commemoration of war? 
 You may find it helpful to create a table, such as the one below, 
in your notebook or on your computer to help you organise your 
thoughts and develop your argument.
Kokoda Gallipoli
Reasons for making this 
Australia’s main focus 
of commemoration
Reasons for keeping this 
as Australia’s main focus 
of commemoration
Reasons against making 
this Australia’s main 
focus of commemoration
Reasons against keeping 
this as Australia’s main 
focus of commemoration
Create
16 Working with a partner or in small groups, research, script and 
perform a telephone conversation between the Australian Prime 
Minister, John Curtin, and the British Prime Minister, Winston 
Churchill, at the time that Curtin recalled the 6th and 7th Divisions 
of the AIF to defend Australia. 
17 You have been asked by the Australian Government to design a 
new war memorial for one of the following groups:
•	 the ‘Fuzzy-Wuzzy Angels’
•	 Indigenous Australians who fought in World War II
•	 Australian prisoners of war in either Japan or Europe
•	 Maroubra Force. 
a Research the group you have chosen and their role in 
World War II.
b Design a plan for an appropriate memorial to commemorate 
your chosen group. You should consider appropriate symbols, 
where your memorial will be built, the materials you would use, 
and the message you want your memorial to send. 
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91chapter two world war II (1939–1945)90 oxford big ideas history 10: australian curriculum
Source 2.44 
Nazi SA members 
(storm troopers) 
outside a Jewish 
business, directing 
people to shop 
elsewhere, 1933
The Holocaust
In 1933, it is estimated that the Jewish population of Europe stood at around 11 million. By 
the end of the war in 1945, it is estimated that around six million Jews had died at the hands 
of the Nazis. To put this into perspective, more than half of all European Jews were killed. 
This systematic, government-endorsed persecution and murder of Jews took place throughout 
the Nazi-occupied territories under the command of Adolf Hitler. It is among the most brutal 
and destructive policies of the 20th century, and is referred to as the Holocaust. Hundreds of 
thousands of German military and civilian personnel were involved in the mass murder. Millions 
more collaborated or accepted these events without protest. The word ‘Holocaust’ is of Greek 
origin and means ‘sacrificed by fire’ or ‘burnt’. Jewish communities use the Hebrew word 
Shoah instead, meaning ‘catastrophe’.
Beginnings of the Holocaust
The origins of the Holocaust can be traced back further than Adolf Hitler’s lifetime. Anti-
Semitism has its origins in the ancient world, and was rife throughout Europe in the Middle 
Ages. 
In the 1880s, the eugenics movement became popular. Eugenics, a pseudoscience that aims 
to ‘improve’ the human gene pool through state intervention, was taught as a subject at many 
universities. For a time, it was supported by people like Winston Churchill, and was government 
policy in countries such as the United States. By the 1930s the eugenics movement’s popularity 
was declining, but the Nazi Party’s policies were heavily influenced by its ideas. 
Hitler had outlined the development of his anti-Semitism and even some of his proposed 
policies towards Jews in his manifesto Mein Kampf. He declared that ‘the personification of the 
devil as the symbol of all evil assumes the living shape of the Jew’. Mein Kampf also outlined 
Hitler’s hatred of communism, and his belief that Germany would have to expand east to provide 
Lebensraum (‘living space’) for ethnic Germans. The seeds of Hitler’s cruel and genocidal policies 
were present in his ideology at least a decade before he became Chancellor of Germany.
Source 2.43 The conical-shaped Hall of Names in the Holocaust History Museum in the Yad Vashem 
Holocaust complex in Israel. The Hall of Names shows around 600 portraits of Jewish Holocaust victims.
2.2 What were some of the most significant events of World War II?
World War II was similar to earlier wars in some ways, but it also represented 
a radical change in the way wars were fought. Genocide—wiping out a 
religious, racial