Resumo de fonética para AVS

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Resumo de fonética
O processo pelo qual aprendemos inglês ou outra língua é através da imitação dos falantes nativos. Aprender com o falante nativo é mais efetivo, mas as circunstancias tornam necessário aprender com o falante não nativo. A imitação é mais eficaz se feita em condições que se aproximam tanto quanto possível da comunicação normal, cotidiana.
Aprender pronuncia é um processo de três passos:
- aprender a ouvir e identificar um som ou um contraste de som quando o nativo o pronuncia.
- aprender a produzir o som quando a atenção do aprendiz está na pronuncia.
- conseguir produzir esse som quando a atenção do aprendiz está focada no significado.
Fonética é o estudo científico da linguagem. A fonética estuda o som de uma língua e a fonologia estuda a variação desse som de acordo com accents e dialects.
The central concerns in phonetics are the discovery of how speech sounds are produced, how they are used in spoken language, how can we record speech sounds with written symbols and how we hear and recognize different sounds.
Phonology
The most basic activity in phonology is phonemic analysis, in which the objective is to establish what the phonemes are and arrive at the phonemic inventory of the language. For some phonologists, the most important area is the relationships between the different phonemes - how they form groups, the nature of the oppositions between them and how those oppositions may be neutralized.
Phoneme and Grapheme
Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that serves to distinguish two words. 
Virtually all theories of phonology hold that spoken language can be broken down into a string of sound units (phonemes), and that each language has a small, relatively fixed set of these phonemes. 
Most phonemes can be put into groups; for example, in English we can identify a group of plosive phonemes p, t, k, b, d, g, a group of voiceless fricatives f, θ, s, h, and so on.
Accent = speech habits typical of the natives of a region. So we all have accents.
Dialect = qualquer variedade linguistica coexistente com outra. O dialeto caipira, por exemplo.
Fonema é o som da palavra. Grafema é a forma escrita da palavra.
Language is basically a set of symbols with associated meanings.
Porque pronunciar é mais fácil que escrever:
Graphemes are the smallest units in a writing system capable of causing a contrast in meaning. There are about 40 distinctive phonemes in English, but 70 letters or letter combinations to symbolize phonemes. This makes pronouncing spellings easier than writing correct spellings.
Tenho o pdf da aula 1.
Dialect and Accent
It is usual to distinguish between dialect and accent. Both terms are used to identify different varieties of a particular language, but the word ‘accent’ is used for varieties which differ from each other only in matters of pronunciation while ‘dialect’ also covers differences in such things as vocabulary and grammar.
Entendi que accent é a diferença na pronuncia, por exemplo, cariocas ao pronunciar o s e paulistas ao pronunciar o r.
Trudgill, in International English, breaks the US into 8 accent areas, and these coincide well with Carver’s delineations.
The interregional differences in England run much deeper despite its small size, since it has developed over a period about four times as long, and had significant input from other languages (Latin, Norse with the Viking invasions, French with the Norman invasion, and more Latin and Greek with the industrial and scientific revolutions).
 You have probably discovered that there is a big difference between the way words are spelled in English and how they are pronounced. For example the letters ch are used to represent three different sounds: machine chain mechanic.
Until recently the Parliament of the United Kingdom was organized on a class basis, with the House of Lords representing the hereditary upper class and the House of Commons representing everyone else, and the British monarch is often viewed as being at the top of the social class structure.
Received Pronunciation (RP)
the term ‘received’ originally meant ‘that which is generally accepted’ or ‘that accepted by the best society.’
RP is also the accent that Americans and possibly other foreigners would likely refer to as the typical British accent. It should also be noted that there is no single accent whose role and status in the United States correspond to that of RP in England.
Regardless of the differences within RP, it is an accent commonly recognized and one that has been taught as the standard English in schools for years.
Pdf dois – diz que o RP é mais uma questão social do que geográfica. Pertence a classe social alta e média alta da Inglaterra. Não é usado por uma grande porcentagem da população.
The intrusive R = acréscimo de som de r = the Idea (r) of / I saw (r) it happen.
O Cockney English é o segundo sotaque mais famoso do Inglês Britânico. O primeiro é o RP – Received Pronunciation.
O termo cockney refere-se ao grupo de pessoas nascidas em uma região de Londres, Inglaterra. Trata-se de um grupo com cultura, costumes e linguagem características.
Portanto, saiba que o termo Cockney refere-se a uma região de Londres e às pessoas nascidas nela. Essas pessoas tem um jeito diferente de falar inglês característicos deles e que difere e muito do RP.
Só para você ter uma ideia, a palavra “day” soa como “die” e “buy” soa como “boy”. Tem ainda a palavra “better” que soa como “be’uh”. As palavras “like”, “lie” e “light” são pronunciadas de maneira igual. Enfim, há muita coisa sobre a pronúncia do Cockney English que não dá para mencionar aqui.
Estuary English is an accent of English widely spoken in South East England, especially along the River Thames and its estuary. Phonetician John C. Wells proposed a definition of Estuary English as "Standard English spoken with the accent of the south-east of England", although he criticised the notion that the spread of language from London to the south-east was anything new.[1] The name comes from the area around the Thames, particularly its Estuary. Estuary English can be heard from some people in London, north Surrey,[2] north Kent, and south Essex. Estuary English shares many features with Cockney, and there is some debate among linguists as to where Cockney speech ends and Estuary English begins.
The pronominal usage of ‘one’ is not only stereotypically associated with the upper classes, and especially the Royal Family, but that is also used frequently in their real life. There are a number of ways that the word ‘one’ used in place of ‘I’ and it has also been seen to be commonly used in those people connected with the Royal Family. Friends of the family as well as household help like the Queen’s dresser or an ex-cook have been heard to use the phrase ‘one’ in place of ‘I’.
Examples:
‘One says to oneself: “Oh God, there’s one’s daughter”’. (Father of the Duchess of York – quoted from The Star, July 1986.)
General American, like British Received Pronunciation (RP) and most standard language varieties of many other societies, has never been the accent of the entire nation. However, it has become widely spoken in many American films, TV series, national news, commercial ads, and American radio broadcasts.
The General American accent is most closely related to a generalized Midwestern accent and is spoken particularly by many newscasters. This has led the accent to sometimes be referred to as a ‘newscaster accent’ or ‘television English’. General American is sometimes promoted as preferable to other regional accents. In the United States, classes promising ‘accent reduction’, ‘accent modification’ and ‘accent neutralization’ generally attempt to teach speech patterns similar to this accent.
General American is also the accent typically taught to people learning English as a second language in the United States
Humans use language to communicate. This is an obvious statement, but what is language and how do we use it? Language isbasically a set of symbols with associated meanings.
We string together phonetic sounds to make words, and we string together words to make sentences. The set of rules we have created to structure our delivery of words is our grammar. For example, a basic rule is that every sentence should contain a verb (a word conveying action) and a subject (a word conveying who or what is doing the action or on whom or what the action is having an impact).
There are always at least two people in any communication. To communicate, one person must put something "out" and another person must take something "in". We call this "output" and "input".
I speak to you (OUTPUT: my thoughts go OUT of my head).
You listen to me (INPUT: my thoughts go INto your head).
You write to me (OUTPUT: your thoughts go OUT of your head).
I read your words (INPUT: your thoughts go INto my head).
. In one sense, speaking is the "real" language and writing is only a representation of speaking. However, for centuries, people have regarded writing as superior to speaking. It has a higher "status". This is perhaps because in the past almost everybody could speak but only a few people could write. But as we shall see, modern influences are changing the relative status of speaking and writing.
Anglo-Saxon words are usually characterised by a cloudy morphology (early \ ere), wildly unphonemic spelling, and the presence of silent letters and digraphs. Common affixes are “un-”, “-ful”, and “-ness”. These are the most common words used to describe everyday, informal and interpersonal matters.
Romance words are also common and bear closer resemblance to French morphemes and words (very \ vrais). There is often more regularity in their spelling.
Latin and Greek words are set apart from Romance words by very methodical morphology, Classical Latin and Greek morphemes, and consistent spelling. They usually have rigid definitions and are used more frequently in formal and scientific writing as well as in constructing technical, philosophical, and legal jargon.
FORMAL AND INFORMAL ENGLISH
The following rules apply to both written and spoken English.
The follow examples illustrate the main differences between informal and formal English.
1. Active & Passive Voice
Informal: Our technician repaired the fault on 12th June. Now it’s your turn to pay us.
Formal: Although the fault was repaired on 12th June, payment for this intervention has still not been received.
2. Verb Form: Phrasal Verbs & Latin
Informal: The company laid him off because he didn't work much.
Formal: His insufficient production conducted to his dismissal.
3. Language: Direct & Formulaic
Informal: I’m sorry but … / I’m happy to say that …
Formal: We regret to inform you that … / We have pleasure in announcing that …
4. Use of Slang
Informal: He had to get some money out of a hole in the wall …
Formal: He withdrew the amount from an ATM.
 5. Personal Form & Nominators
Informal: If you lose it, then please contact us as soon as possible.
Formal: Any loss of this document should be reported immediately …
 6. Linking Words
Informal: The bank can’t find the payment you say you’ve made.
Formal: Notwithstanding that the payment has been sent the bank fails to acknowledge it.
7. Revitalized Sentences
Informal: Anybody or any company.
Formal: … any natural person who, and any legal entity which …
 8. Modal Usage
Informal: If you need any help, give us a call.
Formal: Should you require any assistance, please feel free to contact us …
 9. Singular & Plural Person
Informal: I can help you to solve this problem. Call me!
Formal: We can assist in the resolution of this matter. Contact us on our toll-free number.
Also, to make a sentence more formal you can: 
Use ‘There’ as a subject; e.g. ‘There is a serious risk of...’ 
Use 'It' as a subject; e.g. 'It is impossible to...' 
Use ‘One’ as a subject; e.g. ‘One may ask whether...’ (‘One’ is a formal version of ‘You’ [plural] in general) 
Use the passive voice; e.g. ‘Many things can be done in order to...’
The main thing to remember is that both are correct, it is just a matter of tone and setting. Formal English is used mainly in academic writing and business communications, whereas Informal English is casual and is appropriate when communicating with friends and other close ones. Choose the style of writing keeping in mind what you are writing and to whom. But whichever style you write in - formal or informal - be sure to keep it consistent, do not mix the two.
Consonant
A consonant is a speech sound made by partially or completely blocking the flow of air through the mouth (using the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate).
Consonant X Contoid
Since the word ‘consonant’ is used in describing the phonology of a language that can include sounds which could be classed phonetically as vowels (Y, W), so we ought also to have a different word which covers just those sounds which are phonetically of the type that produces a significant obstruction to the flow of air through the vocal tract: the term proposed is CONTOID.
A digraph is a combination of letters or characters used to represent a single speech sound.
“Exocentric” digraphs, where the sound of the digraph is different from that of either of its constituent letters. These are rarely considered "silent". There are examples where the phoneme has no standard single-letter representation, as with consonants ‹ng› for /ŋ/ as in sing, ‹th› for /θ/ as in thin or /ð/ as in then, and diphthongs ‹ou› in out or ‹oi› in point and where standard single-letter representation uses another letter, as with ‹gh› in enough or ‹ph› in physical instead of ‹f›.
“Endocentric" digraphs, where the sound of the digraph is the same as that of one of its constituent letters. These include  most double consonants, as ‹bb› in clubbed; though not geminate consonants, as ‹ss› in misspell, the discontiguous digraphs whose second element is "magic e", e.g. ‹a_e› in rate (cf. rat), ‹i_e› in fine (cf. fin) and others such as ‹ck› (which is in effect the "doubled" form of ‹k›), ‹gu› as in guard, vogue; ‹ea› as in bread, heavy, etc. These are difficult for writers and sometimes for readers.
A vowel digraph is two letters with the first letter making a long sound and the second letter is silent
In English include EA (teach), EE (free), EY (key), IE (piece),), OO (book), OA (road) and UE (true), AU (audience), EO (people), IO (region), AI (main), OU (soul). 
The digraph oo has two sounds. One is the sound heard in hook. The other sound is the sound heard in tooth. 
BLEND OR CLUSTER
It is a combination of two or more letters, where all of the sounds can be distinguished.
Two or three consonants are blended together, each consonant sound may be heard in the blend. Some examples of consonant blends are: 
bl–black, cl–clap, fl–flip, gl–glass, pl–play, sl–slip, br–brick, cr–crab, dr–drop, fr–from, gr–grab, pr–press, tr–trap, sc–scale, sk–skip, sm–smell, sn–snail, sp–spill, rl–world, st–stop, sw–swell, str–stray (in which there are two clusters: s+t and t+r), xth–sixth (in which the cluster is x + th).
DIPHTHONGS OR  TWIN-VOWELS OR GLIDING VOWELS
Vowel diphthong refers to the blending of two vowels sounds, both vowel sounds are usually heard and they make a gliding sound.:
More Examples:
1. here,near, dear, beer
2. late, came, lane, day, make, again
3. cure, newer, tube
4. boy, voice, oil, boil, toy, noise
5. low
6. there, wear
In the English word “ride”, the “I” would be transcribed phonetically as “ai”, although it appears as a single letter in our writing, it actually consists of two vowels. If you say the word you should be able to hear the two. The same happens to “no”, “so” /ow/
In phonology, hiatus or diaeresis refers to two vowel sounds occurring in adjacent syllables, with no intervening consonant. When two adjacent vowel sounds occur in the same syllable, the result is instead described as a diphthong.
The English words hiatus and diaeresis themselves contain a hiatusbetween the first and second syllables.
So: Hi – a – tus  / di·aer·e·sis
SEMIVOWEL OR GLIDE
A semivowel (or glide) is a sound, such as English /w/ or /j/ (‘y’), that is phonetically similar to a vowel sound but functions as the syllable boundary rather than as the nucleus of a syllable.
TRIPHONES
Triphones is union of a diphthong plus one vowel. The first sound is always that of a diphthong. If a vowel comes after a diphthong, a small tick is attached to that diphthong in the opposite direction. This tick will indicate that there is a vowel after diphthong but will not indicate which is that vowel.
e.g. diary -  loyal – genuine - renewal – denial.
THE LETTER ‘Y’
Sometimes, the letter y is a consonant, and other times it is a vowel. The rule for telling the two apart is simple: The letter ‘y’ is a consonant if it is at the beginning of a syllable. If ‘y’ is anywhere else in the syllable, it is a vowel.
Examples of ‘Y’ as a Consonant: yes - yam - yell - yellow - yogurt – yacht.
Examples of ‘Y’ as a Vowel: gym - my - cycle - baby  - hairy  - sky – valley – fairy.
COUNTING PHONEMES
Let's try counting a couple of words.  
How many phonemes are there in:
a) rich? 3 /r/ /i/ /ch/(digraph)
b) pitch?  3 /p/ /i/ /tch/(digraph)
c) bring?– 4 /b/ /r/ /i/ /ng/(digraph)
d) shoot? 3 /sh/ (digraph) /oo/ (digraph) /t/
e) shy? 2 /sh/ (digraph) /y/
f) six?  4 /s / /i / / k / /s/ as the "x" has two distinct speech sounds.
g) brought? 4 /b/ /r/ /ou/ /ght/
h) through? 3 /th/ /r/ /ough/
i) thorough?4  /th/ /o/ /r/ /ough/
j) cane? 3 /c/  /a/ /n/
k) Bible? 5 /b/ /i/ /b/ /l/ /e/
Dica:
Digraphs count as 1 phoneme.
Even if a vowel has a double sound, it is 1 phoneme. For example, in the word “shy”, even with the sound /ai/, you will have 1 phoneme.
“time” has 3 phonemes /t/ /i/ /m/. At the end of the word is a magic E. It doesn’t count as a phoneme.
If the word ends in “le” the “e” is counted.
Dica:
Digraphs count as 1 phoneme.
Even if a vowel has a double sound, it is 1 phoneme. For example, in the word “shy”, even with the sound /ai/, you will have 1 phoneme.
“time” has 3 phonemes /t/ /i/ /m/. At the end of the word is a magic E. It doesn’t count as a phoneme.
If the word ends in “le” the “e” is counted.
Atenção
How many words are there in “scarecrow”?
Six in Australian and uk English – s / c / are / c / r / ow. However American English has more emphasis on the first “r”, and thus there is an extra phoneme – s/ c / a / re / c/ r / ow (7 phonemes)
How many words are there in “whistle”?
Five or six. Five if you pronounce / w / I / s / e / l / Six if you aspire the H: /h / w / I / s / e / l.
Refere-se a aula 3. Assistir.
Aula 4
A consonant is a speech sound made by partially or completely blocking the flow of air through the mouth (using the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate).
CONSONANTS – include sounds which could be classified phonetically as vowels (Y, W).  
CONTOIDS – don’t include  sounds which could be classified phonetically as vowels (Y, W).
CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT FLAP, GLOTTAL, GLIDE and APPROXIMANT
FLAPPING RULE OR TAPPING
Intervocalic alveolar flapping (more accurately 'tapping') is a phonological process found in many dialects of English, especially North American English and Australian English, by which T and D surface as the tap [ɾ]:
- after vowel: butter, buddy, better;
- after r: barter;
- after l: faculty (but not immediately post-tonic: alter → al[tʰ]er, not *al[ɾ]er).
GLOTTAL
Glottal is a phonological phenomenon that occurs in everyday informal English. The phonetic symbol for a glottal stop is ʔ. In a true glottal stop there is complete obstruction to the passage of air, and the result is a period of silence. Hold your breath. 
It happens:
With a t-sound before unstressed vowel:
Fountain – Foun - tain (like a hiccup);
Cur – tain;
Bu – tton.
 Before a final T:
I can’t ;
Let me know.
In front of a p, t or k if there is not a vowel immediately following: 
e.g. captive - kÆʔptiv; 
catkin’ kÆʔtkin;
arctic’ a:ʔktik.
 NOTE: A similar case is that of tʃ when following a stressed vowel, as in in ‘butcher’ bυʔtʃə. 
To learn more: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=edxwQK1zBxw
APPROXIMANT (VOWEL-LIKE) 
Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough or with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Approximants are divided into the following two sub-classes:
Liquids: 
lateral approximants like [l] (as in less);
non-lateral approximants like [ɹ] (as in rest).
 semi-vowels - also known as "glides”. They are vowels masquerading as consonants.  
Examples of Y as a Consonant - yes - yam - yell - yellow - yogurt – yacht.
Examples of Y as a Vowel - gym - my - cycle - baby - hairy  - sky – fairy.
Examples of Y as a Semivowel – valley. 
 Examples of W as a Consonant – winged – why – swell.
Examples of W as a semivowel – bow – jaw –known – lawn.
VOICED AND VOICELESS SOUNDS
Voiced
Involving vibration of the vocal cords
PRONOUNCING FINAL CONSONANTS
A final consonant is any consonant that is the last sound in a word. Consonant sounds that end words are very important. They can determine grammatical as well as word meaning. Careful production of final consonant is necessary to convey your message correctly and to sound like a native speaker.
Words pronounced with a final consonant often have “e” as the final letter. When “e” is the last letter in a word, it is usually silent; a consonant is actually the last SOUND.Examples:            
made – phone – bite – have
In class number three we saw: A vowel is a speech sound made by allowing breath to flow out of the mouth, without closing any part of the mouth or throat.
Vowels sounds are always voiced.
THERE ARE NO NASAL VOWELS IN ENGLISH
Diacritics – Macron (ā) is used to indicate a long vowel; Breves (ă) are used to mark short vowels.
vOWEL DIGRAPHS (LONG VOWEL SOUNDS)
A vowel digraph is two letters with the first letter making a long sound and the second letter is silent.  It is usually called:  "first one does the talking, the second keeps on walking." 
In English include EA (teach), EE (free), EY (key), IE (piece),), OO (book), OA (road) and UE (true), AU (audience), EO (people), IO (region), AI (main), OU (soul). 
ATTENTION: friend (the long sound is the ‘–e’, the  ‘-i’ is a silent letter).
Sight words are also called IRREGULAR WORDS or OUTLAW WORDS. They are words that not follow these rules of long and short sound.
WHOM — This should have a short vowel sounds because it has a closed syllable, like sat and cot, but it has a long sound.
AGAIN, AGAINST, SAYS AND SAID — These should have long a sounds because of the ai vowel combination, like say and pain (digraph) but they have short sounds.
BEEN — This should have a long e sound, like seen, but it has a short sound
The vowels ‘i’ and ‘o’ have the long vowel sound when followed by two or more consonants. Exceptions: MONTH, FRONT, OTHER, AMONG. (SHORT VOWEL SOUND).
When the vowel ‘o’ is followed by ‘i’, the two-vowel rule is not followed, as in ‘BOIL’. – neither long nor short.
Assistir aula online, aula sobre sons
A syllable is the basic rhythm unit in English. The number of syllable equals the number of vowels.
a syllable ALWAYS has a vowel
The syllable count of a sound configuration is the same as the number of vowels.
Rhyme (or rime): the rest of the syllable, after the onset (the underlined portions of the words above). The rhyme can also be divided up: 
Rhyme = nucleus + coda 
The nucleus, as the term suggests, is the core or essential part of a syllable. A nucleus must be present in order for a syllable to be present. The syllable structure analysis of the words 'read', 'flop',  'strap' and 'window' are as follows (IPA symbols are used to show the sounds in the word/syllable):
read = one syllable 
Onset = [ r ] 
Rhyme = [ i:d ]   (within the rhyme:)
Nucleus = [ i: ] 
Coda   = [ d ]
flop = one syllable 
Onset = [ f l ] 
Rhyme  = [ o p ]Nucleus  =  [ o ]
Coda  =  [ p ]
window = 2 syllables 
First syllable:  [win]
Onset  = [ w ]
Rhyme  = [ i n ]
Nucleus = [ i ]
Coda  = [ n ]
Second syllable: [ d o ] 
Onset = [ d ]
Rhyme = [ o ]
Nucleus = [ o ]
(This syllable has no coda)
Para achar o número de sílabas da palavra
Count the vowels in the word.
Subtract any silent vowels, (like the silent ‘e’ at the end of a word or the second vowel when two vowels are together in a syllable).
Subtract one vowel from every diphthong, (diphthongs only count as one vowel sound).
The number of vowels sounds left is the same as the number of syllables.
The number of syllables that you hear when you pronounce a word is the same as the number of vowels sounds heard.
For example: the word ‘came’ has 2 vowels, but the ‘e’ is silent, leaving one vowel sound and one syllable. The word ‘outside’ has 4 vowels, but the ‘e’ is silent and the ‘ou’ is a diphthong which counts as only one sound, so this word has only two vowels sounds and therefore, two syllables.
GENERAL RULE:
A split which gives only one or two letters at the beginning of the second line is never permissible, and one which give only one or two letters at the end of the first line is undesirable, but not impermissible. (Exceptions are prefixes, such as re-, di-, etc.).
So: a word such as ‘actor’ in practice would not be desirable, as  ‘ac-tor’ would give two letters at the end of the first letter.
GENERAL RULE:
A word such as ‘painter’ in practice would not be permissible, as ‘paint-er’ would give two letters at the beginning of the second line.
Aula 7: Letras Mudas
Auxiliary letters which, with another letter, constitute digraphs, i.e. two letters combined which represent a single phoneme. For a revision, see class three.
Dummy letters with no relation to neighbouring letters and no correspondence in pronunciation: 
Some are inert letters, which are sounded in a cognate word: e.g. <n> in damn (cf. damnation
The rest are empty letters which never have a sound, e.g. <w> in answer, <h> in Sarah, <s> in island, <b> in subtle, the <t> in ballet. These present the greatest difficulty to writers and often to readers.
RHOTIC AND NON-RHOTIC ACCENTS
Generally, accents can be grouped into what is called RHOTIC or NON-RHOTIC. 
A RHOTIC accent will say every /R/ that is written. Speak aloud the following sentence and if you hear and feel yourself saying every /R/ sound, you are a RHOTIC speaker. 
Let’s analyze the following sentence:
Rebecca ran quickly through the flowers and around the river to catch Rover, her overactive dog.
NON-RHOTIC speakers say the /R/ sound ONLY if it is followed by a vowel sound.  
Non-rhotic speakers would pronounce the R’s in:
Rebecca ran quickly through the flowers and around the river to catch Rover, her overactive dog.
In ‘her overactive dog’ there is a LINKING /R/ where the /R/ links one word to the next.
STRESS AND INTONATION
Intonation is the tune of what you say. More specifically, it is the combination of musical tones on which we pronounce the syllables that make up our speech.  It’s closely related to sentence-stress. 
Intonation can determine grammatical meaning as well as the speaker’s attitude.  It will tell whether a person is making a statement or asking a question; it will also indicate if the person is confident, doubtful, shy, annoyed, or impatient. * Pitch = entonation
Aula 9: Some Particularities of English Phonology (Algumas Peculiaridades da Fonologia inglesa)
Analyse the concepts of restricted phonemes and allophones. (analisar os conceitos de fonemas restritos e alofones.);
2. analyse the phonological differences between British and American Accents. (analisar as diferenças fonológicas entre inglês britânico e o americano.).
A restricted phoneme is a phoneme that can only occur in a certain environment: There are restrictions as to where it can occur. English has several restricted phonemes:
 /ŋ/, as in sing, occurs only at the end of a syllable, never at the beginning 
 /h/ occurs only before vowels and at the beginning of a syllable, never at the end 
 In non-rhotic dialects, /r/ can only occur before a vowel, never at the end of a word or before a consonant.
In phonology, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or phones) used to pronounce a single phoneme. For example, [pʰ] (as in pin) and [p] (as in spin) are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language.
The aspiration of the English /p/, /t/ and /k/, when occurring word-initially or at the beginning of stressed syllables, has no equivalent in Portuguese.
Homonym
The same spelling and the same pronunciation but have different meanings. 
• stalk (part of a plant) and stalk (follow/harass a person);
• left (past tense of leave) and left (opposite of right);
In all the examples above we have the so called TRUE HOMONYMS.
There are two types of homonyms: homophones and homographs
Homophones
Same sound, different spelling 
• To, too, two;
Homographs
Different sound, same spelling (Also called in English HETERONYM)
• Bow (the front of a ship) and bow (a type of knot);
• row (to argue or an argument) and row (as in to row a boat or a row of seats – a pair of homophones).
Capitonyms are words that share the same spelling but have different meanings when capitalized (and may or may not have different pronunciations). Such words include polish (to make shiny) and Polish (from Poland); march (organized, uniformed, steady and rhythmic walking forward) and March (the third month of the year in the Gregorian Calendar). However, both polish or march at the beginning of sentences still need to be capitalized.
POLYSEME
Same sound, same spelling, different meaning
Skate (glide on ice) E Skate(a kind of fish)
POLYSEME = related origin (they have the same origins, they come from the same language or the same word of the same language)
mouth (of a river) and mouth (of an animal). [From Old English mūth.]
Strange spellings
Most people are aware that the letter y can serve as both a consonant and a vowel. However, cwm (pronounced ‘koom,’ defined as a steep-walled hollow on a hillside) is a rare case of a word using w as a vowel, as is crwth (pronounced ‘krooth,’ a type of stringed instrument). Both words are in MWCD. They derive from the Welsh use of w as a vowel. The word cwm is commonly applied to Welsh place names; cwms of glacial origin are a common feature of Welsh geography.
Arguably, however, both these examples may belong in 'Words of Foreign Origin,’ as they are actual words in the Welsh language which have been absorbed in the local forms of English. See 'coombe' as the south-west English equivalent of 'cwm'.
The longest word without repeating any letters
‘Uncopyrightable,’ with fifteen letters, is the longest word in English in which no letter is used more than once.
Vowels in a row
There is only one common word in English that has five vowels in a row: ‘queueing.’
Consonants in a row
The word ‘knightsbridge’ has six consonants in a row, as does ‘latchstring.’
Vowels in alphabetical order
There are several words that feature all five vowels in alphabetical order, including ‘facetious’ and ‘abstemious.’  
Strange pairs or groups of words
EWE and YOU are a pair of words with identical pronunciations that have no letters in common. Another example is the pair EYE and I. However, such word pairs are often dependent on the accent of the speaker. For instance Americans might well believe that A and EH form such a pair whereas other English speakers might not.
Strange pronunciation
The most notorious group of letters in the English language, ough, can be pronounced at least nine different ways. 
‘UFF’ tough, enough 
‘OFF’ cough 
‘OW’ bough, slough 
‘OH’ though, dough
‘OR’ thought Pronounced ‘AW’ in American English
‘OO’ through 
‘UH’ thorough Pronounced ‘OH’ in American English
‘UP’ hiccough variant spelling of ‘hiccup,’, though the latter form is recommended in both British and US.
Differencesin Pronunciation 
Perhaps the biggest difference between British and American English lies in the pronunciation. In British English, many vowels have different sounds and are usually not nasalized. Some important differences are: 
Stressed vowels are usually longer in American English. In packet, for example, the ‘a’ is longer. 
In British English, the ‘a’ in words like can't, class and fast is pronounced at the back of the mouth whereas in America English it's pronounced at the front of the mouth.
In British English the consonant /r/ is pronounced only before a vowel (for example in red and  bedroom). In all other cases the /r/ is silent, sounding more similar to the sound ‘ah’ (for example in  car, learn, over). In American English the /r/ is always pronounced wherever it appears in word.
In American English the ‘t’ between vowels is pronounced as a soft ‘d’ (/d/), so that writer and rider sound similar. British English speakers usually pronounce the ‘t’ as /t/.
The pot is hot - In British English, the ‘o’ in words like pot and hot is pronounced by rounding lips.
Aula 10: Transcription Process - Revision (Processo de Transcrição -  Revisão)  
Revised the concepts seen in the previous classes by means of examples and exercises. (revisou os conceitos das aulas anteriores por meio de exemplos e exercícios.);
2. developed a transcription work that involves the theoretical concepts as phonetics, transcription, stress and intonation. (desenvolveu um trabalho de transcrição que envolva os conceitos teóricos como fonética, transcrição, tonicidade e entonação.).
 Fonetica = Study the sounds of a language. For example, in Portuguese there are 26 letters (agora com o Novo Acordo Ortográfico) and 31 phonemes. In English there are 26 letters and 36 phonemes. (24 consonant sounds, 12 vowel sounds), and 8 diphthongs.
Fonologia = Study the variation of these sounds according to accents and dialects.
Consider the word might, in which there are three phonemes m-ight-t (represented as m/ai/t using the Phonetic Alphabet), changing just a single phoneme can completely change the meaning of this word, e.g. mate, m-a-te (represented as m/ei/t phonetically). 
A transcription that only indicates the different phonemes of a language is said to be phonemic. On the other hand, a transcription that indicates finer detail, including allophonic variation like the two English L's, is said to be phonetic.
The International Phonetic Association recommends that a phonetic transcription should be enclosed in square brackets ‘[ ]’. A transcription that specifically denotes only phonological contrasts may be enclosed in slashes ‘/ /’ instead. If one is in doubt, it is best to use brackets, for setting off a transcription with slashes one makes a theoretical claim that every symbol within is phonemically contrastive for the language being transcribed.
a) phonemic symbols / /
b) phonetic symbols [ ]
Phonetic transcription (or phonetic notation) is the visual representation of speech sounds (or phones). The most common type of phonetic transcription uses a phonetic alphabet, e.g., the International Phonetic Alphabet. (Narrow transcription, which includes allophones) Phonetic transcription is much more precise than phonemic transcription. A broad phonetic transcription gives some more information than phonemic transcription and a narrow transcription gives much more information than phonemic transcription.
Phonemic transcription does not represent precise phonetic qualities and therefore it is possible to use several possible symbols to represent one phoneme. We will follow the IPA consonants and use length marks for vowels, i.e. as Roach and Longman dictionary ( i.e. recognizes qualitative and quantitative differences). Phonemic transcription uses a restricted set of symbols to capture the meaningful sound contrasts of a language.
The English consonant system
A consonant is a speech sound which obstructs the flow of air through the vocal tract. Some consonants do this a lot and some do it very little: the ones that make maximum obstruction. There are 24 consonants in standard southern British English. They are plotted on the chart in the Table below.
The RP variety of British English, with twenty vowel phonemes (standard American English has fifteen), has a relatively large vowel system, which is characteristic of Germanic languages (Swedish has even more vowels). There are seven short vowels, five long vowels and eight diphthongs. The vowels and their corresponding phonemic symbols are shown in the table below:
Accent: This word is used (rather confusingly) in two different senses: 
accent may refer to prominence given to a syllable, usually by the use of pitch. For example, in the word ‘potato’ the middle syllable is the most prominent; if you say the word on its own you will probably produce a fall in pitch on the middle syllable, making that syllable accented. In this sense, accent is distinguished from the more general term stress, which is more often used to refer to all sorts of prominence (including prominence resulting from increased loudness, length or sound quality), or to refer to the effort made by the speaker when producing a stressed syllable.
(2) accent also refers to a particular way of pronouncing: for example, you might find a number of English speakers who all share the same grammar and vocabulary, but pronounce what they say with different accents such as Scots or Cockney, or BBC pronunciation. The word  accent in this sense is distinguished from dialect, which usually refers to a variety of a language that differs from other varieties in grammar and/or vocabulary.
Approximant: (VOWEL-LIKE) Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough or with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Approximants are divided into the following two sub-classes: 
• liquids 
lateral approximants like [l] (as in less).
non-lateral approximants like (as in rest).
• semi-vowels - also known as ‘glides’. They are vowels masquerading as consonants.  
BBC pronunciation: The British Broadcasting Corporation is looked up by many people in Britain and abroad as a custodian of good English; this attitude is normally only in respect of certain broadcasters who represent the formal style of the Corporation, such as newsreaders and announcers, and does not apply to the more informal voices of people such as disc-jockeys and chat-show presenters (who may speak as they please). The high status given to the BBC’s voices relates both to pronunciation and to grammar, and there are listeners who write angry letters to the BBC or the newspapers to complain about ‘incorrect’ pronunciations such as ‘loranorder’ for ‘law and order.’
Although the attitude that the BBC has the responsibility to preserve some imaginary pure form of English for posterity is extreme, there is much to be said for using the ‘formal’ BBC accent as a model for foreign learners wishing to acquire an English accent. The old standard ‘Received Pronunciation (RP)’ is based on a very old-fashioned view of the language; the present-day BBC accent is easily accessible and easy to record and examine. It is relatively free from class-based associations and it is available throughout the world where BBC broadcasts can be received; however, in recent years, the Overseas Service of the BBC has taken to use a number of newsreaders and announcers who are not native speakers of English and have what is, by British standards, a foreign accent. The BBC nowadays uses quietly a large number of speakers from Celtic countries (particularly Ireland, Scotland and Wales), and the description of ‘BBC Pronunciation’ should not be treated as including such speakers.
Glottal stop, glottalisation: Glottal is a phonological phenomenon that occurs in informal English everyday. The phonetic symbol for a glottal stop is ʔ. This is found in many urban accents, notably London (Cockney), Leeds, Glasgow,Edinburgh and others, and is increasingly accepted among relatively highly-educated young people.
Intonation: Intonation generally refers to linguistically significant variations in pitch level across an utterance or part of an utterance. Intonation in English is an important vehicle for meaning. It helps the listener to get a clearer picture of what the speaker intends to mean. Intonation in English fulfills many overlapping functions including attitudinal, grammatical, discursive and pragmatic. However, there is still much to be learned about how we acquire and use intonation systematically and how it can be taught to second language learners.