Potential application of lateritic soil stabilized with coment kiln dust as liner in wast containment structures

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ORIGINAL PAPER
Potential Application of Lateritic Soil Stabilized
with Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) as Liner in Waste
Containment Structures
Agapitus Ahamefule Amadi •
Adrian Oshioname Eberemu
Received: 22 August 2012 / Accepted: 28 March 2013 / Published online: 4 April 2013
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
Abstract This study evaluates the applicability of
residually derived lateritic soil stabilized with cement
kiln dust (CKD), a waste product from the cement
manufacturing process as liner in waste repositories.
Lateritic soil sample mixed with 0–16 % CKD (by dry
weight of the soil) was compacted with the British
Standard Light, West African Standard and British
Standard Heavy compaction efforts at water contents
ranging from the dry to wet of optimum moistures.
Geotechnical parameters such as Atterberg limits,
compaction characteristics, hydraulic conductivity,
unconfined compressive strength and volumetric
shrinkage strain were determined. Results indicate
that the plasticity index, the maximum dry unit weight
and hydraulic conductivity together with the volumet-
ric shrinkage decreased with increased amount of
CKD while the optimum moisture content and
unconfined compressive strength increased with
higher CKD content for all the efforts. When measured
properties were compared with standard specifications
adopted by most environmental regulatory agencies
for the construction of barrier systems in waste
containment structures, the resulting values showed
substantial compliance. Besides developing an eco-
nomically sustainable liner material, the present study
demonstrated effective utilization of an industrial by-
product otherwise considered as waste by the produc-
ers, in addition to a systematic expansion in the use of
the lateritic soil for geotechnical works.
Keywords Barrier system � Cement kiln dust �
Lateritic soil � Waste containment � Waste utilization
1 Introduction
Safe and long term containment of municipal, industrial
and hazardous wastes is one of society’s most critical
environmental problems. Worldwide, there are many
initiatives to dispose these wastes in underground
facilities (Daniel 1993; Rowe et al. 1995; Shackelford
and Nelson 1996). Engineered landfills whose objective
is to contain these wastes in a manner that is protective of
human health and the environment remain the most
practical, feasible and cost effective method of waste
disposal in the foreseeable future. Modern engineered
landfills and lagoons are therefore designed to seal off
their contents from the environment by enclosing them
in a secured envelope composed of a liner and closure
cover (Amadi 2007; etc.). The type of low permeability
barriers that are used to create the elements of these
enclosures will vary depending on the hazard potential
of the waste. In the past, natural soils were often used as
A. A. Amadi (&)
Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University
of Technology, Minna, Nigeria
e-mail: agapitusahamefule4@yahoo.com
A. O. Eberemu
Department of Civil Engineering, Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria, Nigeria
e-mail: aeberemu@yahoo.com
123
Geotech Geol Eng (2013) 31:1221–1230
DOI 10.1007/s10706-013-9645-3
liners but this practice is becoming less common
because it is very difficult to prove that the natural liner
is free of high hydraulic conductivity zones or secondary
fractures such as cracks and joints. As the barrier
technology and the relevant regulations evolved, com-
pacted clay soils are now used for this purpose either by
themselves or part of a composite system. In some
practical situations, suitable material needed to create
this barrier system may not be readily or economically
available. As a result, mixtures of native soil and various
amendment materials such as bentonite, lime, fly ash,
blast furnace slag, cement kiln dust etc. have been
proposed as substitutes primarily due to the abundance
and availability (Simpson and Zimmie 2009; Amadi and
Osinubi 2010; Amadi 2011, 2012; Amadi et al. 2012).
Cement kiln dust (CKD) is a byproduct material of
cement manufacturing process similar in appearance
to Portland cement. The beneficial properties of CKD
as a stabilizing agent and its cost effectiveness
compared with other type of stabilizers have led to
its frequent use as a stabilization agent in recent times.
The chemical composition of typical CKD shows that
it contains significant amounts of alkalis. As a result,
the pH of CKD–soil mixtures is typically about 12.0 or
greater. By providing a pH environment in this range,
the solubility and mobility as well as the reactivity of
contaminants in the mixtures is lowest (Miller and
Zaman 2000; Miller and Azad 2002; Peethamparan
and Olek 2008; Amadi and Eberemu 2012a). Conse-
quently when CKD is used to stabilize lateritic soil,
which is widely distributed in the tropical climates, the
resulting mixture optimizes the pozzolanic reactivity,
high absorptive capacity, greater chemical resistance
together with less susceptibility to desiccation induced
cracking provided by CKD and lateritic soil (BRRI/
Lyon Associates 1971; Gidigasu 1976; Osinubi and
Nwaiwu 2008; Osinubi and Amadi 2010).
The objective of this study therefore was to
examine the applicability of compacted lateritic
soil—CKD mixtures in geotechnical structures such
as hydraulic barriers in waste containment landfills.
2 Materials and Methods of Testing
2.1 Soil and Cement Kiln Dust
The study soil was collected from a laterite formation
in Minna (Latitude 9o370N and Longitude 6o330E),
Nigeria at a depth of 1 m. The soil profile at the
sampling site is overlain by dark grey, humus top soil
layers of silty sand that vary between 0.20 and 0.30 m
in thickness. This is uniformly underlain by reddish,
mottled brown and grey, fine grained lateritic soils.
The cement kiln dust used in the study was obtained
from Obajana cement production plant located in
Lokoja, Nigeria. The CKD was mixed with the soil in
stepped increment of 4 % from 0 to 16 % by weight of
dry soil to form five different soil–CKD mixtures.
2.2 Index Properties Tests
Preliminary tests such as particle size distribution and
Atterberg limits (liquid limit, plastic limit and plas-
ticity index) of the natural lateritic soil as well as soil–
CKD mixtures were evaluated following procedures
outlined in British Standard (1990a, b).
2.3 Compaction Test
Lateritic soil samples containing relevant quantities of
CKD (i.e., 0, 4, 8, 12, and 16 %) were mixed with the
required percentage of tap water (10–20 %) based on
dry weight. Specimens were compacted to three
compactive efforts (i.e., British Standard Light, BSL;
West African Standard, WAS and British Standard
Heavy, BSH) to simulate the range of compaction
energies expected in the field. The BSL and BSH
compaction procedures are described in British Stan-
dard (1990a) as well as Head (1994a). The West
African Standard (WAS) compaction is the conven-
tional energy level commonly used in the West African
region and consists of the energy derived from a 4.5 kg
rammer falling 450 mm onto five layers in a British
Standard mould, each receiving ten (10) blows (Nige-
rian General Specification 1997; Osinubi et al. 2006).
2.4 Hydraulic Conductivity Test
The hydraulic conductivity of compacted mixtures
were measured using compaction mould permeameter
under falling head condition in accordance with
procedures outlined in British Standard (1990a) and
Head (1994b). Processed soils were compacted
directly into the compaction mould with three energies
(BSL, WAS and BSH) at 10, 12.5, 15, 17.5 and 20 %
water content. The compaction mouldwas placed on a
perforated base and soaked for 96 h in de-aired tap
1222 Geotech Geol Eng (2013) 31:1221–1230
123
water to ensure saturation before the commencement
of permeation. The permeant liquid was tap water and
permeation was terminated after a steady flow was
established (i.e., when there was no statistically
significant trend in hydraulic conductivity over time).
2.5 Unconfined Compression Test
Soil mixtures identical to samples that were prepared
for hydraulic conductivity tests were cured in a humid
environment for 28 days and then tested to determine
the unconfined compressive strength following proce-
dures outlined in British Standard (1990b) and Head
(1994b). The test was performed on cylindrical spec-
imens with diameters of 38 mm and lengths of 76 mm,
which were trimmed from the larger compacted
cylinders. The samples were tested in triaxial com-
pression test machine without applying cell pressure.
2.6 Shrinkage Test
Volumetric shrinkage potential was measured by
extruding compacted cylinder of specimen identical
to specimens that were prepared for hydraulic con-
ductivity tests from the mould and allowed to air dry in
the laboratory. Shrinkage was monitored for 28 days
by taking average diameter and height to compute
volume, hence the volumetric shrinkage strain.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Index Properties
From the particles size distribution (Fig. 1) together
with the index properties test results (Table 1), the
natural (untreated) soil was classified as clay soil of
low plasticity (CL) according to the Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS). The oxide composition
of the soil is presented in Table 2.
For the cement kiln dust, it is generally character-
ized by high lime content (CaO = 43.69 %) and high
loss of ignition (37.54) in comparison to Portland
cement. The properties along with other chemical
properties provided by the cement manufacturer are
presented in Table 2. The chemical composition of the
CKD is within the bounds found in the literature.
Measurements of Atterberg limits are major con-
siderations in the selection of geomaterial for hydraulic
barriers for waste disposal structures. Experimental
data indicate that significant PI reduction occurred with
CKD treatment (Table 1; Fig. 2). The primary reaction
that resulted in textural and plasticity changes involves
cation exchange and flocculation/agglomeration. The
altered soil mixture structure has larger particle
agglomerates which are more friable and workable.
With reference to specification requirements for
compacted soil liners i.e., LL [ 20 % and PI [ 7 %
as recommended by Benson et al. (1994), all soil
mixtures satisfied the LL and PI design requirements
(Table 1).
The mineralogy of the natural soil was analyzed
using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and showed the 1:1
kaolinite mineral to be the predominant clay mineral.
3.2 Compaction Characteristics
The maximum dry unit weights and optimum moisture
contents (OMCs) for CKD treated specimens are
reported in Fig. 3. Marginal increases in optimum
moistures with corresponding decreases in dry unit
weights were recorded for all mixtures. In addition,
Fig. 1 The particle size
distribution of the natural
lateritic soil
Geotech Geol Eng (2013) 31:1221–1230 1223
123
higher compactive efforts noticeably resulted in higher
dry unit weights but decreased optimum moisture
content. The dry unit weight values suggest that
adequate compaction can be obtained when soil mix-
tures are used as hydraulic barriers in waste landfills.
The reduction in maximum dry unit weight of soil
mixtures is attributed to immediate reactions between
CKD and the soil (flocculation and agglomeration).
On the other hand, the OMC increased due to the
hydration effect and the affinity for more moisture
during this reaction process.
3.3 Hydraulic Conductivity
Results of hydraulic conductivity test for specimens
treated with varying percentages of cement kiln dust
and compacted with the three compactive efforts
adopted in this study indicate that moderate decreases
in hydraulic conductivities occurred with higher CKD
content. This is illustrated by hydraulic conductivity of
soil mixtures for the various compactive efforts at
OMC in Fig. 4. The reduction in k is likely a function
of the pozzolanic reactions leading to the formations
of cementitious products and the filling of pore spaces
conducting flow with clay sized fractions of the CKD.
According to the literature (e.g. Rowe et al. 1995;
Benson et al. 1994; Daniel and Wu 1993), the
hydraulic conductivity of barrier materials is expected
to be B1 9 10-9 m/s, a criterion that was met and
even exceeded by soil mixtures especially specimens
compacted at optimum and 2 % wet of optimum
moistures.
3.4 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)
Strength development for compacted soil mixtures
determined using the unconfined compression test
revealed that after 28 days of curing, CKD treatment
resulted in significant improvement in strength values.
The variation of UCS of soil mixtures at OMC with
CKD content is reported in Fig. 5. The improvement
in UCS is likely a function of the formations of
cementitious products such as hydrated calcium
silicate gel (CSH) and calcium aluminate gel (CAH)
through pozzolanic reactions and cementitious mate-
rial hydrations that coats and bind the soil particles in
addition to the flocculation and agglomeration effects
of Ca2? ions found in CKD (Amadi and Eberemu
2012a). Compacted soils used for liner and cover
systems must have a minimum UCS of 200 kN/m2
(Amadi et al. 2012; Daniel and Wu 1993). This value
of strength was adopted in this study as threshold
value. Lateritic soil—CKD mixtures prepared at
different compaction states namely 2 % dry of opti-
mum, at optimum and 2 % wet of optimum attained
the specified strength and in most cases had higher
values.
3.5 Volumetric Shrinkage Potential
Generally, treatment of the study soil with CKD for
each energy level showed a decline in the desiccation
induced shrinkage strain for the range of CKD content
adopted in this study (Fig. 6). This behavior can be
attributed to the textural and plasticity changes in the
Table 1 Properties of natural lateritic soil and soil mixtures
Characteristics CKD content (%)
0 4 8 12 16
Natural moisture
content (%)
23.0 – – – –
Liquid limit (%) 58.0 48.0 49.5 53.5 57.0
Plasticity index (%) 32.0 30.0 27.0 24.0 20.0
USCS classification CL CL CL CH CH
Specific gravity 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.33 2.27
pH 7.2 8.15 8.75 10.76 11.42
Colour Reddish
brown
Dominant clay
mineral
Kaolinite
Table 2 Oxide composition of lateritic soil and cement kiln
dust
Oxide %
Lateritic soil Cement kiln dust (CKD)
CaO 0.28 43.69
SiO2 35.60 12.18
Al2O3 27.40 2.97
Fe2O3 2.40 2.46
MgO 0.22 0.89
SO3 0.85 –
MnO3 2.0 –
K2O3 – 0.40
Loss on ignition 14.80 37.54
1224 Geotech Geol Eng (2013) 31:1221–1230
123
soil mixtures. The CKD binds the fine particles into
larger particle agglomerates, with resulting larger pore
spaces. As the effective pore sizes increased, the
capillary stresses are reduced and it becomes difficult
to bring these bigger particles together as in the natural
soil. Consequently, air enters and occupies the space
between these particles (Osinubi et al. 2006; Eberemu
et al. 2011). This, in part explains the lower volumetric
shrinkage in specimens containing varying quantities
of CKD.
3.6 Compaction Recommendations
To ensure quality construction of clayey liners, it is
appropriate to adopt water content—dry unit weight
criterion which ensures that compacted soil achieved20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
A
tte
rb
er
g 
Li
m
its
 (%
)
CKD Content (%)
LL PL
PI
Fig. 2 Variation of
Atterberg limits with CKD
content
16
16.5
17
17.5
18
18.5
19
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
CKD content (%)
M
ax
. 
D
ry
 u
ni
t w
ei
gh
t (k
N
/m
3 )
BSL
WAS
BSH
BSL
WAS
BSH
(a) 
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
CKD content (%)
O
M
C
 
(%
)
(b) 
Fig. 3 Variation of
a maximum dry unit weights
and b OMC of soil mixtures
with CKD content
Geotech Geol Eng (2013) 31:1221–1230 1225
123
the desired properties. Figures 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 define the
range of water contents and dry unit weights for the
various compacted soil mixtures that satisfy all three
established criteria namely hydraulic conductivity
B1 9 10-9 m/s, unconfined compressive strength
C200 kN/m2 and desiccation shrinkage B4 % nor-
mally required by environmental regulatory agencies.
However, in this study, because all samples had
acceptable unconfined compressive strength, the over-
all acceptable zones (OAZ) result from the other two
criteria. These OAZ delineate the values where all the
permissible ranges of water contents and dry unit
weights for the design parameters overlap when
superimposed. This implies that any combination of
dry unit weight and moulding water content selected
from this overall acceptable zones of the various
mixtures will ensure compliance to set specifications
during field preparation and actual construction pro-
cess (Amadi and Eberemu 2012b; Daniel and Benson
1990; Osinubi et al. 2009). This serves as a compac-
tion control to ensure quality and compliance to
established specification during field preparation and
actual construction process.
3.7 Comparison of Results with Published Data
One obvious phenomenon of CKD stabilization is its
ability to change the plasticity characteristics of the
soil. The addition of CKD generally causes an
immediate reduction in plasticity index (Baghdadi
1990; Zaman et.al. 1992; Miller and Azad 2002).
However, the decreases in PI are not only dependent
on the type of soil treated but also on the chemical
composition (primarily the free lime content) of CKD.
In the present study, PI decreased from 32 % at 0 %
CKD to 20 % on application of 16 % CKD. Similar
reductions were reported for other soils (Moses and
Afolayan 2011; Oriola and Moses 2011).
Research work on UCS show considerable improve-
ment in strength, for example, Baghdadi (1990) deter-
mined the UCS of kaolinite clay stabilized with 16 %
1.00E-11
1.00E-10
1.00E-09
1.00E-08
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
H
yd
ra
u
lic
 
co
n
du
cti
v
ity
 
(m
/s)
CKD Content (%)
BSL WAS
BSH
k = 1× 10-9 m/s
Fig. 4 Variation of
hydraulic conductivity of
soil mixtures at OMC with
CKD content
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
CKD Content (%)
U
CS
 (k
N/
m2
)
BSL WAS
BSH
UCS = 200kN/m2
Fig. 5 Variation of
unconfined compressive
strength of soil mixtures at
OMC with CKD content
1226 Geotech Geol Eng (2013) 31:1221–1230
123
CKD and compacted at near optimum moisture content
(OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD). Results
showed that the average 28-day UCS value increased to
1,115 kPa as compared to 210 kPa of untreated spec-
imen. Zaman et al. (1992) found that when added to
highly expansive clay, CKD caused an increase in the
UCS from 103 to 263 kPa after 28 days of curing.
Similar increases were established on expansive black
cotton soil by Oriola and Moses (2011) as well as on
foundry sand by Moses and Afolayan (2011).
In the present study, the 28-day UCS increased
from 360 to 1,265 kN/m2, 566 to 1,320 kN/m2 and 650
to 1,388 kN/m2 for BSL, WAS and BSH efforts
respectively representing 2–3.5 times increase.
The literature trends of both increasing and
decreasing hydraulic conductivity with CKD percent-
age are reported depending on the soil used and the
curing period adopted.
According to research conducted on the hydraulic
conductivity of black cotton soil treated with CKD by
Oriola and Moses (2011), the hydraulic conductivity
only decreased in the case of specimens treated with
4–8 % CKD when compacted with BSL. Soil mixtures
with higher CKD as well as mixtures compacted with
WAS recorded higher hydraulic conductivity values
compared to untreated specimens. Similarly, Moses and
Afolayan (2011) in their study of foundry sand treated
with CKD reported that all soil mixtures irrespective of
the compactive effort produced increase in k.
In Contrast, reductions up to two orders of magni-
tude were established in the present study.
The reduction in k in the present study was as result
of the duration curing (28 days) adopted which
allowed pozzolanic reactions leading to the formations
of cementitious products and the filling of pore spaces
conducting flow with clay sized fractions of the CKD.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
V
o
lu
m
et
ric
 
Sh
rin
ka
ge
 
(%
)
CKD Content (%)
BSL
WAS
BSH
Volumetric shrinkage = 4%
Fig. 6 Variation of
volumetric shrinkage of soil
mixtures at OMC with CKD
content
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Moulding Water Content (%)
D
ry
 U
ni
t W
ei
gh
t (
kN
/m
3) BSL
WAS
BSH
Zero Air Void
Overall Acceptable zone 
for natural soil 
Acceptable zone based on k 
A
cc
ep
ta
bl
e 
zo
ne
 b
as
ed
 o
n 
U
CS
 a
nd
 S
hr
in
ka
ge
 
Fig. 7 Acceptable zone for
the natural (untreated) soil
Geotech Geol Eng (2013) 31:1221–1230 1227
123
4 Conclusions
This study evaluates the applicability of residually
derived lateritic soil stabilized with cement kiln dust
(CKD), a waste product from the cement industry as
hydraulic barrier in waste repositories. Soil mixtures
containing 0–16 % CKD (by dry weight of soil),
prepared at moisture contents ranging from 10 to 20 %
and compacted with three efforts (i.e. BSL, WAS and
BSH) were investigated. Critical geotechnical param-
eters required in the construction of hydraulic barriers
such as Atterberg limits, compaction characteristics,
hydraulic conductivity, unconfined compressive
strength and shrinkage potential were determined
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Moulding Water Content (%)
D
ry
 U
ni
t W
ei
gh
t (
kN
/m
3)
BSL
WAS
BSH
Zero Air Void
Overall Acceptable zone for 
soil mixture with 4% CKD 
Acceptable zone 
based on k 
A
cc
ep
ta
bl
e 
zo
ne
 b
as
ed
 
o
n
 U
CS
 a
nd
 S
hr
in
ka
ge
 
Fig. 8 Acceptable zone for
soil mixture with 4 % CKD
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Moulding Water Content (%)
D
ry
 U
ni
t W
ei
gh
t (
kN
/m
3)
BSL
WAS
BSH
Zero Air Void
A
cc
ep
ta
bl
e 
zo
ne
 
ba
se
d 
on
 U
CS
 a
nd
 
Sh
rin
ka
ge
 
Acceptable zone based on k
Overall Acceptable zone for 
soil mixture with 8% CKD 
Fig. 9 Acceptable zone for
soil mixture with 8 % CKD
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Moulding Water Content (%)
D
ry
 U
ni
t W
ei
gh
t (
kN
/m
3)
BSL
WAS
BSH
Zero Air Void
Overall Acceptable zone for 
soil mixture with 12% CKD
A
cc
ep
ta
bl
e 
zo
ne
 b
as
ed
 
o
n
 U
CS
 a
ndS
hr
in
ka
ge
 
Acceptable zone based on k
Fig. 10 Acceptable zone
for soil mixture with 12 %
CKD
1228 Geotech Geol Eng (2013) 31:1221–1230
123
and compliance to established criteria were evaluated.
Under these experimental conditions, test results show
that compacted lateritic soil samples containing CKD
additive had high UCS, low hydraulic conductivity as
well as shrinkage potential that met or exceeded the
threshold values for the respective parameters. Con-
sequently, it is concluded that lateritic soil stabilized
with CKD satisfied the required physical properties
and is therefore adjudged suitable for geotechnical
constructions such as liners and covers for waste
containment structures Furthermore, it is important to
note that the BSH compactive effort offered a wider
range of moulding water contents at which the
parameters yielded values that met or exceeded
specification requirements and should be preferred.
Besides developing an economically sustainable
liner material, the study demonstrated effective utili-
zation of an industrial by-product otherwise consid-
ered as waste by the producers, in addition to a
systematic expansion in the use of the lateritic soil for
geotechnical works.
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15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Moulding Water Content (%)
D
ry
 U
ni
t W
ei
gh
t (
kN
/m
3)
BSL
WAS
BSH
Zero Air Void
Overall Acceptable zone for 
soil mixturewith 16% CKD
A
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zo
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 b
as
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o
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 U
CS
 a
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ka
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Acceptable zone based on k
Fig. 11 Acceptable zone
for soil mixture with 16 %
CKD
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	Potential Application of Lateritic Soil Stabilized with Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) as Liner in Waste Containment Structures
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Materials and Methods of Testing
	Soil and Cement Kiln Dust
	Index PropertiesTests
	Compaction Test
	Hydraulic Conductivity Test
	Unconfined Compression Test
	Shrinkage Test
	Results and Discussion
	Index Properties
	Compaction Characteristics
	Hydraulic Conductivity
	Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)
	Volumetric Shrinkage Potential
	Compaction Recommendations
	Comparison of Results with Published Data
	Conclusions
	References