English Grammar

Prévia do material em texto

TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 
CONTENT PAGE 
American English vs. British English 3 
Capital letters 5 
Punctuation rules 6 
Punctuation exercise 10 
Plural forms 11 
Articles rules 13 
Articles exercise 1 17 
Articles exercise 2 19 
Prepositional collocations 20 
Prepositions exercise 1 25 
Prepositions exercise 2 30 
Prepositions exercise 3 32 
Prepositions exercise 4 35 
Logical connectors (table) 36 
Logical connectors exercises 43 
Subject-verb agreement 53 
Inversions 57 
Advanced structures 61 
Subjunctive 63 
Verbs as objects 65 
Adjectives and adverbs 68 
Countable and uncountable nouns 72 
Relative clauses 77 
False cognates 81 
Vocabulary 1 86 
Vocabulary 2 92 
Vocabulary 3 99 
 
 
 
 
 
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AMERICAN ENGLISH VS. BRITISH ENGLISH 
 
 
Some spelling differences between American and British English 
 
 
-or vs. -our -ze vs. -se / -zation vs. -sation 
American British American British 
color colour analyze analyse 
favor favour apologize apologise 
favorite favourite criticize criticise 
flavor flavour jeopardize jeopardise 
honor honour epitomization epitomisation 
labor labour memorization memorisation 
neighbor neighbour organization organisation 
behavior behaviour valorization valorisation 
 
 
 
-ll vs. -l -og vs. -ogue 
American British American British 
enrollment enrolment analog analogue 
fulfill fulfil catalog catalogue 
skillful skilful dialog dialogue 
 
 
 
-er vs. -re -e vs. –oe or -ae 
American British American British 
center centre encyclopedia encyclopaedia 
kilometer kilometre fetus foetus 
meter metre maneuver manoeuvre 
semester semestre medieval mediaeval 
theater theatre archeological archaeological 
 
 
 
dropped -e -ense vs. -ence 
American British American British 
aging ageing defense defence 
judgment judgement license licence 
sizable sizeable offense offence 
 
 
 
other 
American British 
jewelry jewellery 
draft draught 
pajamas pyjamas 
plow plough 
program (verb and noun) programme (noun) / program (verb) 
tire tyre 
check (verb and noun) cheque (noun) / check (verb) 
practice (verb and noun) practise (verb) / practice (noun) 
percent per cent 
 
 
 
 
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-l vs. –ll 
base form American British 
(stress on the 1st syllable) 
counsel counseling counselling 
equal equaling equalling 
model modeling modelling 
quarrel quarreling quarrelling 
signal signaling signalling 
travel traveling travelling 
(stress on the last syllable) 
excel excelling excelling 
propel propelling propelling 
 
 
base form American (regular) British (irregular) 
dream dreamed dreamt 
leap leaped leapt 
learn learned learnt 
 
 
base form American (irregular) British (regular) 
fit fit fitted 
forecast forecast forecasted 
wed wed wedded 
knit knit knitted 
light lit lighted 
strive strove strived 
 
 
 
Some lexical differences between American and British English 
 
 
American British American British 
apartment flat line queue 
airplane aeroplane mailbox, post office box pillar-box 
billboard hoarding main street high street 
bus coach mall shopping centre 
candy sweets movie theater cinema 
cell (cellular) phone mobile phone pants trousers 
chapstick lip balm parentheses brackets 
checkers draughts parking lot car park 
checking account current account pedestrian crossing zebra crossing 
diaper nappy potato chips potato crisps 
downtown the town centre quotation marks inverted commas 
editorial leading article raincoat, overcoat mackintosh 
elevator lift raise in salary pay rise 
eraser rubber round-trip ticket return ticket 
faucet tap savings account deposit account 
be fired (from a job) be sacked shrimp prawn 
flashlight torch sidewalk pavement 
football American football soccer football 
freeway motorway stove cooker 
garbage, trash rubbish subway tube, underground 
garbage can dustbin truck lorry 
gas or gasoline petrol tuxedo dinner jacket 
German shepherd Alsatian (dog) vacation holidays 
high school secondary school washroom, bathroom toilet 
holiday bank holiday yard garden 
license plate number plate zip code postal code 
 
5 
 
 
CAPITAL LETTERS 
 
Capital letters are used to give emphasis to or call attention to certain words. 
 
1. The first word of every sentence, in fact, the first word in writing of any kind should begin 
with a capital; as, "Time flies." "My dear friend," 
2. Use a capital letter for the personal pronoun 'I': “What can I say?” 
3. Use a capital letter to begin a sentence or to begin speech: “The man arrived. He sat down.”; 
“Suddenly Mary asked, ‘Do you love me?’ " 
4. Use capital letters for abbreviations and acronyms: “G.M.T. or GMT (Greenwich Mean Time)”; 
“N.A.T.O. or NATO or Nato (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)” 
5. Use a capital letter for days of the week, months of the year, holidays, seasons: “Monday, 
Tuesday “; “January, February”; “Christmas, Armistice Day”; “Summer, Autumn” 
6. Use a capital letter for countries, languages & nationalities, religions: “China, France”; 
“Japanese, English”; “Christianity, Buddhism” 
7. Use a capital letter for people's names and titles: “Professor Jones, Dr Smith, King Henry 
VIII” 
8. The titles of honorable, state and political offices begin with a capital; as, "President, 
Chairman, Governor, Alderman." 
9. All assumed names (noms-de-guerre), as well as names given for distinction, call for capitals, 
as, "The Wizard of the North," "The Northern Gael," "Poor Robin," etc. 
10. Use a capital letter for trade-marks and names of companies and other organizations: 
“Pepsi Cola, Microsoft Corporation, Toyota”; “the United Nations, the Red Cross” 
11. Use a capital letter for planets, places and monuments: “London, Paris, Asia, the Middle 
East, the North Pole”; “the Eiffel Tower, St Paul's Cathedral”; “Jupiter, Mars” 
12. Use a capital letter for names of vehicles such as ships, trains and spacecraft: “the Titanic, 
the Orient Express, Challenger 2, the Enterprise” 
13. Such words as river, sea, mountain, and cardinal points, when used generally are common, 
not proper nouns, and require no capital. But when such are used with an adjective or 
adjunct to specify a particular object they become proper names, and therefore require a 
capital, as in "Mississippi River, North Sea, Alleghany Mountains," "The North fought 
against the South." 
14. Words derived from proper names require a capital such as "American, Irish, Christian, 
Americanize, Christianize." 
15. The names of political parties, religious sects and schools of thought begin with capitals 
such as "Republican, Democrat, Catholic, Presbyterian, Muslim, Buddhist, Rationalists." 
16. Terms which refer to great events in the history of the race require capitals: "The Flood, 
Magna Charta, Declaration of Independence, The Civil War, The Middle Ages, The Black 
Death". 
17. When relative words such as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, etc., precede a 
proper name, they are written with capitals, as in “Father Abraham, Brother John, Sister 
Jane, Aunt Eliza.” 
18. Use a capital letter for titles of books, poems, songs, plays, films etc: “War and Peace, The 
Lion King, Gone With The Wind, The Remains of the Day.” 
19. In the Roman notation numbers are denoted by capitals, as in “I, II, III, V, X, L, C, D, M.” 
20. The names applied to the Supreme Being begin with capitals: "God, Lord, Creator, 
Providence, Almighty, The Deity, Heavenly Father, Holy One." In this respect the names 
applied to the Savior also require capitals: "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Man of Galilee, The 
Crucified, The Anointed One," as well as the designations of Biblicalcharacters such as 
"Lily of Israel, Help of Christians, Prince of the Apostles, Star of the Sea." Pronouns 
referring to God and Christ take capitals, as in "His work." 
21. Expressions used to designate the Bible or any of its particular divisions begin with a capital, 
as "The Sacred Book, Holy Book, God's Word, Old Testament, New Testament, Gospel of 
St. Matthew." 
22. The names applied to the Evil One require capitals: "Beelzebub, Prince of Darkness, Satan, 
King of Hell, Devil, Incarnate Fiend, Tempter of Men, Father of Lies, Hater of Good." 
 
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PUNCTUATION RULES 
 
 
 
Apostrophe ( ’ ) 
 
a) An apostrophe indicates the omission of a letter or number in contractions. shouldn’t / doesn’t / 
can’t / o’clock / the gold rush of ‘49 
b) An apostrophe ‘s’ form the plural of letters, figures, symbols, and words. Writers should cross their 
t’s and dot their i's. / Count to 100 by 5’s. / Try to cut down on the number of and’s you 
use in your writing. / We were happy in the 60’s. (apostrophes in decades are optional) 
An apostrophe is used to indicate the possessive case, except for personal pronouns. 
c) If the word (either singular or plural) does not end in an ‘s’ or ‘z’ sound, add the apostrophe ‘s’ (‘s). the 
girl’s dress / yesterday’s problem 
d) If the singular ends in an ‘s’ or ‘z’ sound, add the apostrophe ‘s’ (‘s) unless the second ‘s’ makes the 
pronunciation difficult; in such cases, add only the apostrophe. Lois’s coat / Charles’s dog / St 
James’s / boss’s decision, but Moses’ story / Aristophanes’ comedies 
e) If the plural does not end in an ‘s’ or ‘z’ sound, add the apostrophe ‘s’ (‘s). children's, Frenchmen's, 
media's 
f) If the plural ends in an ‘s’ or ‘z’ sound, add only the apostrophe (s’). ladies' dresses (dresses for 
ladies) / boys’ shoes (shoes of the boys) / five dollars’ worth / bosses' 
g) In compound words, make only the last word possessive. brother-in-law’s books (singular 
possessive) / mothers-in-law’s books (plural possessive) / someone else’s book 
h) In nouns of joint possession, make only the last noun possessive. Jane and Alice’s book (the same 
book belongs to both) 
i) In nouns of individual possession, make both nouns possessive. Jane’s and Alice’s books (each one 
owns a different book) 
j) Although singular in other respects, the United States, the United Nations, the Philippines, etc, have a 
plural possessive apostrophe: eg, Who will be the United States' next president? 
k) Notice the difference: people's = of (the) people, but peoples'= of peoples 
l) Do not use the apostrophe ‘s’ (‘s) in Achilles heel 
 
 
 
Brackets ( [ ] ) 
 
Brackets are used to set off editorial corrections or additions to quoted matter. The Cardinal sent a 
message to his trusted subordinate in Rome [Bishop Francetti] to ask for further information. 
/ On his desk he found a note: ‘Do not try to find me for i [sic] will be far away when you read 
this.’ (A bracketed sic tells the reader that the error appears in the original and is not a misprint.) 
 
 
 
Colon ( : ) 
 
A colon is used to direct attention to what is to follow. 
a) A colon may introduce an appositive. Poetry may be divided into three classes: narrative, lyric, 
and dramatic. / All of his energy was directed toward his chief goal: graduation from 
college. / She has always cared about one person: herself. 
b) A colon may introduce a quotation. The advertisement for the Hawaiian trip read as follows: 
“Visit six islands and learn for yourself what Paradise of the Pacific means.” / Kennedy 
eloquently reminded us: “Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do 
for your country.” 
c) A colon may separate two independent clauses when the second clause explains the first. Not all of 
the students agreed to participate in the public demonstration: several preferred to write 
letters to the newspaper editor. / There is only one way for the country to avert financial 
catastrophe: the government must declare a period of great austerity. 
d) A colon is used to list items. They brought presents: gold, frankincense and oil at $35 a barrel. 
e) Do not use a colon after a linking verb or a preposition. (incorrect: *Present at the meeting were: 
Mr. Jones, Mr. Osgood, and Ms. Smith.) 
 
 
7 
 
 
Comma ( , ) 
 
a) A comma may separate independent clauses that are connected by a coordinate conjunction (and, but, 
for, or, nor). We left the house early to drive to the airport, but heavy traffic caused us to 
miss our plane. / 
Note: The comma is often omitted from a compound sentence if its clauses are very short. I called and 
she answered. 
b) A comma follows an introductory subordinate clause or phrase. Although they had only two weeks 
to travel, they managed to see many villages in Mexico. / Because the road was in such 
bad condition, we decided to take the train. / Hoping to finish all the typing that had 
accumulated, the secretary decided to work overtime for several hours. / After hiking for 
three hours, we stopped to rest. / In the middle of the first semester, he began to 
understand the principles of economics. 
Note: The comma is often omitted following a very short introductory phrase. At work he was friendly 
and industrious. / On August 2nd he invaded. / Next time the world will be prepared. 
c) Commas set off nonrestrictive clauses, phrases, or appositives within a sentence. The new church, 
which was built with donated funds, will open next week. / Carl Sandburg, the biographer 
of Lincoln, won the Pulitzer Prize. 
d) Commas separate words, phrases, or clauses in a series. We gave them food, clothing, and shelter 
for the night. / At the beach they learned to swim, to fish and to water ski. / I saw the 
celebrity when he arrived at the hotel, when he went shopping downtown, and when he 
entered the restaurant that evening. 
e) If there is no conjunction with coordinate items, a comma separates each item. He was living in a 
small, dark room. / Did you read about her happy, short life? / It was a cold, windy night. 
f) Commas are often used preceding a direct quotation. He said, “I have found the key.” 
g) A comma sets off a contrasted element. The boy’s uncle, not his aunt, will meet you at the 
airport. 
h) Commas set off geographical names. Leningrad, Russia, used to be named St. Peterburg. / Los 
Angeles, California, was considered as the site for the 1984 Olympics. 
i) Commas set off items in dates and addresses. The convention was to be held on March 18, 2005, 
in Houston, Texas. / Address the letter to Mr. F. J. Barnes, Denver, Colorado. 
j) Commas set off parenthetical expressions. As a matter of fact, I never expected him to complete 
his studies. / The house is, for the most part, very satisfactory. / “If you leave this 
afternoon,” he said, “you will arrive in plenty of time. 
k) Commas set off direct address. Come inside, Michael, and join us. / You see, my friends, the 
problem is not a simple one. 
l) Commas set off interjections. Well, I decided to try to turn the boat around. / Oh, how beautiful 
the tropical sunset is! 
m) Commas are used whenever it is necessary to prevent misreading. In the morning, light began to 
flood our room. / The problem is, is there time to shower before lunch? / Inside, the old 
house was still in good condition. / As soon as she entered, the room seemed more 
cheerful. / Before eating, the dog barked three times. 
n) Commas are used after last names when the normal order of the name is reversed. Kennedy, 
Howard J. 
o) Commas are used to precede the last three digits in numbers of 1,000 and higher. 1,200 / 15,000 / 
750,000 / 45,000,000 
 
 
 
Dash ( – ) 
 
a) The dash may be used in pairs for parentheses, but not more than one pair per sentence, ideally notmore than one pair per paragraph. It should be used sparingly, especially as a substitute for other 
marks of punctuation. 
b) The dash is used to introduce an explanation, amplification, paraphrase, particularization or correction 
of what immediately precedes it. The boy – he had been out playing in the snow – ran into the 
house crying bitterly about something. 
c) It alternates informally with a colon before an enumeration. There are three qualities in people 
that I hate – deceit, dishonesty, and dullness. 
d) It alternates informally with a semicolon between two independent clauses. He claimed that he was 
too ill to attend the meeting – the truth is, he didn’t want to go. 
e) It alternates informally with a comma, but it marks a greater break in continuity than a comma does. 
- with a group of items that already have commas within them. Three books – Shakespeare’s 
‘Plays’, the Bible, and Walt Whitman’s ‘Leaves of Grass’ – have strongly shaped the 
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poet’s work. / He stood up – small, bent, and frightened – waiting for us to speak 
first. 
- before an appositive. He is now faced with an important decision – a decision that can 
affect his entire future. / One food grown in Southeast Asia – rice – is of the highest 
quality. 
f) A dash is often preferred before a summarizing pronoun used as an appositive. Da Vinci, Rembrandt, 
Cezanne, Picasso – all have the quality of greatness in their paintings. / The white sand, 
tall palm trees, and rolling surf – all these combine to make Hapuna Beach my favorite 
vacation spot. 
 
 
 
Exclamation mark ( ! ) 
 
An exclamation mark is used after a forceful or emotional statement and sometimes after a command. 
Listen to me! / Watch out! / Shut that door! 
 
 
 
Hyphen ( - ) 
 
a) Hyphenate a combination of two or more words used as a single adjective modifier immediately before 
a noun. a well-known actor / a devil-may-care attitude / an eighteen-year-old daughter. 
The hyphen is omitted if the first word of a compound adjective is an adverb ending in ‘-ly’ or if the 
combination is a proper noun with a fixed meaning. a generally accepted rule / New England 
schools 
b) Use a hyphen to hyphenate compound numbers between twenty and one hundred. thirty-five / 
sixty-three / ninety-nine 
c) Place a hyphen between the numerator and denominator of a fraction unless either part contains a 
hyphen. two-thirds / five eights / twenty-two sixteenths. In an expression such as one half of 
and in a fraction intended as merely roughly approximate, the hyphen is generally omitted. About 
three fourths of the students attended the game. 
d) Hyphenate a compound noun in which the second element is a preposition or adverb. take-off / kick-
off / runner-up / hanger-on 
 
 
 
Parentheses ( ) 
 
a) Parentheses are used to enclose figures. The treaty stipulated that the countries would (1) 
cease fighting, (2) respect each other’s boundaries, and (3) resume trade. 
b) Parentheses are used to set off parenthetical, supplementary, or illustrative material. He said (and we 
assumed that he was sincere) that he would attend the ceremony without fail. / As we 
drove down the mountain road (could this truly be called a road?), our brakes began to 
smoke. 
c) If a whole sentence is within parentheses, the period should be inside. 
d) Brackets, not parentheses, should be used for interpolations in direct quotations: ‘Let them [the 
poor] eat cake.’ To use parentheses implies that the words inside them were part of the original text 
which is being quoted. 
 
 
 
Period ( . ) 
 
a) A period is used at the end of a statement or command. He is a student. / Take this medicine 
three times a day. / The government has promised to reduce inflation. 
b) Periods should not be used in abbreviations. etc, eg, ie, UN, US, NATO 
c) Use plenty. They keep sentences short. This helps the reader. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
9 
 
 
 
Question mark ( ? ) 
 
a) A question mark is placed at the end of a question. Is it time for the train to arrive? / Did you see 
the eclipse? 
b) Except in sentences that include a question in quotation marks, question-marks always come at the end 
of the sentence. Thus: Where could he get a drink?, but ‘Where could he get a drink?’, he 
wondered. 
 
 
 
Quotation marks ( “ ” ) 
 
a) Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation. She replied, “Look for the 
letter that ends ‘Most sincerely yours.’ ” 
b) Use quotation marks to set off titles of poems, songs, and of articles, short stories, and other parts of a 
longer work. The class like the story “A Rose for Emily”. / “Get Me to the Church on Time” is 
a song from the musical play “My Fair Lady”. 
c) Use quotation marks to set off words used in a special sense. What he calls “stylish” I would 
consider to be very out of date. / The professor referred to the student as a “frisky colt”. 
d) Always place a comma or period inside quotation marks. “If you try again,” she said, “I think you 
will succeed.” / Although he told us that he is “restless,” I think a more appropriate word 
would be “lazy.” / He said, “The note read ‘No milk today.’ ” 
e) Always place a colon or semicolon outside quotation marks. I looked blankly at my music 
instructor when he said “Andante”; I did not understand the meaning of the term. / He 
gave us what he called his “recipe”: think well, listen carefully, speak cautiously. 
f) Place a question mark, dash, or exclamation mark inside the quotation when it applies only to the 
quotation. Place it outside the quotation when it applies to the whole statement. He asked, “Will you 
be ready to recite tomorrow?” / Did you hear her say, “I overslept yesterday”? / He cried 
out, “I will never agree to that!” / I can’t describe the horror of that “unfortunate 
incident”! 
g) Use a comma to separate an opening quotation from the part of the sentence that follows unless the 
quotation ends with a question mark, exclamation mark, or dash. “This case is closed,” he said 
firmly. / “Is it time to eat?” she asked. / “I can’t believe it!” he exclaimed. “Our house 
can’t have burned down!” / “You’ve misunderstood –“ he began. “I meant something quite 
different.” 
h) When a quotation is interrupted by explanatory words (for example, ‘he said’), use a comma after the 
first part of the quotation. In choosing the punctuation mark to place after the explanatory words, 
follow letters d), e), f) and g) above. “I have been told,” he said, “of the dangers of skiing.” / 
“You follow directions well,” the supervisor said. “Your first two weeks with us have been 
very satisfactory.” / “Michael was an imaginative tour leader,” the girl said; “every day 
brought some new adventure.” 
i) Do not use quotation marks in indirect speech. He said that I should wait for him at the corner. 
 
 
 
Semicolon ( ; ) 
 
a) Use a semicolon to separate items in a list when the items already contain commas. The capitals of 
the South American countries are: Argentina, Buenos Aires; Bolivia, Sucre; Brazil, Brasília; 
etc. / They agreed on only three points: the ceasefire should be immediate; it should be 
internationally supervised, preferably by the AU; and a peace conference should be held, 
either in Geneva or in Ouagadougou. 
b) Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses with no connecting conjunction. The work in the 
office was quite simple; she had merely to answer the phone and do a little typing. / The 
debate was drawing to a close; each team gathered together to prepare its final remarks. 
c) Use a semicolon with conjunctive adverbs (eg, however, therefore, moreover, otherwise). The 
bookkeeper had checked all her figures very carefully the night before; however, when the 
accountant came he found several mistakes in her records.d) Use a semicolon with coordinate conjunctions when the clauses already contain commas. Mr. Jones, 
the owner of the largest factory in town, is setting up another factory in the next town; 
and, for all we know, he may try to run both of them himself. 
 
 
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PUNCTUATION – exercise 
 
 
Include capital letters and the correct punctuation in the passage below. Use: 
period ( . ), comma ( , ), question mark ( ? ), dash ( – ), apostrophe ( ‘ ), quotation 
marks ( “ ” ) and parentheses (). 
 
 
in his first term lulas reluctance to share power with other parties led to a congressional 
vote-buying scandal that nearly destroyed his presidency this time he has given five plump 
ministries controlling 44% of the federal investment budget to the centrist party of the brazilian 
democracy movement pmdb the largest in congress luciano dias of the brazilian institute of 
political studies sees in this the start of a durable centre-left alliance that could realign the 
countrys politics 
 
but this core is surrounded by a messy periphery in all eight substantial parties and 
nearly all the smaller ones in congress support the government many of them attracted by the 
hope of jobs and pork lula should be able to count on at least 60% of the lower house and a 
narrow majority in the senate that plus his popularity 48% of brazilians rate his government as 
good or excellent mean that he is as strong as any brazilian president can hope to be with the 
weakening of the pt and the humbling of its former chiefs his personal power has grown 
 
but what will he do with this power his ambition does not seem to have kept pace with 
mr palocci at his elbow lula might have scaled back the ruinously expensive pension system 
brought sanity to labour-market regulation and simplified a fiendishly complex tax code instead 
he seems more inclined to husband his political capital than to spend it 
 
 
Adapted from "Lula opts for a quiet life” – The Economist print edition – Apr 4th 2007) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
11 
 
 
 
PLURAL FORMS 
 
 
1. Write the words below in the correct column (singular or plural). Then write the 
respective singular or plural form of each word. 
 
 
1. alumnus 8. criteria 15. hypothesis 22. oasis 
2. analysis 9. curriculum 16. means 23. phenomena 
3. axis 10. data 17. media 24. referendum 
4. bacteria 11. diagnosis 18. metamorphosis 25. stimulus 
5. basis 12. emphasis 19. metropolis 26. strata 
6. campus 13. focus 20. millennium 27. syllabus 
7. crisis 14. forum 21. momentum 28. thesis 
 
 
 
SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL 
1. 15. 
2. 16. 
3. 17. 
4. 18. 
5. 19. 
6. 20. 
7. 21. 
8. 22. 
9. 23. 
10. 24. 
11. 25. 
12. 26. 
13. 27. 
14. 28. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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2. Write the respective plural form of each of the words below. 
 
SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL 
1. church 13. cargo 
2. woman 14. echo 
3. foot 15. embargo 
4. mouse 16. hero 
5. child 17. volcano 
6. ox 18. appendix 
7. diary 19. bureau 
8. spy 20. matrix 
9. leaf 21. aircraft 
10. life 22. series 
11. loaf 23. species 
12. wife 
 
 
 
PLURAL FORMS OF NATIONALITIES 
 
When the word ends in -man or -woman, there are three options: 
1) pluralize to -men or –women 
2) use the root alone preceded by ‘the’ 
3) use the root and add ‘people’ 
Dutchman – Dutchmen 
Dutchwoman – Dutchwomen 
the Dutch Dutch people 
Englishman – Englishmen 
Englishwoman – Englishwomen 
the English English people 
Frenchman – Frenchmen 
Frenchwoman – Frenchwomen 
the French French people 
Irishman – Irishmen 
Irishwoman – Irishwoman 
the Irish Irish people 
Scotsman – Scotsmen 
Scotswoman – Scotswomen 
the Scots / the Scottish Scottish people 
Welshman – Welshmen 
Welshwoman – Welshwomen 
the Welsh Welsh people 
 
 
Several peoples have names that are simple nouns and can be pluralized by the addition of 
either -s or -ish (the later case often calls for the elimination of terminal letters so the 
pluralizing suffix can be connected directly with the last consonant of the root): 
Dane Danes the Danes / the Danish Danish people 
Finn Finns the Finns / the Finnish Finnish people 
Spaniard Spaniards the Spaniards / the Spanish Spanish people 
Swede Swedes the Swedes / the Swedish Swedish people 
 
 
Names of peoples that end in -ese take no plural: 
Chinese the Chinese / Chinese people 
Japanese the Japanese / Japanese people 
 
 
Other names of peoples that have no plural form include Swiss and Québécois, although the 
latter is interchangeable with Quebecer, which pluralizes as Quebecers. 
 
13 
 
 
 
ARTICLES – RULES* 
 
 
 
‘A’, ‘An’ and ‘One’ 
 
1 • Use ‘a’ before words that begin with a consonant sound. Some words 
start with a vowel letter but begin with a consonant sound, so use ‘a’ 
before these words, too. 
• Use ‘a’ with abbreviations said as words. 
• a university; a European citizen; a 
one-parent family 
 
• a NATO general; a FIFA official 
2 • Use ‘an’ before words that begin with a vowel sound. 
• Use ‘an’ before words that begin with a silent letter ‘h’. 
 
• Use ‘an’ with abbreviations said as individual letters that begin with A, 
E, F, H, I, L, M, N, O, R, S, or X. 
• an orange; an Italian; an umbrella 
• an hour; an honor; an honest 
person; an heir 
• an MP; and FBI agent 
 
3 • Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ before singular countable nouns. Do not use ‘a’ or ‘an’ 
with plural nouns or with uncountable nouns. Sometimes either 
‘a’/’an’ or ‘one’ can be used. Using ‘one’ gives a little more emphasis 
to the number. 
• Use ‘one’ rather than ‘a’/’an’ to emphasize that it is only one thing or 
person rather than two or more. 
• Use ‘one’, not ‘a’/’an’ in the pattern ‘one… other/another’. 
• Use one in certain specific phrases to mean a particular even though 
unspecified moment. 
• We’ll be in Australia for one/a 
year. / Wait here for one/a 
minute, and I’ll be with you. 
 
• Are you staying just one night? 
 
• Close one eye, and then the other. 
• One evening, while he was 
working late at the office… 
4 • Do not use ‘one’ to mean ‘any one of a particular type of thing’. 
• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’, not ‘one’, in number and quantity expressions. 
 
• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’, not ‘one’, to mean ‘for each’ or ‘per’. 
• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ rather than ‘one’ in the pattern ‘a/an… of’. 
• I really need a cup of coffee. 
• three times a year; half an hour; a 
day or so; a few; a little 
• 50 cents a liter; 80km an hour 
• She’s a colleague of mine. / That’s 
an uncle of Bill’s. 
 
 
 
 
 
‘A’, ‘An’, ‘The’ and zero article: the only one 
 
5 • Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ with a singular noun to describe someone or something 
or to say what type of thing someone or something is. 
• Use ‘the’ to say that someone or something is unique: there is only 
one or it is the only of its kind. 
• English has become an 
international language. 
• English has become the 
international language of business. 
6 • Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ to say what a person’s job is, was, or will be. 
 
• Use ‘the’ or no article to give a person’s job a title or a unique 
position. 
 
• Use zero article after ‘the position of’, ‘the post of’, ‘the role of’. 
• She was a company director when 
she retired. 
• She’s been appointed (the) head 
of the company. / I’m a production 
manager at Fino. 
• Dr. Simons has taken the position 
of Head of Department. 
7 • Use ‘the’ before a superlative adjective. 
 
• Use ‘the’ if there is only one of a particular thing. 
 
 
• Use ‘the’ to generalize about things that are ‘the only one’.• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ to describe a particular instance. 
• He is the finest young player 
around at the moment. 
• the sun; the world; the North 
Pole; the jet age; the international 
market; the travel industry 
• the weather; the climate; the 
human race; the atmosphere; the 
sea; the public; the environment; 
the sky; the ground; the wind; the 
future; the past 
• What are your plans for the 
future? BUT She dreamed of a 
future where she could spend 
more time painting. 
 
 
 
 
* Source: Advanced Grammar in Use. Martin Hewings. Cambridge University Press. 1999. 
 
www.AtualidadesConcursos.com.br
14 
 
 
 
‘A’, ‘An’ and ‘The’: things already known 
 
8 • Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ when it is not expected that the listener or reader will 
be able to identify the thing or person mentioned. 
 
• Use ‘the’ when it is expected that the listener or reader will be able to 
identify the thing or person mentioned. 
• Helen’s just bought a house on 
Wilson Street. / There’s a bus 
coming. 
• Helen’s just bought the house on 
Wilson Street. (= the house for 
sale which was previously 
mentioned)/ The bus is coming. 
(= the bus we are waiting for) 
9 • Use ‘the’ when it is clear from the situation which person or thing is 
meant. 
• What do you think of the table? 
(=the table I’m looking at) / This 
tastes lovely. What’s in the sauce? 
(= the sauce on my plate) 
10 • Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ for the first time someone or something is mentioned. 
After that, use ‘the’. 
 
• Use ‘the’ even if the thing or person has not been mentioned before, 
provided that the listener or reader understands what is being 
mentioned from the context. 
• Notice that fictional writing will often mention something for the first 
time with ‘the’ to build up suspense. 
• Dorothy took a cake and an apple 
pie to the party, but only the apple 
pie was eaten. 
• We had a good time on holiday. 
The hotel was comfortable, and 
the beach was really close. 
• The woman opened the gate and 
looked fearfully at the house… 
 
 
‘A’, ‘An’, ‘The’ and zero article: things in general 
 
11 • Use zero article in generalizations of plural countable nouns or 
uncountable nouns. 
 
 
• Use ‘the’ with plural countable nouns or uncountable nouns to refer to 
something specific. 
• Before you put them on, always 
check your shoes for spiders. / I’m 
studying geography at university. / 
I can smell smoke! 
• The books you ordered have 
arrived. / All the information you 
asked for is in this file of papers. 
12 • Use ‘the’ with singular countable nouns in generalizations about a 
class. 
 
 
• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ to mention an unspecified example. 
• The novel is the most popular 
form of fiction writing. / The 
customer has a right to know 
where products are made. 
• Reading a novel is a good way to 
relax. / When the phone rang, I 
was busy serving a customer. 
13 • Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ for definitions. • A Geiger counter is a device for 
detecting and measuring the 
intensity of radiation. / A 
corkscrew is a gadget for getting 
corks out of bottles. 
 
 
‘A’, ‘An’, ‘The’ and zero article: people and places 
 
14 • Use zero article before the names of particular people. 
 
 
 
• Use ‘the’ when there are two people with the same name in order to 
specify which one is being referred to. 
• Use ‘the’ to emphasize that a person is probably know by everyone. 
 
• Use ‘the’ with an adjective to describe a person or their job. 
 
 
• Use ‘the’ to refer to a family as a whole. 
 
• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ to mean that someone else has (or does not have) the 
particular qualities of the person named. 
• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ to refer to a painting by a famous artist. 
• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ to name someone who is a stranger. 
• Use ‘the’ with special names, titles and epithets. 
• Use ‘the’ with adjectives that define a group or class of people. 
• President Obama is to make a 
statement later today. / The name 
of Nelson Mandela is known all 
over the world. 
• That’s not the Stephen Fraser I 
went to school with. 
• Do they mean the Ronald Reagan, 
or someone else? 
• the late Buddy Holly / the artist 
William Turner / the actor Harrison 
Ford / the writer Sally Morgan 
• The Robinsons are away this 
weekend. 
• Jane plays well, but she’ll never be 
a Steffi Graf. 
• a Van Gogh, a Picasso 
• There’s a Peter on the phone. 
• Alexander, the Great 
• the rich, the blind, the disabled 
 
 
15 
 
 
 
15 • Use zero article to mention institutions such as hospital, university, 
prison, school, college, or church (also bed) being used for their 
intended purpose. 
 
 
 
 
• Use articles to mention institutions such as hospital, university, prison, 
school, college, or church (also bed) as particular places or buildings. 
• They say he’ll stay in hospital for 
six weeks. / Sue’s at university 
studying French. / School should 
be a place where children are 
taught to enjoy learning. / She 
usually stays in bed till late at the 
weekend. 
• Tom’s mother goes to the hospital 
to see him every day. / Frank 
works as a security guard at a 
university. / They’re building a 
school at the end of our street. / I 
finally remembered I’d left my 
keys on the bed. 
16 • Use ‘the’ to refer to cinema, opera or theater in general or to refer to 
a building where this type of entertainment takes place. 
 
• Use zero article to refer to a form of art. 
• I try to go to the cinema at least 
once a week. / We usually go to 
the cinema on New Street. 
• Not many children enjoy opera. 
17 • Use zero article with the names of countries, states, or cities. 
• Use ‘the’ with the names of countries that contain the words ‘united’, 
‘union’, ‘kingdom’, ‘republic’ or names that give the idea of a group. 
• Brazil, California, Mexico City 
• the Soviet Union / the United 
States / the Bahamas 
18 • Use ‘the’ to express the plural of nationalities. • the French / the Spanish / the 
Brazilians / the Japanese / the 
Greeks / the Danish 
 
 
‘A’, ‘An’, ‘The’ and zero article: holidays, times of the day, meals, etc. 
 
19 • Use zero article with the names of holidays, special times of the year, 
or with the names of months and days of the week. 
• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ if interested in the day of the week, for example, not a 
particular day. 
• Use the to specify a specific day, date or holiday. 
 
• Either ‘the’ or zero article is used with ‘winter’, ‘summer’, ‘spring’, ‘fall’ 
(‘autumn’), and ‘New Year’ (= the holiday season). 
 
 
• Use ‘the’ if it is understood which summer, winter, etc. is meant. 
 
 
• Use in ‘the’ New Year to mean the beginning of the following year. 
• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ to describe the features of a particular moment. 
• Easter / Ramadan / New Year’s 
Day / September / Monday 
• They arrived on a Saturday as far 
as I can remember. 
• They arrived on the Saturday after 
my birthday party. 
• In (the) summer I try to spend as 
much time in the garden as I can. 
/ In Scotland, they really know 
how to celebrate (the) New Year. 
• When are you going to university? 
In the fall. / I first went skiing in 
the spring of 2002. 
• I’ll see you again in the New Year. 
• That was a winter I’ll never forget. 
20 • Use ‘a’, ‘an’ or ‘the’ in the usual way to refer to the morning, 
afternoon or evening of a particular day. 
 
 
• Use zero article with ‘at night’ and ‘by night’. 
• Use zero article with ‘midnight’,’ midday’ and ‘noon’. 
• I woke up with a sore throat, and 
by the evening my voice had 
disappeared. / I’ve had a terrible 
morning. 
• I don’t like driving at night. 
• If possible, I’d like it finished by 
midday. 
21 • Use zero article to refer to meals. 
 
 
• Use ‘a’, ‘an’ or ‘the’ to describe a particular meal.• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ to refer to a formal meal on a special occasion. 
• What have we got for dinner? / I 
don’t like drinking coffee at 
breakfast. 
• We didn’t get up until 10 in the 
morning and had a late breakfast. 
/ The dinner we had at Webster’s 
restaurant was marvelous. 
• We’re having a dinner to welcome 
the new manager. 
 
 
‘The’ and zero article: comparative and superlative forms 
 
22 • Use ‘the’ with the superlative degree. • the tallest building in town 
23 • Use zero article with the comparative degree. 
• Use ‘the’ with the comparative degree for double comparatives. 
 
• Use ‘the’ with the comparative degree if the adjective is being used as 
a noun. 
• this is more expensive than that 
• The more I study, the more I 
learn. 
• I have two books. The better is 
the most expensive one. 
 
www.AtualidadesConcursos.com.br
16 
 
 
 
 
‘The’ and zero article: time and space 
 
24 • Use ‘the’ for compass directions (‘north’, ‘south’, ‘east’, ‘west’) if they 
follow the prepositions to, in, on, at, or from. 
• Use zero article if the compass direction immediately follows an action 
verb that indicates movement (e.g. fly, go, look, move, sail, travel, 
turn, walk). 
• to the west, in the north, from the 
south, on the east coast 
• go west, fly south, move north, 
sail south 
25 • Use ‘the’ with large periods of historic time or with important historic 
events or dates. 
• the 1900s, the Stone Age, the 
Dark Ages, the Cambrian Period, 
the French Revolution, the 
Industrial Revolution 
 
 
 
Specific uses 
 
26 • ‘The’ is often used with nouns before a phrase with ‘of’. 
 
 
 
 
 
• Some nouns are commonly used in the pattern ‘the… of…’ to refer to 
a particular place, time, etc. (e.g. back, beginning, bottom, end, 
middle, side, top). 
• Pictures can help students learn 
the meaning of new words. / The 
disease could have killed off half 
of the population of the country. / 
He was woken up by the sound of 
gunfire. 
• In the middle of his speech he 
started to cough uncontrollably. 
27 • Use ‘the’ with ordinal numbers (except when listing ideas). • The fifth step is the hardest one. / 
First, I do not agree with the 
decision. Second, I have no funds 
to contribute. 
28 • Use ‘the’ with the word ‘same’. • This is the same as before. 
29 • Use zero article with the names of streets, avenues, roads, lanes, or 
boulevards. 
• Use zero article with the names of universities or colleges. (an 
exception is made when the name contains the word ‘of’) 
 
• Use zero article with the names of single lakes, mountains, islands, or 
canyons. 
• Use zero article with the names of stadiums, malls, or parks. 
• Use zero article with languages or religions. (an exception is made 
when the word ‘language’ is used) 
• Fifth Avenue / Penny Lane / 
Sunset Boulevard 
• New York University / Brown 
University / The University of 
California 
• Lake Michigan / Mount Fuji 
 
• Hyde Park, Central Park 
• Buddhism, Catholicism, 
Portuguese, the Portuguese 
language 
30 • Use ‘the’ with musical instruments. 
• Use ‘the’ to generalize about a class of animals. 
• Use ‘the’ to refer to inventions. 
 
• Use ‘the’ with the names of rivers, seas, oceans and deserts. 
 
 
• Use ‘the’ with the names of hotels, motels, theaters, bridges and 
buildings. 
• Use ‘the’ with the names of zoos, gardens, museums, institutes and 
companies. 
• Use ‘the’ with nouns for military institutions. 
• She plays the piano. 
• The lion is a ferocious animal. 
• The internet revolutionized 
communications. 
• the Amazon River / the Caspian 
Sea / the Pacific Ocean / the 
Sahara Desert 
• the Hilton Hotel / the Golden Gate 
Bridge / the Tower of London 
• the Busch Gardens / the 
Metropolitan Museum 
• the army / the navy / the air force 
/ the marines / the military / the 
fire department / the police 
31 • Use zero article with the names of diseases (except for ‘the measles’ 
and ‘the flu’). 
• cancer / tuberculosis / diabetes / 
arthritis / Alzheimer’s 
32 • Use zero article to refer to numbers on a list. • Step 5 is the hardest one. 
33 • Use zero article with expressions with ‘go’. • go to work / go to bed / go to 
school / go to college / go to jail 
34 • Use zero article with ‘next’ and ‘last’ to refer to specific times. • next month / last week / next 
Tuesday / last Christmas 
 
 
 
 
 
 
17 
 
 
 
ARTICLES – exercise 1* 
 
 
Write an article in the space provided. If no article is needed, write X in the space. 
 
1. I used to play ______ soccer for my high school team. 
2. He gave me ______ good advice. 
3. This is ______ difficult situation. 
4. Superman is ______ example of ______ fictional hero. 
5. I like ______ Indian food because it’s spicy. 
6. We had ______ bad weather last week. 
7. ______ anecdote is ______ type of illustration. 
8. We wrote ______ book about our travels in Guatemala. 
9. ______ food is necessary for ______ survival. 
10. ______ food we had at that restaurant was excellent. 
11. ______ most useful magazines are those that tell you how to do something. 
12. We have ______ need for ______ love. 
13. ______ fascinating place to visit is Samoa. 
14. All of ______ dogs in ______ neighborhood started to bark when ______ lights went out. 
15. Rosa bought ______ new white dress and hat for graduation. Unfortunately, ______ dress was too 
big. 
16. We saw ______ woman with ______ baby on ______ Main Street bus. ______ woman was frantic 
because ______ baby was sick and crying. ______ passengers could not believe it when ______ bus 
driver stopped ______ bus and asked ______ woman and baby to get off. 
17. Joyce hates ______ authority. 
18. Professor Remby is ______ authority on the Middle East. 
19. A parrot learns to speak through ______ imitation. 
20. That vase is ______ imitation of an antique French vase. 
21. ______ life is often difficult. 
22. John has had ______ difficult life. 
23. He considers his violin ______ valuable possession. 
24. She enjoys ______ atmosphere of gaiety and friendliness. 
25. ______ atmosphere at the party was lively and free. 
26. ______ distrust he felt after his friend abandoned him was understandable. 
27. He feels ______ distrust of people that is inexplicable. 
28. ______ popularity of that new song is due to its subject matter. 
29. That song has ______ popularity that is hard to explain. 
30. He felt ______ loneliness that almost overwhelmed him. 
31. ______ loneliness that she felt was overwhelming. 
 
 
*Sources: 
Advanced Language Practice. Michael Vince. Macmillan. 2003. 
Refining Composition Skills. Smalley, R., Ruetten, M. & Kozyrev, J. Heinle & Heinle. 2000. 
www.AtualidadesConcursos.com.br
18 
 
 
32. Helen does not like ______ cream cakes sold in ______ local bakery. 
33. ______ handball is fast becoming ______ popular sport worldwide. 
34. We could see that ______ Alps were covered in ______ snow. 
35. It is ______ long time since I met ______ lovely person like you! 
36. Diana has ______ degree in ______ engineering from ______ University of London. 
37. ______ problem for ______ today’s students is how to survive financially. 
38. ______ French enjoy spending holidays in ______ countryside. 
39. Please do not turn on ______ water-heater in ______ bathroom. 
40. Sue bought ______ Picasso I was telling you about ______ last week. 
41. I am going to stand for Parliament at ______ next election. 
42. When I left ______ station, I had to stand in ______ queue for ______ taxi for ______ long time. 
43. ______ happiness of the majority depends on ______ hard work for everyone. 
44. ______ most main roads in this part of ______ countryfollow ______ line of ______ roads built by 
______ Romans. 
45. Have you got ______ latest record by this band? 
46. If I had ______ time, I would like to take up ______ archery. 
47. We spent ______ pleasant evening having ______ drinks at ______ Robin Hood. 
48. ______ Nile flows right through ______ city. 
49. ______ summer I spent in ______ USA was one of ______ best in my life. 
50. She was ______ first woman to cross ______ Atlantic in ______ canoe. 
51. Go down ______ High Street and turn right into ______ Mill Road. 
52. Please let me carry ______ shopping. It is ______ least I can do. 
53. I do not like ______ milk in ______ coffee. 
54. At ______ end of ______ busy day, ______ sleep is ______ best tonic. 
55. ______ James Joyce I knew was not ______ novelist and was not ______ Irish either. 
56. We will go for ______ walk if ______ sun comes out. 
57. This is ______ last time I do you ______ favor. 
58. I am staying in ______ Hilton so you can leave me ______ message. 
59. Please watch ______ cabin attendant as she demonstrates ______ use of ______ oxygen mask. 
60. Paul spent ______ half of his life in ______ Far East. 
61. You have to use at ______ least ______ pint and ______ half of ______ milk. 
62. Dick has ______ sore throat and is taking ______ medicine. 
63. We arranged _____ accommodation on ______ outskirts of ______ city. 
64. There is ______ very difficult crossword in “______ Times”. 
65. Could you give me ______ information I asked for in ______ letter I sent you? 
66. I bought ______ jewelry for my sister by it was not ______ kind she likes. 
67. I always wanted to be ______ astronaut but ______ ambition wore off. 
68. ______ safety at ______ work is ______ major concern for us. 
69. And ______ last of all, do not forget to put ______ cat out for ______ night. 
 
 
 
 
19 
 
 
 
ARTICLES – exercise 2 
 
 
Write an article in the space provided. If no article is needed, write X in the space. 
 
 
 
Hunting for Liberia’s Missing Millions 
(Adapted from The New York Times May 30th 2010, by Doreen Carvajal) 
 
How much money did _____ Charles G. Taylor, _____ deposed president of Liberia, 
siphon out of his destitute, war-shattered country, and where is it? For almost seven years, 
since _____ international warrant was issued for his arrest, _____ search has stretched from 
_____ mangrove swamps and diamond fields of West Africa to _____ Swiss banks and _____ 
shell corporations — a state-of-the-art version of _____ sweeping asset hunts that have 
accompanied _____ fall of autocrats since _____ shah of Iran’s demise in the 1970s. 
 
_____ investigators have crawled in the dirt under porches and buildings in this 
impoverished capital to seek out financial records. They have _____ confronted bankers and 
_____ government officials on four continents. They have cross-referenced _____ mazes of 
documents charting _____ transfer of millions of dollars into and out of _____ dozens of 
accounts. But they have come up dry for any money in _____ Mr. Taylor’s name. In fact, four 
years ago, _____ Mr. Taylor was classified as “partially indigent” by _____ Special Court for 
Sierra Leone at The Hague, where he is charged with _____ instigating murder, _____ 
mutilation, _____ rape and _____ sexual slavery during intertwined wars in Liberia and Sierra 
Leone that claimed more than 250,000 victims from 1989 to 2003. That has left _____ donor 
nations — _____ United States being _____ largest — to cover his monthly $100,000 legal bill 
and the broader costs of his $20 million trial. 
 
But _____ investigators push on, and _____ review by _____ International Herald 
Tribune of _____ court transcripts, _____ bank records, and _____ newly available government 
receipts and _____ confidential prosecution memos indicates why they are reluctant to give up 
_____ hunt. Some of the records show how _____ country’s largest timber company sent 
_____ tax payments to _____ Mr. Taylor’s private account rather than _____ national treasury. 
Others trace huge payments made by _____ dominant cellphone company to people suspected 
of being Taylor cronies. Others depict _____ web of _____ front companies and _____ banks 
from _____ Hong Kong to _____ New York involved in _____ movement of millions of dollars 
into _____ Mr. Taylor’s accounts in _____ Liberia. 
 
 
 
 
www.AtualidadesConcursos.com.br
20 
 
 
PREPOSITIONAL COLLOCATIONS 
 
verbs 
 
followed by FOR followed by TO followed by WITH 
account FOR sth 
allow FOR sth (take into account) 
apologize TO sb FOR sth 
appeal FOR /AGAINST sth 
apply FOR sth (a job, a scholarship) 
blame sb FOR sth 
budget (resources) FOR sth 
buy sth FOR/FROM sb AT a place 
FOR a certain amount of money 
call FOR sth (request) 
care ABOUT/FOR sb/sth 
cater FOR sth 
charge sb FOR a service 
compensate FOR a damage WITH sth 
to fix it 
condemn sb FOR sth 
count FOR sth (make a difference) 
decide FOR sth (in favor of) 
earmark resources FOR a purpose 
exchange sth FOR sth else 
excuse sb FOR sth 
fetch sth FOR sb 
fight FOR sth/sb (defend) 
forgive sb FOR sth 
make/head FOR a certain direction 
mistake sb/sth FOR sb/sth else 
opt FOR sth 
pay FOR sth 
plead WITH sb TO do sth / FOR sth 
prepare FOR sth 
press FOR sth 
provide FOR sth 
punish sb FOR sth 
rebuke sb FOR sth 
search FOR sth/sb 
stand FOR sth 
substitute (sb/sth) FOR sb/sth 
vote FOR sb/sth (in favor of) 
wait FOR sth/sb 
work FOR/AT a company 
write sth FOR sb (in the person’s 
place or behalf) 
 
agree TO sth (say yes) 
answer TO sth 
apologize TO sb FOR sth 
appeal TO sb 
apply TO sth (request) 
apply TO sb (request or suit) 
associate sb/sth TO/WITH sb/sth 
attend TO sb/sth (give attention) 
attribute sth TO sth 
commit TO (doing) sth 
confess TO (doing) sth 
confide sth TO sb 
convert sb TO a religion 
devote TO (doing) sth 
drink TO sb/sth (pay homage to) 
give sth TO sb 
increase sth FROM a level TO 
another 
introduce sb TO sb else 
lend sth TO sb 
limit sth TO sth else 
lose TO another team 
object TO sth 
plead WITH sb TO do sth / FOR sth 
prefer sth TO sth 
prepare TO do sth 
press sb TO do sth 
pressurize sb TO do sth 
provide sth TO sb 
range FROM sth TO sth 
react TO sth (have a reaction) 
refer TO sth (make a reference) 
refer sb/sth TO sth (send) 
remind sb TO do sth 
resign TO (doing) sth 
resort TO sth 
restrict sth TO sth 
see TO sth (make sure it is done) 
subject sb TO sth 
succeed TO sb (be the next) 
suggest sth TO sb 
supply sth TO sb/sth 
write sth TO sb 
acquaint sb WITH sth 
agree / disagree WITH sb 
argue WITH sb ABOUT sth 
associate sb/sth TO/WITH sb/sth 
charge sb WITH a crime 
clash WITH sb (an adversary) 
coincide WITH sth 
collide WITH sth 
combine sth WITH sth 
compensate FOR a damage WITH sth 
to fix it 
comply WITH sth 
confront sb WITH sth 
confuse sb/sth WITH sb/sth else 
contrast (sth) WITH sth 
deal WITH sb/sth 
discuss sth WITH sb 
drink WITH sb (accompanied by sb) 
exchange sth WITH sb 
go WITH sth (match) 
ingratiate sb WITH sth 
inspire sb WITH sth 
interfere WITH sth (disturb) 
meet WITH sb/sth 
merge WITH sth 
overlap WITH sth 
plead WITH sb TO do sth / FOR sth 
provide sb WITH sth 
punish sb WITH a penalty 
quarrel WITH sb ABOUT/OVER sth 
react WITH sth (use sth) 
reason WITH sb 
replace sb/sth WITH sb/sth else 
rhyme sth WITH sth 
share sth WITH sb 
supply sb/sth WITH sth 
tamper WITH sth 
trust sb WITH sth 
 
 
followed by AT followed by IN followed by OF 
arrive AT a specific place or building 
arrive AT a specific time 
buy sth FOR/FROM sb AT a place 
gaze AT sb/sth 
glance AT sb/sth 
guess AT sth 
hint AT sth 
laugh AT sth (negative) 
laugh AT sb (neutral) 
live AT an addressmarvel AT sth 
preside AT / OVER sth 
smile AT sb 
value sth AT a price 
wait AT/ON a table (a waiter) 
work AT/FOR a company 
 
arrive IN a town, city or country 
believe IN sb/sth 
confide IN sb 
consist IN sth (contain sth) 
graduate FROM an institution IN a 
course 
implicate sb IN sth 
inspire sth IN sb 
interfere IN sth 
invest (sth) IN sth else 
involve sb IN sth 
live IN a house, a city, a country 
participate IN sth 
result IN sth (cause sth) 
specialize IN sth 
succeed IN sth 
accuse sb OF sth 
approve /disapprove OF sb/sth 
boast OF/ABOUT sth 
consist OF sth (compose sth) 
convict sb OF a crime 
dream OF/ABOUT (awaken) 
exonerate sb OF/FROM sth 
remind sb OF sb/sth 
suspect OF sb 
talk OF sth 
think OF/ABOUT sb/sth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
21 
 
 
 
followed by AS followed by OVER followed by BY 
condemn sth AS sth (negative) 
regard sb/sth AS sth 
preside AT / OVER sth 
prevail OVER sth 
quarrel WITH sb ABOUT/OVER sth 
increase BY (a percentage, a figure) 
multiply BY a number 
 
 
followed by UPON followed by AFTER followed by BETWEEN 
agree ON / UPON / ABOUT sth 
base sth ON/UPON sth 
comment ON / UPON / ABOUT sth 
concentrate ON/UPON sth 
decide ON/UPON sth (in relation to) 
disagree ON / UPON / ABOUT sth 
encroach ON / UPON sth 
hinge ON/UPON sth 
insist ON/UPON sth 
reflect ON / UPON sth (think) 
rely ON / UPON sb/sth 
 
look AFTER sb/sth (take care, attend 
to) 
name sb/sth AFTER sb/sth 
take AFTER sb (have similar attitudes 
or behavior) 
choose BETWEEN two options 
differentiate BETWEEN two elements 
range BETWEEN an initial point and a 
final point 
 
followed by FROM followed by ON followed by ABOUT 
bar sb FROM (doing) sth 
benefit FROM (doing) sth 
borrow sth FROM sb 
buy sth FOR/FROM sb AT a place 
choose FROM many options 
derive FROM sth 
deter sb FROM (doing) sth 
differ FROM sb/sth 
differentiate sth FROM sth else 
distinguish sb/sth FROM sb/sth else 
distract sb/sth FROM sth 
emerge FROM a situation, a position 
exempt sb FROM sth 
exonerate sb FROM/OF sth 
expel sb FROM sth or somewhere 
free sb FROM sth 
graduate FROM an institution IN a 
course 
hear FROM sb 
increase sth FROM a level TO 
another 
part FROM sb / a place 
prevent sb FROM (doing) sth 
profit FROM sth 
protect sb/sth FROM / AGAINST 
sb/sth 
refrain FROM doing sth 
resign FROM a position 
result FROM sth (be caused by) 
safeguard sth / sb FROM / AGAINST 
save sb/sth FROM sb/sth 
separate sth FROM sth 
stem FROM sth 
suffer FROM sth (a disease) 
transform sth FROM a state INTO 
another 
 
agree ON / UPON / ABOUT sth 
base sth ON/UPON sth 
blame sth ON sb 
call ON sb (exhort) 
center sth ON sth 
comment ON / UPON / ABOUT sth 
concentrate ON/UPON sth 
congratulate sb ON sth 
count ON sb/sth (rely on sb/sth) 
decide ON/UPON sth (in relation to) 
depend on sb/sth 
disagree ON / UPON / ABOUT sth 
encroach ON / UPON sth 
elaborate ON sth (give details) 
focus ON sth 
hinge ON/UPON sth 
impose sth ON sb 
insist ON/UPON sth 
live ON a source of income 
live ON a street, an avenue 
pride oneself ON sth 
reflect ON / UPON sth (think) 
rely ON / UPON sb/sth 
spend sth ON sth 
vote ON sth (in relation to) 
wait AT/ON a table (a waiter) 
 
agree ON / UPON / ABOUT sth 
argue WITH sb ABOUT sth 
boast ABOUT/OF sth 
care ABOUT/FOR sb/sth 
comment ON / UPON / ABOUT sth 
complain ABOUT sth 
disagree ON / UPON / ABOUT sth 
dream ABOUT (sleeping or awaken) 
forget ABOUT sth/sb 
grumble ABOUT sth 
hear ABOUT sth 
know ABOUT sth 
laugh ABOUT sth (neutral) 
protest ABOUT / AGAINST sth 
quarrel WITH sb ABOUT/OVER sth 
talk ABOUT sb/sth 
think OF/ABOUT sb/sth 
warn sb ABOUT sth 
worry ABOUT sth/sb 
write ABOUT sth/sb 
 
followed by AGAINST followed by INTO followed by OFF 
appeal AGAINST sth 
fight AGAINST sth/sb (combat) 
guard AGAINST sth 
insure sth AGAINST sth 
protect sb/sth FROM / AGAINST 
sb/sth 
protest AGAINST sth 
react AGAINST sth (disagree) 
safeguard sth / sb FROM / AGAINST 
vote AGAINST sth (not in favor) 
 
convert sth INTO/TO sth else 
divide sth into parts 
enter INTO a bargain, a contract 
instill sth INTO sb 
introduce sth INTO sth (implement) 
pressurize sb INTO (doing) sth 
separate sth INTO different groups 
transform sb/sth INTO sth 
 
live OFF a diet 
followed by THROUGH 
live THROUGH sth (survive) 
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adjectives 
 
 
followed by TO followed by WITH followed by FOR 
able TO do sth 
acceptable TO sb 
accustomed TO (doing) sth 
addicted TO sth 
allied TO / WITH sth / sb 
analogous TO / WITH sth 
attentive TO sth 
beneficial TO / FOR sb / sth 
close TO sb/sth (next to) 
connected TO sb/sth (joined together 
contrary TO sth 
detrimental TO sth / sb 
detrimental TO sb/sth 
equal TO sth / sb 
essential TO/FOR sb/sth 
fair TO sb 
familiar TO sb 
favorable TO sb / sth 
geared TO sth (directed for a specific 
purpose) 
good TO people, animals (kind to) 
grateful TO sb 
immune TO sth 
impervious TO sth 
indifferent TO sb/sth 
inferior TO sth / sb 
kind TO sb 
liable TO sth (likely to suffer from 
sth) 
married TO sb 
native TO sth 
necessary FOR sth / TO do sth 
next TO sth 
open TO sth 
opposed TO sth / sb 
possible FOR sb TO do sth 
preferable TO sth 
prepared FOR sth / TO do sth 
prone TO (do) sth 
receptive TO sth 
related TO sth 
relevant TO sth 
responsive TO sth 
similar TO sth / sb 
subjected TO sth 
subordinate TO sb / sth 
used TO (doing) sth 
vulnerable TO sth 
 
acquainted WITH sth 
allied TO / WITH sth / sb 
analogous TO / WITH sth 
angry AT / WITH sb 
annoyed WITH sb ABOUT/AT/BY sth 
beset WITH sth (jewelry) 
beset BY / WITH (afflicted by 
problems) 
bored AT / BY / WITH sth 
burdened WITH sth (carrying sth 
heavy) 
bursting WITH sth 
charged WITH sth (a crime) 
cluttered WITH sth 
combined WITH sth 
compatible WITH sb/sth 
connected WITH sth / sb (related) 
content WITH sth 
crammed WITH sth 
disappointed ABOUT / AT / BY / 
WITH sth 
dissatisfied WITH sth 
equipped WITH sth 
faced WITH sth 
familiar WITH sth 
filled WITH sth 
fraught WITH sth 
good WITH people, animals (able to 
deal with) 
incompatible WITH sb/sth 
jammed WITH sth 
mad AT/WITH sb/sth (angry) 
obsessed WITH sth 
packed WITH sth 
patient WITH sb ABOUT sth 
pleased ABOUT / WITH sth 
preoccupied WITH sth / sb 
racked WITH sth 
safe WITH sb (protected by sb) 
satisfied WITH sth 
synonymous WITH sth 
 
adequate FOR sth 
basic FOR sth 
beneficial FOR/TO sb/sth 
charged FOR sth (a service) 
early FOR sth 
earmarked FOR sth 
eligible FOR sth 
essential FOR / TO sth / sb 
famous FOR sth 
geared up FOR sth (ready for sth) 
indispensable FOR sth 
late FOR sth 
liable FOR sth (legally responsible for 
sth) 
necessary FOR sth / TO do sth 
perfect FOR sth / sb 
possible FOR sb TO do sth 
prepared FOR sth / TO do sth 
ready FOR sth 
responsible FOR sth 
safe FOR sb 
sorry FOR sth / ABOUT sb 
suitable FOR sth 
useful FOR sth 
 
 
 
 
 
followed by ON followed by UPON followed by AGAINST 
based ON/UPON sth 
conditional ON/UPON sth 
contingent ON/UPON sth (dependent 
on sth) 
dependent ON/UPON sb/sth 
keen ON sth 
 
based ON/UPON sth 
conditional ON/UPON sth 
contingent ON/UPON sth (dependent 
on sth) 
dependent ON/UPON sb/sth 
 
prejudiced AGAINST sth 
 
 
 
 
23 
 
 
 
followed by ABOUT followed by BY followed by AT 
angry ABOUT sth 
annoyed ABOUT / AT / BY sth 
anxious ABOUT sth 
certain ABOUT sth 
concerned ABOUT sb / sth 
disappointed ABOUT / AT / BY / 
WITH sth 
enthusiastic ABOUT sth 
excited ABOUT sth 
happy WITH / ABOUT sth 
mad ABOUT sb/sth (in love) 
miserable ABOUT sth 
optimistic ABOUT 
patient WITH sb ABOUT sth 
pessimistic ABOUTpleased ABOUT / WITH sth 
right ABOUT sth 
serious ABOUT sth 
sorry ABOUT sb 
upset ABOUT sth 
worried ABOUT sth / sb 
wrong ABOUT sth 
 
annoyed ABOUT / AT / BY sth 
baffled BY sth 
beset BY sth (afflicted by problems) 
bewildered BY/AT sth 
bored AT / BY / WITH sth 
burdened BY sth (having many 
problems) 
detained BY sth 
disappointed ABOUT / AT / BY / 
WITH sth 
distressed BY sth 
plagued BY sth 
racked BY sth 
shocked BY sth 
surprised AT / BY sth 
 
angry AT / WITH sb 
annoyed ABOUT / AT / BY sth 
bad AT sth (lacking ability) 
bewildered AT/BY sth 
bored AT / BY / WITH sth 
disappointed ABOUT / AT / BY / 
WITH sth 
good AT sth 
mad AT/WITH sb/sth (angry) 
surprised AT / BY sth 
 
 
 
followed by FROM followed by OF followed by IN 
absent FROM sth 
derived FROM sth 
descendent FROM sth / sb 
different FROM sth / sb 
excluded FROM sth 
free FROM / OF sth 
independent OF / FROM sth / sb 
indistinguishable FROM sth / sb 
missing FROM sth 
prohibited FROM sth (doing) 
remote FROM (far off) sth 
safe FROM sb/sth (protected against 
sb/sth) 
separate FROM sth 
afraid OF sth / sb 
ashamed OF sb/sth 
aware OF sth 
capable OF (doing) sth 
characteristic OF sth / sb 
composed OF sth 
conscious OF sth 
devoid OF sth 
deprived OF sth 
fond OF sb 
full OF sth 
independent OF / FROM sth / sb 
indicative OF sth 
irrespective OF sth 
jealous OF sth / sb 
reminiscent OF sth 
respectful OF sb/sth 
typical OF sth / sb 
wary OF sth 
 
absorbed IN sth 
deficient IN sth 
disappointed IN sb 
engrossed IN sth 
experienced IN sth 
implicated IN sth 
inherent IN sth / sb 
instrumental IN sth 
interested IN sth / sb 
rich IN sth 
shrouded IN 
specialized IN sth 
 
 
nouns 
 
followed by IN followed by OF followed by FOR 
decrease IN 
experience IN 
improvement IN 
increase IN 
influence IN/ ON / OVER / UPON 
interest IN 
practice AT / IN 
(take) pride IN 
cause OF 
components OF 
example OF 
form OF 
group OF 
method OF 
native OF 
(take) notice OF 
origin OF 
part OF 
price OF 
quality OF 
supply OF 
 
admiration FOR 
cause FOR 
craving FOR 
credit FOR 
cure FOR 
demand FOR 
desire FOR 
disregard FOR 
(be in the) mood FOR 
provision FOR 
reason FOR 
recipe FOR 
respect FOR 
responsibility FOR 
room FOR 
solution FOR / TO 
sympathy FOR 
 
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24 
 
 
 
followed by ON followed by TO followed by WITH 
authority ON 
ban ON 
comment ON 
effect ON / UPON 
expert ON / IN 
influence IN/ ON / OVER / UPON 
(make) profit ON 
reliance ON / UPON 
restriction ON 
tax ON 
access TO 
alternative TO 
approach TO 
attention TO 
attitude TO 
exception TO 
solution FOR / TO 
threat TO 
witness TO 
 
contrast WITH sb/sth 
in dispute WITH sb 
(have an) encounter WITH sb 
(have a) link WITH sb/sth 
(have a) quarrel WITH sb 
(have a) relationship WITH sb 
 
followed by OVER followed by IN followed by AT 
(have) advantage OVER 
(be in, have) authority OVER 
(have) control OVER 
(be in) dispute OVER sth 
influence IN/ ON / OVER / UPON 
 
specialist IN adept AT 
practice AT / IN 
 
followed by UPON 
effect ON / UPON 
influence IN/ ON / OVER / UPON 
reliance ON / UPON 
 
 
 
preceded by ON preceded by FOR preceded by BY 
ON approval 
ON average 
ON a regular basis 
ON behalf of, the contrary, loan, the 
market (for sale), its merits, offer, 
purpose, good terms, the verge of 
ON the market 
FOR fear of 
FOR the foreseeable future 
FOR life 
FOR long 
FOR the time being 
BY accident 
BY chance 
BY coincidence 
BY mistake 
BY rights 
BY surprise 
BY the time 
 
preceded by IN preceded by UNDER preceded by AT 
IN advance 
IN answer to 
IN any case 
IN the balance 
IN the beginning (initially) 
IN charge of 
IN collaboration with 
IN comparison with 
IN comfort 
IN (good, bad) condition 
IN decline 
IN demand 
IN dire straits 
IN dispute 
IN distress 
IN earnest 
IN the end (finally) 
IN favor of something 
IN favor with someone 
IN fear of 
IN harmony 
IN jeopardy 
IN all likelihood 
IN practice 
IN recognition of 
IN response to 
IN short 
IN (high, low) spirits 
IN (the early, the late) stages 
IN theory 
IN time 
IN trouble 
IN turn 
IN one way or another 
UNDER age 
UNDER the circumstances 
UNDER control 
UNDER cover of 
UNDER the impression (that) 
UNDER the influence of 
UNDER a law 
UNDER an obligation 
UNDER pressure 
UNDER repair 
UNDER stress 
UNDER suspicion 
 
AT the (first/second) attempt 
AT the beginning of 
AT the end of 
AT fault 
AT first sight 
AT large 
AT length 
AT any rate 
 
preceded by OUT OF preceded by WITH 
OUT OF breath 
OUT OF control 
OUT OF danger 
OUT OF doors 
OUT OF focus 
OUT OF luck 
OUT OF the ordinary 
OUT OF pocket 
OUT OF practice 
OUT OF all proportion 
OUT OF reach 
OUT OF stock 
OUT OF work 
WITH the exception of 
WITH intent to 
WITH regard to 
WITH a view to 
preceded by WITHOUT 
WITHOUT a chance 
WITHOUT delay 
WITHOUT a doubt 
WITHOUT exception 
WITHOUT a word 
 
preceded by BEYOND 
BEYOND belief 
BEYOND a joke (sth that has become 
serious) 
BEYOND repair 
BEYOND the shadow of a doubt 
 
others 
 
AFTER all AT all ABOVE all 
25 
 
 
PREPOSITIONS – exercise 1* 
 
Fill in the blanks with the correct preposition. 
 
verbs 
 
1. Do you agree __________ me that this scheme will not work? 
2. We do not always agree __________ everything. 
3. The two countries were unable to agree __________ a common strategy. 
4. He agreed __________ our proposals. (= said yes) 
5. Police have appealed __________ the public __________ information about the crime. 
6. Fletcher applied __________ the post of Eliot’s secretary. 
7. The questions on this part of the form only apply __________ married men. 
8. He apologized profusely __________ the damage he had caused. 
9. He apologized __________ his colleagues. 
10. I very much (dis)approve __________ these new tests. 
11. She is always arguing __________ her mother __________ money. 
12. We are due to arrive __________ Rome __________ 10 o’clock. 
13. The novels are all loosely based __________ the author’s life. 
14. You have got to believe __________ yourself, or you will never succeed. 
15. We both benefited financially __________ the arrangement. 
16. I do not blame Jack __________ the mistake. 
17. Whenever something goes wrong, everyone blames it __________ me. 
18. He openly boasted __________ his talents. 
19. She borrowed $50 __________ her mother. 
20. We have budgeted $10,000 __________ advertising. 
21. He bought a car __________ his daughter __________ a friend. 
22. I bought it __________ $25. 
23. The UN has called __________ both sides to observe the ceasefire. (= formally asked) 
24. Farmers are calling __________ larger government subsidies. (= asking strongly) 
25. She has not yet been formally charged __________ the offense. 
26. We do not charge __________ delivery. 
27. She had to choose __________ giving up her job or hiring a nanny. 
28. They often clash violently __________ rival gangs. 
29. His car nearly collided __________ a bus. 
30. People were commenting __________ her gifts and abilities. 
31. The company will compensate you __________ the losses you have suffered. 
32. He compensated his homely appearance __________ great personal charm. 
33. The advantages of the scheme more than compensate __________ the risks associated with it. 
34. She complained bitterly __________ the lack of help she received. 
35. He concentrated mainly __________ the flying and spoke very little. 
36. He was roundly condemned __________ his mistake. 
37. He confided his money __________ his brother’s safe-keeping. 
38. She congratulated me warmly __________ my performance. 
39. Their conversation consistedalmost entirely __________ gossip. (= was composed) 
40. The beauty of Venice consists largely __________ the style of its ancient buildings. (= depends) 
41. This sofa converts __________ a bed. (= change something) 
42. I have converted __________ decaffeinated coffee. (= change or make someone change their mind) 
43. This topic is dealt __________ at greater length in the following chapter. 
44. We are still trying to decide __________ a venue. 
45. The outcome seems to depend __________ the type of soil used. 
46. It is not always possible to differentiate __________ the two diseases. 
47. These features clearly differentiate this product __________ other similar ones. 
48. The children divided __________ three teams. 
49. We dream __________ buying our own house. (= we would like it to happen) 
50. I dreamed __________ you last night. (I was asleep) 
51. Let us drink __________ your success in your new job. 
 
 
*Sources: 
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Longman. 1995. 
Oxford Collocations Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2002. 
Random House Dictionary. Random House, Inc. 2010. 
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26 
 
 
52. The world is only slowly emerging __________ recession. 
53. The government is encroaching __________ the rights of individuals. 
54. This is not the place to enter __________ a detailed discussion of economic policy. 
55. She decided to exchange free lessons __________ free accommodation. 
56. At the end of the game players traditionally exchange shirts __________ each other. 
57. I cannot excuse them __________ treating their animals so badly. 
58. Marty’s bad health exempts him __________ military service. 
59. Recent medical evidence has exonerated Dr. Lamont __________ all blame. 
60. They are committed to fighting __________ racism and __________ equal rights. 
61. Oh yes! I almost forgot __________ the party. 
62. She never forgave him __________ losing her ring. 
63. They succeeded in freeing their friends __________ prison. 
64. They gazed __________ the mighty peaks. 
65. The firm gives a generous discount __________ companies that place large orders. 
66. That tie goes well __________ that shirt. 
67. Mitch graduated __________ Stanford with a degree __________ Law. 
68. The farmers are always grumbling __________ the weather. 
69. The city needs to be guarded __________ attack. 
70. Have you heard __________ Sarah lately? 
71. I have heard __________ this sort of thing before. 
72. Last month the reward was increased __________ $20,000 __________ $40,000. 
73. The budget has increased __________ more than a third in the last year. 
74. He insists __________ speaking to your personally. 
75. They instilled good manners __________ their children at an early age. 
76. New technology is rapidly being introduced __________ factories. 
77. She introduced me __________ her neighbors. 
78. There are too many outsiders interfering __________ local politics. (= meddling) 
79. You must not interfere __________ her work. (= disturb) 
80. People are being encouraged to invest __________ pension plans. 
81. He knows a lot __________ early music. 
82. Young offenders just laugh __________ this sort of sentence. 
83. I have lent my car __________ George for the weekend. 
84. The teaching of history should not be limited __________ dates and figures. 
85. They lived frugally __________ a diet of porridge and lentils. 
86. I challenge anyone to try to live __________ the state pension. 
87. She lived __________ two world wars. 
88. He has been living __________ that house for eleven years now. 
89. When I first met them, they lived __________ Main Street, __________ 72 Main Street. 
90. Don’t worry. I’ll look __________ the kids tomorrow. 
91. The visiting side lost __________ the home team. 
92. We made __________ St. Louis as fast as possible. (= headed) 
93. Our company is to merge __________ a big German car manufacturer. 
94. I am sorry. I mistook you __________ George. 
95. I named my son __________ my father. 
96. He wrote a petition objecting __________ the scheme. 
97. This is where sociology overlaps __________ economics. 
98. They will have the opportunity to participate actively __________ the decision-making process. 
99. How much did you pay __________ your new car? 
100. He had failed to prepare adequately __________ the task before him. 
101. You have to be prepared __________ take risks in this kind of work. 
102. They could find no clergyman who would agree to preside __________ the funeral. (be in charge of) 
103. The president found himself presiding __________ the worst economic depression in the history of 
the US. (= be in charge of a situation without having control over it) 
104. The party will continue to press __________ a new electoral system. 
105. Katie pressed me __________ stay a little longer. 
106. They would have enjoyed the party more if they had not been pressurized __________ going. 
107. Normally apathetic members were pressurized __________ vote. 
108. His view eventually prevailed __________ theirs. 
109. They took action to prevent the disease __________ spreading. 
110. No one can prevent you __________ attending this meeting. 
111. The school prides itself __________ its academic records. 
112. He profited greatly __________ his schooling. 
113. The new measures are designed to protect the public __________ people like these. 
114. They are protesting __________ the proposed agreement. 
27 
 
 
115. He provided us __________ a lot of useful information. 
116. The scheme was intended to provide financial help __________ unemployed workers. 
117. They will be severely punished __________ their crimes. 
118. Offenders will be punished __________ a $1,000 fine. 
119. He wished he had not quarreled __________ Tania __________ money. 
120. There were 120 students whose ages ranged __________ 10 and 18. 
121. The university reacted unfavorably __________ the proposals. 
122. She rebuked herself sharply __________ her stupidity. 
123. The term ‘alexia’ is used to refer __________ any acquired disorder of reading. 
124. She paused to reflect __________ what she had achieved. 
125. I refrained __________ laughing. 
126. Many of her books are regarded __________ classics. 
127. You can safely rely __________ his judgment. 
128. She looked at her watch to remind him __________ the time. 
129. Mrs. Nolan always reminded Marie __________ her own mother. 
130. Please remind me __________ buy stamps. 
131. We replaced the old television set __________ a newer one. 
132. When polite requests failed, Paul resorted __________ threats. 
133. I am restricting myself __________ one glass of wine a day. 
134. This move will inevitably result __________ the loss of a lot of jobs. 
135. These problems result __________ past errors. 
136. “House” rhymes __________ “mouse”. 
137. We must take steps to safeguard our environment __________ these threats. 
138. They saved the paintings __________ destruction. 
139. Police are still searching __________ the missing child. 
140. They separated the boys __________ the girls. 
141. I separated the documents __________ two files. 
142. She had to share the bedroom __________ her sister. 
143. She turned and smiled __________ me. 
144. The company spent a lot __________ advertising. 
145. P.S. stands __________ “postscript.” 
146. Bill substituted __________ Larry who was off sick. (Bill went to work, Larry did not) 
147. She has succeeded __________ a difficult career. 
148. She suffers __________ asthma. 
149. He refused to supply the police __________ information. 
150. Jenni really takes __________ her mother. 
151. We often talked __________ the war. (formal) 
152. They just do not see the point in tampering __________ a system that has worked fine so far. 
153. I still do not know what he really thinks __________ it. 
154. The place was transformed__________ a quiet farming village __________ a busy port. 
155. The company has recently been valued __________ $6 billion. 
156. Parliament is to vote __________ tobacco advertising tomorrow. (= decide about) 
157. The opposition voted overwhelmingly __________ the government’s proposal. 
158. I voted __________ the Labour candidate in the last election. 
159. I am waiting __________ a bus. 
160. He worked his way through college by waiting __________ tables. (= working as a waiter) 
161. No one had warned us __________ the unbearable heat. 
162. She works __________ an oil company. 
163. Do not worry __________ me. I will be fine. 
164. She is a journalist who writes __________ problems in the developing world. 
165. She writes __________ “The Times”. 
 
adjectives 
 
166. He is well able __________ take care of himself. 
167. He was absent __________ work for two weeks. 
168. That is a compromise that is acceptable __________ both sides. 
169. She had grown accustomed __________ his long absences. 
170. I am not personally acquainted __________ her. 
171. The old computer is still perfectly adequate __________ most tasks. 
172. Charlie is afraid __________ marriage. 
173. The party is allied __________ the Communists. 
174. His findings are analogous __________ our own. 
175. I was quite annoyed __________ her remarks. 
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176. We need to make people more aware __________ these problems. 
177. Their research was based largely __________ anecdotal evidence. 
178. I got terribly angry __________ him __________ the plans he made for the weekend. 
179. Exercise is extremely beneficial __________ health. 
180. The business has been beset __________ financial problems. 
181. She had a gold bracelet beset __________ jewels. 
182. He was rather bewildered __________ seeing her there. 
183. He seemed faintly bored __________ the whole process. 
184. It is a big company burdened __________ debt. (= having many problems) 
185. He was burdened __________ grocery bags. (= carrying something heavy) 
186. He felt he would burst __________ anger. 
187. She could hardly believe him capable __________ such kindness. 
188. That was a problem that was fairly characteristic __________ late eighteenth century society. 
189. The atmosphere was charged __________ hatred. 
190. He was quite close __________ his older brother. 
191. Heat treatment is most effective if combined __________ regular physiotherapy. 
192. The committee was composed entirely __________ specialists. 
193. His agreement to buy our house was conditional __________ our leaving all the furniture in it. 
194. The wire is connected __________ an electrode. (= joined together) 
195. She had problems connected __________ drug abuse. (= related) 
196. She seemed quite content __________ the idea. 
197. Further investment would be contingent __________ the company’s profit performance. 
198. These results are contrary __________ our expectations. 
199. Small firms are dependent __________ the local economy. 
200. By the age of 18 he was completely independent __________ his parents. 
201. This move could be seriously detrimental __________ the economy. 
202. The land is almost devoid __________ vegetation. 
203. This school is radically different __________ most others. 
204. I was slightly disappointed __________ her attitude. 
205. He is disappointed __________ his daughter. 
206. 80% of the funds have been earmarked __________ education. 
207. Are you eligible __________ social security benefits? 
208. He seemed completely engrossed __________ his book. 
209. He was quite enthusiastic __________ the idea. 
210. Three feet is roughly equal __________ one meter. 
211. The flat is fully equipped __________ a stove and fridge. 
212. He believed that some form of religion was essential __________ human life. 
213. Women were excluded __________ the council. 
214. I was faced __________ the awful job of breaking the news to the girl’s family. 
215. That seems fair __________ all sides. 
216. I was now getting much more familiar __________ the local area. 
217. The name sounded vaguely familiar __________ her. 
218. The town became famous __________ its lace. 
219. The court’s judgment was favorable __________ their client. 
220. The drawer was filled __________ neat piles of shirts. 
221. Any program of sudden change is likely to be fraught __________ pitfalls. 
222. The organization wants to remain free __________ government control. 
223. The typical career pattern was geared __________ men whose wives did not work. 
224. The party is all geared up __________ the election. 
225. Many people are immune __________ this disease. 
226. Written sources are considered virtually indispensable __________ today’s history teaching. 
227. This artificial material is almost indistinguishable __________ real silk. 
228. His later work was vastly inferior / superior __________ his early work. 
229. The problems you mention are inherent __________ the system. 
230. They were highly instrumental __________ bringing the business to Newtown. 
231. She has always been very interested __________ politics. 
232. He started to get jealous __________ her success. 
233. He is keen __________ football. 
234. She is fully liable __________ the company’s debts. (= responsible) 
235. She is married __________ an actor. 
236. He got home feeling utterly miserable __________ his exams. 
237. Kangaroos are native __________ Australia. 
238. Food is necessary __________ life. 
239. The parking lot is only open __________ residents. 
29 
 
 
240. The path he saw himself taking seemed opposed __________ the ethos of the department. 
241. He was endlessly patient __________ the children __________ it all. 
242. He is very optimistic / pessimistic __________ his chances. 
243. The day seemed perfect __________ a picnic. 
244. It should soon be possible __________ most people __________ work from home. 
245. Death was considered vastly preferable __________ dishonor. 
246. He is deeply prejudiced __________ women. 
247. He was too preoccupied __________ his own problems. 
248. I was not prepared __________ all their questions. 
249. Nuclear powers are prohibited __________ selling this technology. 
250. She was racked __________ feelings of guilt. 
251. Please have your tickets ready __________ inspection. 
252. Not everyone is receptive __________ new ideas and values. 
253. He claims to be distantly related __________ the British royal family. 
254. Past imperial glories are hardly relevant __________ the present day. 
255. This painting is strongly reminiscent __________ da Vinci’s “Annunciation”. 
256. Jane felt remote __________ what was going on around her. 
257. Oranges are rich __________ vitamin C. 
258. They were safe __________ attack. 
259. This is a completely safe environment __________ young children. 
260. Your money will be safe __________ me. 
261. She seems satisfied __________ the arrangements. 
262. The waste water is kept entirely separate __________ the rainwater. 
263. The origins of this ritual are shrouded __________ mystery. 
264. Snake meet tastes similar __________ chicken. 
265. I am sorry __________ your mother. I hope she will soon be feeling better. 
266. She is obviously deeply sorry __________ what she has done. 
267. The monarch is formally subordinate __________ Parliament. 
268. These properties are considered especially suitable __________ older people. 
269. She appeared genuinely surprised __________ this gesture of affection. 
270. Until the late 18th century, “opera” was almost synonymous __________ Italian opera. 
271. Julia is fairly typical __________ her age group. 
272. These yellow stickers are useful __________ leaving messages. 
273. These offices are highly vulnerable __________ terrorist attack. 
274. You should be very wary __________ people offeringcheap tickets. 
275. We were really worried __________ you! 
 
nouns 
276. The company has an unfair advantage __________ its competitors. 
277. I like her approach __________ the problem. 
278. Policy makers paid scant attention __________ the wider issues. 
279. There is no cause __________ alarm. (= reason) 
280. There is no known cure __________ the disease. 
281. There has been a sharp decrease __________ pollution since the law was introduced. 
282. The dry weather had an adverse effect __________ the potato crops. 
283. Franco is a prime example __________ a man hungry for power. 
284. Guide dogs are the one exception __________ the store’s ban __________ dogs. 
285. Karl has considerable experience __________ modern methods __________ diagnosis. 
286. Trains are a very cost-effective form __________ transport. 
287. A group __________ animal rights activists claimed responsibility __________ the bomb. 
288. The new factory brought a huge improvement __________ working conditions. 
289. There has been an increase __________ demand __________ two-bedroom flats. 
290. She has a certain amount of influence __________ the way things are organized. 
291. She always had a great interest __________ the supernatural. 
292. I tried to make him laugh, but he was in no mood __________ jokes. 
293. The bear was once a native __________ Britain. 
294. We spent a good part __________ the day rehearsing. 
295. The children need more practice __________ tying their shoelaces. 
296. She expressed pride __________ her child’s achievement. 
297. Did you make a profit __________ your house when you sold it? 
298. They did not give any reason __________ the delay. 
299. The increased reliance of the university __________ private funds is worrying. 
300. They were seeking an ultimate solution __________ the city’s traffic problem. 
301. The body needs a fresh supply __________ vitamin C every day. 
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30 
 
 
 
PREPOSITIONS – exercise 2* 
 
 
1. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate preposition. 
 
1. I really prefer just about anything __________ watching television. 
2. This year’s conference coincided __________ two other major conventions. 
3. Is it possible to insure my bike __________ theft? 
4. The problem stems __________ the government’s lack of action. 
5. When I asked Jean, she hinted __________ the chance of a promotion for me. 
6. Being rich does not count __________ much on a desert island. 
7. I pleaded __________ John to change his mind, but he would not listen. 
8. I cannot stand the way she is always boasting __________ her wealthy parents. 
9. My grandfather is always confusing Madonna __________ Maradona. 
10. Could you please refrain __________ smoking in the lecture hall? 
11. Helen had great admiration __________ her history teacher. 
12. I am afraid I am not very good __________ animals. 
13. The favorite dropped out of the race __________ the early stages. 
14. I was __________ the impression that you liked Indian food. 
15. The minister stated that no real alternative __________ the plan existed. 
16. This town is famous __________ its hand-woven carpets. 
17. Your performance this term contrasts very favorably __________ last term’s. 
18. Many young people become addicted __________ drugs through ignorance. 
19. Apparently a number of army officers were implicated __________ the plot. 
20. Carol does not have a very good relationship __________ her mother. 
 
 
 
 
 
2. Choose the correct preposition in the parentheses. 
 
1. Diane showed a complete disregard (for / with) her own safety. 
2. I was totally baffled (by / of) Tim’s behavior. 
3. For Romeo and Juliet it was love (at / with) first sight. 
4. They would not let me in the pub because I was (below / under) age. 
5. Our house has been (in / on) the market for months. 
6. You are perfectly capable (for / of) making our own bed! 
7. We walked on tiptoe (for / from) fear of being discovered. 
8. This is one of the exceptions (of / to) the rule. 
9. We met at the hotel completely (by / from) coincidence. 
 
 
 
 
* Source: Advanced Language Practice. Michael Vince. Macmillan. 2003. 
31 
 
 
 
3. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate preposition. 
 
It never ceases to amaze me how little notice some people now take __________(1) rules in 
public places. Wen I was a child, it would never have occurred to me not to comply __________(2) the 
rules. If someone smoked in defiance of a ‘No Smoking’ sign on a train, they would rapidly be reminded 
__________(3) their transgression by several irate passengers, who would refer the errant smoker 
__________(4) the sign in no uncertain terms. What is more, the person accused would normally 
apologize __________(5) his indiscretion, and would certainly refrain __________(6) repeating his anti-
social behavior. These days reminding someone __________(7) their public duty not to drop litter or 
swear on the streets is likely to succeed only __________(8) unleashing a torrent of verbal abuse 
__________(9) the wrongdoer. Many people seem blithely unaware that, for example, the ‘silence in the 
library’ rule applies __________(10) them, as much as to anyone else. Asking them is not enough, 
pleading __________(11) them might still not deter them __________(12) their noisy chat, resorting 
__________(13) physical violence, an undesirable option, seems the only one likely to get a result. But, in 
all seriousness, what really annoys me is that one is made to feel churlish or old-fashioned just to insist 
__________(14) basic respect of everyday manners. Truly, it seems polite behavior and good manners 
count __________(15) nothing in today’s society. 
 
 
 
 
 
4. Fill in the blanks with the verbs in the box. 
 
 allow attribute benefit blame discuss 
 elaborate focus provide refer resign 
 specialize stem subject suffer suggest 
 
 
I had a difficult time last year with my health. For several months I was _________________(1) from 
periodic headaches and almost constant nausea. I made several visits to my GP, who 
__________________(2) my headaches to migraine and ____________________(3) me with medication. 
When this failed to work he ________________(4) on my nausea as the root cause, _______________(5) 
my headaches on the nausea. I was ___________________(6) to five blood tests, none of which revealed 
anything significant. I __________________(7) my diet with the doctor at length, and we tried eliminating 
certain foods from my meals. He __________________(8), for example, I might __________________(9) 
from a low-fiber diet. But still the symptoms persisted, and I was starting to _______________(10) myself 
to feeling ill for the rest of my life. I was understandably concerned about the possibility of it being 
something serious, even a brain tumor, but the doctor said that my anxiety in this respect 
________________(11) from nervous tension and stress. After six months I was _________________(12) 
to a consultant at the hospital, who ___________________(13) in stomach disorders. She said that, even 
____________________(14) for my age and stressful lifestyle, it was still abnormal to experience 
symptoms like these for so long. She _________________(15) on all the possible causes of nausea in 
detail, and suggested that in my case the nausea might be the result of a liver disorder. 
 
 
 
 
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32 
 
 
 
PREPOSITIONS – exercise 3* 
 
 
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate preposition.Prepositions following adjectives 
1. __________ 
afraid, ashamed, aware, capable, conscious, fond, full, indicative, irrespective, jealous 
2. __________ 
angry (something), annoyed (something), anxious, certain, excited, mad (=in love), pleased, 
right, serious, sorry (something), upset, wrong 
3. __________ 
angry (someone), annoyed (someone), bored, compatible, connected, happy, incompatible, 
obsessed, pleased, preoccupied 
4. __________ 
angry (someone), annoyed (someone), bad, good, mad (=angry), surprised 
5. __________ 
keen 
6. __________ 
addicted, attentive, grateful, kind, immune, impervious, indifferent, liable (likely to suffer from), 
married, prone 
7. __________ 
baffled, bored, detained, distressed, plagued, shocked, surprised 
8. __________ 
early, eligible, famous, late, liable (legally responsible), ready, responsible, sorry (someone) 
9. __________ 
deficient, experienced, implicated, interested 
10. __________ 
absent, derived, different, missing, safe 
 
Prepositions following nouns 
11. __________ 
authority, ban, comment, effect, expert, influence, restriction, tax 
12. __________ 
access, alternative, attitude, exception, solution, threat, witness 
 
 
* Source: Advanced Language Practice. Michael Vince. Macmillan. 2003. 
 
33 
 
 
 
13. __________ 
be in authority, have control, be in dispute (something) 
14. __________ 
contrast, in dispute (someone), encounter, link, quarrel, relationship 
15. __________ 
admiration, craving, credit, cure, desire, disregard, provision, recipe, respect, responsibility, 
room, sympathy 
 
Prepositions following verbs 
16. __________ 
absorbed, confide, engrossed, implicate (someone), involve (someone), result (cause a result), 
specialize, succeed 
17. __________ 
account, allow (take into consideration), apologize, blame (someone ___ something), care, 
cater, charge (make someone pay), count (make a difference), earmark, pay 
18. __________ 
accuse (someone), convict (someone), remind (someone), suspect (someone) 
19. __________ 
acquaint (someone), associate, charge (consider someone guilty of a crime), be cluttered, 
coincide, collide, comply, be concerned, confront, confuse (someone ___ someone else), be 
crammed, deal, discuss (someone), be faced, ingratiate, meet (___ something), be packed, 
plead, provide (someone ___ something), tamper, trust (someone ___ something) 
20. __________ 
bar (someone ___ something), benefit, derive, deter (someone ___ something), differ, 
distinguish (something ___ something else), distract (someone ___ something), exempt 
(someone ___ something), expel (someone ___ somewhere), refrain, resign, result (be a 
result) 
21. __________ 
base, blame (something ___ someone), center, concentrate, decide, depend, elaborate, hinge, 
impose, insist, pride 
22. __________ 
insure, protest 
23. __________ 
argue, be concerned (= be worried), boast, decide, protest 
24. __________ 
glance, guess, hint, marvel 
 
 
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34 
 
 
25. __________ 
answer, appeal, apply (=suit), attend (=give attention), attribute, commit, confess, devote, 
prefer, react, refer, be resigned, resort, see (=make sure it is done), subject, succeed (=be the 
next one), be used 
 
Expressions beginning with prepositions 
26. __________ 
advance, answer, any case, the balance, the beginning, charge of, the charge of, collaboration 
with, comparison with, comfort, (good, bad) condition, decline, demand, dispute, distress, 
earnest, the end, favor of something, favor with someone, fear of, harmony, jeopardy, all 
likelihood, practice, recognition of, response to, short, high spirits, the early stages, theory, 
time, trouble, turn, one way or another 
27. __________ 
the exception of, intent to, regard to, a view to 
28. __________ 
the (first/second) attempt, the beginning of, the end of, fault, first sight, large, any rate 
29. __________ 
approval, average, a regular basis, behalf of, the contrary, loan, the market (for sale), its 
merits, offer, purpose, good terms, the verge of 
30. __________ 
belief, a joke, repair, the shadow of a doubt 
31. __________ 
accident, chance, coincidence, mistake, rights, surprise, the time 
32. __________ 
fear of, the foreseeable future, life, long, the time being 
33. __________ + __________ 
breath, control, danger, doors, focus, luck, the ordinary, pocket, practice, all proportion, reach, 
stock, work 
34. __________ 
age, the circumstances, control, cover of, the impression that, the influence of, a law, an 
obligation, pressure, repair, stress, suspicion 
35. __________ 
a chance, delay, a doubt, exception, a word 
36. __________ 
all 
 
 
 
 
 
35 
 
 
 
PREPOSITIONS – exercise 4 
 
 
Translate the phrases into English. Focus on the underlined prepositions. 
 
 
1. O quadro de Picasso. (pintado por ele) 
2. O quadro de Picasso. (o seu retrato) 
3. O quadro de Picasso. (que ele possuía) 
4. Os preparativos para a partida. 
5. O hospital de Buffalo. 
6. Um endereço na Quinta Avenida. 
7. As luzes do andar térreo. 
8. Os botões do uniforme. 
9. Carros na estrada. 
10. A iluminação das estradas. 
11. Uma curva da estrada. 
12. Um ataque à aldeia. 
13. A estrada do litoral. 
14. Um deputado de Nova York. 
15. A diferença de cor. 
16. Ferramentas de formato similar. 
17. As anotações do secretário. 
18. Uma aliança no dedo. 
19. Um faixa na cintura. 
20. Na época do Natal. 
21. No dia de Natal. 
22. A preço de custo. 
23. Sentar-se em uma poltona. 
24. De chinelos. 
25. De terno. 
26. Quarenta pessoas ao todo. 
27. Um cheque de 200 dólares. 
28. Parabéns pela aprovação. 
29. No ônibus. 
30. No carro. 
31. De ônibus. De carro. De bicicleta. 
32. A pé. 
33. Ao sul daquela cidade. 
34. Caminhar na sombra. 
35. O gato pulou para cima da mesa. 
36. Pela porta da frente. 
37. À esquerda. 
38. Abrir caminho para a porta. 
39. Uma casa ao lado da outra. 
40. Uma casa em frente à outra. 
41. Um carro em frente à casa. 
42. Aos 16 anos. 
43. Em uma semana. 
44. Dormi durante o filme. 
45. Assisti à TV durante duas horas. 
46. Telefone-me até sexta-feira. 
47. Esperamos até parar de chover. 
48. Os cômodos da casa. 
49. Os danos ao imóvel. 
50. Em detrimento a alguém. 
51. A chave do laboratório. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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36 
 
 
 
LOGICAL CONNECTORS 
 
Sources: 
 
FRANK, M. Modern English. Regents, Prentice Hall, 1993. 
FRYDENBERG, G.; BOARDMAN, C. A. You’re in charge: writing to communicate. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1990. 
O’DONNELL, T. D.; PAIVA, J. L. Independent writing. Heinle & Heinle, 1993. 
SMALLEY, R.; RUETTEN, M.; KOZYREV, J. Refining composition skills: rhetoric and grammar. Heinle & Heinle, 2000. 
 
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. 1995. 
The New Penguin English Dictionary. 2000. 
http://www.dictionary.com 
 
 
MEANING WORD/EXPRESSION PART OF SPEECH EXAMPLE 
ACCOMPANIMENT along with prepositional phrase A bill came along with the parcel. 
together with prepositional phrase Just bring it back to the store, together with your receipt. 
with preposition The mixer comes complete with instructions and a guarantee. 
ADDITION also adverb You can stay at our house. Also, I can check the plane times for you. 
and coordinate conjunction The thief moved quickly and quietly. 
apart from prepositional phrase Apart from cricket, I enjoy watching football and basketball. 
as well (informal) prepositional phrase I was so busy I missed lunch and dinner as well.as well as prepositional phrase John, as well as his wife Mary, has often expressed a desire to live in Europe. 
besides adverb, preposition June isn’t a good month to go there. Besides, I want to finish my exams first. 
both…. and (not used in negative 
sentences) 
correlative conjunctions They enjoy both going on a vacation and coming back home. 
for one thing... for another thing prepositional phrase I wouldn’t work abroad. For one thing, I don’t like traveling. For another thing, I don’t speak any 
foreign languages. 
furthermore adverb Furthermore, my aim is to provide the best service possible under these difficult circumstances. 
in addition prepositional phrase The hotel can accommodate 80 guests; in addition, there are several self-catering apartments. 
in addition to prepositional phrase In addition to his job at the university, he’s now running his own research company. 
moreover adverb Local people would like a new road. Moreover, there are good economic reasons for building one. 
neither… nor (use the verbs in the 
affirmative form) 
correlative conjunctions I have neither read the book nor seen the movie. 
not only… but (also) correlative conjunctions Not only did Mozart compose for piano, but he also wrote for violin. 
too adverb It’s a nutritious meal and cheap too! / They sold the house and the furniture too. 
ALTERNATIVE either... or correlative conjunctions You can take the test either on Monday or on Wednesday. 
or coordinate conjunction We can hold the meeting before two o’clock or after five. 
whether… or correlative conjunctions Whether out of avarice or out of need, he asked for a much higher price for his property than it 
was worth. 
37 
 
 
MEANING WORD/EXPRESSION PART OF SPEECH EXAMPLE 
CAUSE as subordinate conjunction They left the party at 11pm, as they had to get up early the next day. 
as a result of / as a consequence of prepositional phrase As a result of the engineer’s carelessness, many people were injured. 
because subordinate conjunction He was fined because he was speeding. 
because of prepositional phrase Because of his selfishness, he has very few friends. 
because of the fact that prepositional phrase Because of the fact that they had made their reservation too late, they couldn’t get on the plane 
they wanted. 
due to prepositional phrase The 15.30 train to Sheffield has been cancelled due to circumstances beyond our control. 
due to the fact that prepositional phrase Due to the fact that all trains were delayed, the station was crowded with people. 
for coordinate conjunction The girl did all the shopping and cooking, for her mother was in the hospital. 
for lack of / for want of prepositional phrase During the war many children died for lack of food. 
in that subordinate conjunction Both girls are similar in that they love expensive clothes. 
in view of prepositional phrase In view of his recent conduct, the club has decided to suspend him until further notice. 
in view of the fact that prepositional phrase In view of the fact that all the able-bodied men were fighting at the front, the women had to do all 
the work. 
inasmuch as (formal) subordinate conjunction Inasmuch as no offer has been made to pay for the damage, our company will have to take the 
case to court. 
now that subordinate conjunction Now that it has started to rain, the crops will be saved. 
on account of prepositional phrase He can’t run very fast on account of his asthma. 
on account of the fact that prepositional phrase He was fired on account of the fact that he had stolen money from the company. 
on the ground(s) that prepositional phrase She was awarded compensation on the grounds that the doctor had been negligent. 
out of (stresses psychological cause) prepositional phrase Out of concern for the financial security of his family, he took out a large insurance policy. 
owing to (not used after the verb be) prepositional phrase Owing to a lack of funds, the project will not continue next year. 
owing to the fact that prepositional phrase Owing to the fact that not enough members are present to call our meeting to order, we will have 
to cancel the meeting. 
seeing that (informal) subordinate conjunction Seeing that it’s getting dark, we’d better go inside. 
since subordinate conjunction This stamp is more interesting, since rarer. 
thanks to prepositional phrase Thanks to the public’s generosity, we have been able to build two new schools in the area. 
through preposition Many working days were lost through sickness last year. 
what with (= because of) prepositional phrase What with all these reports to do, I have to work overtime every night. 
with (forming a prepositional phrase) preposition With all this noise, I can’t concentrate on my studies. 
COMPARISON as conjunction Jim works in the same office as my sister does. 
like preposition He conducts himself like a king. / They are living like millionaires. 
 
CONCLUSION in conclusion prepositional phrase In conclusion, I would like to thank you for your attention. 
in short prepositional phrase In short, it was a disappointing meeting. 
to sum up / to sum up briefly verb phrase To sum up (briefly), we need to concentrate on staff training. 
EMPHASIS actually (chiefly spoken) adverb The situation may look worse, but, actually, things have improved. 
as a matter of fact prepositional phrase I met them when we were in college – as a matter of fact, we were on the same course. 
in fact prepositional phrase They told me it would be cheap but in fact it cost me near $500. 
in reality prepositional phrase Brave in appearance, but in reality a coward. 
indeed adverb I wouldn’t mind having an assistant. It would help, indeed. 
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MEANING WORD/EXPRESSION PART OF SPEECH EXAMPLE 
CONDITION as long as prepositional phrase So long as we have no trouble with the car, we should arrive at our destination in four hours. 
if subordinate conjunction If the temperature drops tonight, the lake will freeze over. 
if only subordinate conjunction I could get more work done if only there weren’t so much noise. 
in case subordinate conjunction In case you leave the house, please close the windows. 
in case of prepositional phrase In case of rain, the picnic will be canceled. 
in the event of prepositional phrase Britain agreed to support the US in the event of war. 
in the event that prepositional phrase In the event that she doesn’t call by noon, we’ll have to call her parents. 
on condition / on condition that prepositional phrase We can take care of this matter on condition that payment is made in advance. 
only if subordinate conjunction We will manufacture these handbags only if you can obtain the right leather. 
or / or else coordinate conjunction Get off this property or (else) I’ll call the police. 
otherwise adverb We’ll have to go now, otherwise we’ll miss the bus. 
provided / provided that / providing / 
providing that 
subordinate conjunction We should be able to do the job for you quickly, provided (that) / providing (that) you give us all 
the necessary information. 
unless subordinate conjunction Milk quickly turns sour unless it’s refrigerated. / Unless some extra money is found, the theater will 
close. 
when / whenever subordinate conjunction The roof leaks when(ever) it rains. 
whether (…or not) subordinate conjunction We have to decide whether (or not) to support this proposal. 
CONTRAST albeit subordinate conjunction 
(concessive) (archaic) 
Albeit his ordeal was almost beyond human endurance, he held steadfast to his goal. 
all the same noun phrase I realize that can be very annoying; all the same, I think you should apologize. 
although subordinate conjunction 
(concessive) 
Although he had never liked mathematics, he decided to take a course in statistics. 
as opposed to prepositional phrase Students discuss ideas, as opposedto just copying from books. 
but coordinate conjunction, 
preposition (meaning 
‘except’ after a negative) 
The enemy advanced slowly but surely. 
No one but him could have done that. / This car has been nothing but trouble. 
by contrast prepositional phrase Our old house had been large and spacious; by contrast, the new flat seemed cramped and dark. 
conversely adverb One dollar will buy 100 yen. Conversely, 100 yen will buy one dollar. 
despite preposition (concessive) Despite all our efforts to save the school, the County decided to close it. 
despite the fact that prepositional phrase 
(concessive) 
Despite the fact that he was well known all over the world, he was an extremely modest man. 
differently adverb The two words sound the same but they are spelled differently. 
even so (spoken only) adverbial You'd think that she would have more money, even so she can't afford to go out. 
even though adverbial (concessive) They could still remember, even though it was so long ago. 
however adverb This method has been widely adopted. However, it is not yet clear that it is the best method. 
in spite of prepositional phrase 
(concessive) 
Helen Keller succeeded in life in spite of her physical handicaps. 
in spite of the fact that prepositional phrase 
(concessive) 
He does a full day’s work in spite of the fact that he is eight years old. 
instead adverb I was going to write but called instead. / He sent his son instead. 
instead of preposition You can use milk instead of cream in this recipe. 
39 
 
 
MEANING WORD/EXPRESSION PART OF SPEECH EXAMPLE 
CONTRAST 
(continued) 
irrespective of (the fact that) prepositional phrase The course is open to everyone irrespective of age. 
nevertheless adverb What they said was true. It was, nevertheless, unkind. 
nonetheless adverb The islands are not a popular holiday destination, but are worth considering nonetheless. 
notwithstanding preposition 
adverb 
conjunction 
The government is determined to proceed with the housing policies, notwithstanding public 
opposition. (prep) / Notwithstanding, they will have to pay costs. (adverb) / notwithstanding that 
he had taken the proper precautions (conj) 
notwithstanding (the fact) that prepositional phrase 
(concessive) 
She lived to a ripe old age, notwithstanding the fact that she had a weak heart. 
on the contrary prepositional phrase It was not a good idea; on the contrary, it was a big mistake. 
on the one hand... on the other hand prepositional phrase On the one hand I want to sell the house; on the other hand, I can’t bear the thought of moving. 
regardless of prepositional phrase 
(concessive) 
He went ahead regardless of all warnings about the danger of his mission. 
regardless of the fact that prepositional phrase 
(concessive) 
She insisted on accompanying her husband regardless of the fact that she was feeling terribly ill. 
still adverb The hotel was terrible. Still, we were lucky with the weather. 
though subordinate conjunction 
(concessive) 
Though he still felt ill, he decided to go back to work. 
unlike preposition Unlike those in poorer countries, people here seldom go hungry. 
whereas subordinate conjunction 
(adversative) 
He was very generous, whereas his brother was quite stingy. 
while (informal) subordinate conjunction While he disliked cats, he permitted his daughter to have one. 
He would like to have a dog, while his wife would prefer a cat. 
with (forming a prepositional phrase) preposition With all his experience, he could not get a job. 
yet coordinate conjunction A man who has money yet does not share it is not worthy of respect. 
 
DEGREE as far as prepositional phrase 
(extent) 
This has been a difficult period as far as the German economy is concerned. 
insofar as subordinate conjunction 
(extent) 
Our firm will do whatever is necessary insofar as we are able to. 
to (a large / a certain / some) extent prepositional phrase These policies are to a large extent responsible for the region’s economic decline. 
 
EXAMPLE e.g. (= for example) adverb citrus fruits, e.g. oranges and grapefruit 
for example adverb Many countries, for example, Mexico and Japan, have earthquakes. 
for instance adverb You can’t rely on her. For instance, she arrived an hour late for an important meeting yesterday. 
such as prepositional phrase The local community is still reliant on traditional industries such as farming and mining. 
EXPLANATION i.e. (= that is) adverb a computer peripheral, i.e. a device such as a printer that is connected up to a computer 
in other words prepositional phrase Does she have the right work experience and skills? In other words, can she do the job? 
namely adverb Three students were mentioned, namely John, Sarah and Tom. 
that is (especially spoken) verb phrase I know how to operate a computer. That is, I thought I did until I saw this one. 
viz. (= namely) (abbr for videlicet) adverb The main point of his speech, viz. that our attitude was in fact harmful, was not understood. 
PLACE wherever subordinate conjunction You will find poverty wherever you go. 
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MEANING WORD/EXPRESSION PART OF SPEECH EXAMPLE 
EXCEPTION apart from prepositional phrase This essay is good apart from the spelling mistakes. / I can’t stand watching sports apart from golf. 
aside from (especially Am English) prepositional phrase They had no more food, aside from a few stale rolls. 
beyond that subordinate conjunction I have no complaint about my job beyond that it is boring. 
but preposition Everyone came but you. 
but for the fact that prepositional phrase Everything would have gone well with the play but for the fact that one of the props caught on fire. 
except that / excepting that subordinate conjunction That house is just what we want, except that it is too expensive. 
except for prepositional phrase Except for a slight limp, he has fully recovered from his terrible automobile accident. 
only that subordinate conjunction I have no complaint about the hotel, only that it is dull here. 
save (that) / saving (that) (formal) subordinate conjunction The plan would have gone off very well, save that one of the officials became very greedy. 
GENERALIZATION almost all adverb Almost all the children here speak two languages. 
broadly speaking (chiefly spoken) verb phrase There are, broadly speaking, four types of champagne. 
by and large (chiefly spoken) prepositional phrase Charities are, by and large, exempt from income tax. 
for the most part prepositional phrase For the most part, the relationship between investment and interests has not been successful. 
generally adverb Generally, the more expensive the stereo, the better it is. 
in general prepositional phrase In general, about 10% of the candidates are eventually offered positions. 
largely adverb The state of Nevada is largely desert. 
mainly adverb The workforce is mainly made up of women. 
mostly adverb More immigrants arrived, mostly Europeans. 
on the whole prepositional phrase On the whole, life was much quieter after they left. 
overall adverb Overall, prices are still rising. 
predominantly adverb The city’s population is predominantly Irish. 
virtually adverb Virtually all the children come to school by bus. 
MANNER as subordinate conjunction He always does as he pleases. 
as if subordinate conjunction She looks as if she’s very tired. 
as though subordinate conjunction They’re spending money as though there’s no tomorrow. 
in that subordinate conjunction Both girls are similar in that they love expensive clothes. 
PURPOSE for preposition She went to the grocery store for milk. 
for fear that preposit. phrase (negative) He studied night and day for fear that he might not pass the bar examination. 
for the purpose of prepositional phrase He went to the United States for the purpose of setting upa business office there. 
for the purpose that prepositional phrase For the purpose that justice might be better served, a special committee was appointed. 
in order (not) to prepositional phrase In order to understand how the human body works, some knowledge of chemistry is necessary. 
in order that prepositional phrase They left very early in order that they might arrive before dark. 
in the hope that prepositional phrase Radium treatments were given him in the hope that the cancer cells might be destroyed. 
lest subordinate conjunction 
(negative) 
Lest their young son get into further trouble with the police, they decided to send him to a strict 
military academy. 
so (that) subordinate conjunction So that everyone can see, will the taller children stand at the back. 
so as (not) to prepositional phrase So as not to cause offense many of the mourners stood at the back of the church. 
to the end that prepositional phrase All the efforts of the United Nations are directed to the end that peace may finally prevail. 
with a view to prepositional phrase They bought a cottage with a view to moving there when they retire. 
with the aim of prepositional phrase Research is being done with the specific aim of monitoring customer trends. 
41 
 
 
MEANING WORD/EXPRESSION PART OF SPEECH EXAMPLE 
REFERENCE as for / as to (especially spoken) prepositional phrase As for staying away, I wouldn't think of it. 
regarding preposition Regarding your recent inquiry… / Later documents regarding slavery and African American identity 
thereof (formal) adverb States differ in standards for products and the labeling thereof. 
with reference to / in reference to prepositional phrase With reference to your recent advertisement, I am writing to request further details. 
with regard to / in regard to prepositional phrase With regard to future oil supplies, the situation is uncertain. 
with respect to / in respect to prepositional phrase With respect to your other proposals, I am not yet able to give you our decision. 
RESULT as a result prepositional phrase The massive undersea earthquake that caused the tsunami gave a boost to our planet's spin. As a 
result, days will be a fraction of a second shorter from now on. 
as a consequence prepositional phrase the rise in sea levels predicted as a consequence of global warming 
consequently adverb The bank refused to give the company more time. Consequently, it went bankrupt. 
for this reason prepositional phrase She was not very good at ball games. For this reason, she did not care much for physical activities. 
hence adverb He is an extremely private person; hence his reluctance to give interviews. 
so (informal) coordinate conjunction I heard a noise, so I got out of bed and turned the light on. 
then adverb If the angles are equal, then the complements are equal. 
therefore adverb The baby was tired and therefore irritable. 
thus adverb They had no offer of finance, and thus were unable to achieve completion. 
SIMILARITY alike adjective 
adverb 
He thinks that all politicians are alike. 
I enjoyed being on this course. I learned a lot from teachers and students alike. 
likewise adverb There has been an upsurge of interest in chamber music. Likewise opera is receiving a boost from 
increased record sales. 
TIME after adverb 
preposition 
subordinate conjunction 
Having lost the final pages, we can only guess at what might come after. 
The party will start straight after the performance. 
They never saw him again after he left town. 
after that prepositional phrase He left town. After that, they never saw him again. 
afterward AmE / afterwards BrE adverb The ceremony lasts half an hour and afterward(s) there’s a meal. 
as subordinate conjunction As she was leaving the house, the mailman arrived with a package. 
as soon as prepositional phrase Call me as soon as you arrive in town. 
at first prepositional phrase He felt tired at first, but soon got used to the long working hours. 
at present prepositional phrase She is busy at present, can she ring you later? 
before subordinate conjunction 
 
preposition 
adverb 
She always has a chat with her neighbor before she begins her morning chores. / I had never seen 
him before he arrived in town. (subordinate conjunction) 
I had never seen him before his arrival in town. (preposition) 
I had never seen him before. (adverb) 
currently adverb Two major changes are currently being considered. 
during preposition There will be one ten-minute interval during the performance. 
eventually adverb He eventually rose to the position of vice president. 
finally adverb Finally, I would like to suggest some possible solutions to the problem. 
first(ly); second(ly) adverb First I have to clean the house; then I’ll go shopping with you. 
first of all prepositional phrase First of all we had better make sure we have everything we need. 
for a start prepositional phrase He should never have been chosen for the team; for a start he has not had enough experience. 
henceforth / henceforward adverb The company will henceforth be known as “Johnson and Brown”. (= from now on) 
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42 
 
 
MEANING WORD/EXPRESSION PART OF SPEECH EXAMPLE 
TIME 
(continued) 
immediately adverb 
conjunction (formal) 
The baby was given for adoption immediately after birth. 
Make sure the property you are buying is insured immediately you exchange contracts. 
in the (first/second/third) place prepositional phrase In the first place, I cannot afford it, and in the second place I am not really interested. 
in the meantime prepositional phrase You pack, and in the meantime I’ll phone the station. 
later adverb He became Senator two years later. 
lastly adverb Lastly, could I ask all of you to keep this information secret. 
meanwhile adverb The flight will be announced soon. Meanwhile, please remain seated. 
next (used to indicate a sequence) adverb The mixture is heated to a temperature of 40oC. Next, it is poured into a mould and left to cool. 
nowadays adverb Nowadays young people are much more aware of ecological issues than they used to be. 
now adverb They now live in the city center. 
now that subordinate conjunction Now that we are ready to leave, we must say goodbye to all our friends. 
once subordinate conjunction Once the news about the merger becomes known, the price of the company’s stock will rise. 
presently adverb BrE (= soon) The doctor will be here presently. 
AmE (= at this time) Scientists are presently working on identifying the cause of the disease. 
prior to prepositional phrase All the arrangements should be completed prior to your departure. 
since subordinate conjunction 
preposition 
He has been very ill since he had his accident. 
Since the end of the war over a dozen hostages have been released. 
so far adverb We haven’t had any trouble so far. 
then adverb First I have to clean the house; then I’ll go shopping with you. 
thenceforth / thenceforward adverb Thenceforth he made his life in England. (= from that moment on) 
till subordinate conjunction 
preposition (informal) 
Let us sit out here till the sun sets. 
The shop’s open till nine o’clock most evenings. 
until subordinate conjunction, 
preposition 
We will wait until the rain stops. 
when / whenever subordinate conjunction We can leave when(ever) you are ready. 
while subordinate conjunction Please watch my baggage while I purchase my train ticket. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
43 
 
 
 
LOGICAL CONNECTORS - exercises* 
 
TIME 
 
1. Fill in the blanks with as, when or while. For some, more than one answer is possible. 
 
1. _______________ he was twelve, he moved with his parents to Perth. 
2. Tom started to cry _______________ Jenny left the room. 
3. _______________ they were waiting for the taxi, Rod offered to give them a lift. 
4. I cut myself _______________I was shaving. 
5. Leave the keys at the front desk _______________ you leave. 
6. _______________ the bathroom window broke I was having a shower. 
7. Do you remember _______________ we went sailing in Sweden with Carol? 
8. Trish was on a skiing holiday in France _______________ she broke her leg. 
9. It's hard to imagine life in the days _______________ there were no antibiotics or 
anesthetic. 
10. _______________ I tried to wake him, it became obvious that he was seriously ill. 
11. Sara was still angry _______________ she hung up the phone. 
12. Richard hurt his back _______________ he was running for a bus. 
13. She was walking along the street _______________ she tripped over. 
14. I was quite good at maths _______________ I was at school. 
15. I can't remember _______________ we last saw Alison. 
16. I get a pain in my left knee _______________ I walk up the stairs. 
17. _______________ I start the car in the morning, the engine makes a terrible grating noise. 
18. _______________ you gradually get better at the job, you'll find that it becomes easier. 
 
 
CONTRAST 
 
2. Circle the correct word of phrase in parentheses. 
 
1. (Even though / However / In spite of) being an accountant, she never seems to have any 
money. 
2. This shirt is still dirty (even though / however / in spite of) I've washed it twice. 
3. I got up very early; (even though / however / in spite of), I was still late for work. 
4. He didn't arrive until 9 o'clock (even though / however / in spite of) having promised that he 
wouldn't be late. 
5. They drank from the stream (even though / however / in spite of) they knew it was polluted. 
6. I enjoy going to discos (even though / however / in spite of) I don't like dancing. 
7. (Even though / However / In spite of) being ill, Patrick came to the meeting. 
8. I understand your point of view. (Even though / However / In spite of), I don't agree with it. 
9. After Barlow was arrested, his wife and daughters were questioned by the police (even 
though / however / in spite of) they knew nothing about his business affairs. 
10. John had lived in the village for 20 years. The locals, (even though / however / in spite of), 
still considered him an outsider. 
11. (Even though / However / In spite of) I knew the house was empty, I rang the doorbell. 
12. (Even though /However / In spite of) her success, she felt dissatisfied. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
*Sources: 
Advanced Grammar in Use. Martin Hewings. Cambridge University Press. 1999. 
Independent Writing. O’Donnell, T.D & Paiva, J.L. Heinle & Heinle. 1993. 
Modern English. Marcella Frank. Prentice Hall Regents. 1993. 
 
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44 
 
 
 
CAUSE 
 
3. Complete the sentences using due to (used with nouns and preceded by any verb), owing 
to (used with nouns, but never preceded by the verb ‘be’), because (used with clauses) 
and because of (used with nouns, but never preceded by the verb ‘be’) and one of the 
phrases from the boxes. 
 
an ankle injury a mechanical failure natural causes 
 the dry weather the postal strike 
 
1. Her death was _______________________________________________________________ 
2. The crash was most likely ______________________________________________________ 
3. We didn't receive your letter ____________________________________________________ 
4. The high price of vegetables is __________________________________________________ 
5. He couldn’t compete in the match _______________________________________________ 
 
 
the strong wind her illness my computer isn't working 
 flooding on the road I have other commitments 
 
6. I can't meet you tomorrow _____________________________________________________ 
7. The boat couldn't put to sea ____________________________________________________ 
8. She couldn't complete the work _________________________________________________ 
9. We couldn't get to his house ____________________________________________________ 
10. I can't print out the letter _____________________________________________________ 
 
 
 
 
 
4. Form sentences with since, because or as and an item from each box in a logical order. 
The numbers in the first box correspond to the number of the sentences below. 
 
1. she couldn't decide which to choose 
2. she walked carefully 
3. he is now 17 years old 
4. I had no idea how it worked 
5. they were going to have a party 
6. they had to buy the machine abroad 
 a) he can learn to drive 
b) the prices at home were sky high 
c) the streets were covered with ice 
d) all the cakes looked good 
e) they had been married for ten years 
f) I had to ask for help 
 
1. Since _________________________________ , ___________________________________ 
2. ________________________________ because ____________________________________ 
3. As ___________________________________ , ____________________________________ 
4. ____________________________________ as ____________________________________ 
5. Because ________________________________ , __________________________________ 
6. ________________________________ since ______________________________________ 
 
 
45 
 
 
 
EXCEPTION 
 
5. Match the sentences and rewrite them as single sentences beginning but for the or except 
(for). In formal writing it is better to use but for to introduce a negative idea and except 
(for) to introduce an exception. 
 
 
1. The teachers were very enthusiastic 
about the school play. 
2. I don’t know what more we can do 
to help. 
3. British people living abroad gave the 
party financial support. 
4. Governments around the world gave 
millions of dollars’ worth of aid. 
5. His family encouraged him greatly. 
6. I didn’t stop working all morning. 
7. The conference went according to 
plan. 
8. We rarely go to the theater. 
9. The two reporters had tremendous 
energy. 
10. This plant is similar to the one in 
our garden. 
 
 a) I only stopped working to make a cup of coffee 
at around 11. 
b) If they hadn’t, he would never have become a 
writer. 
c) If they hadn’t, most people in the country would 
have starved to death. 
d) Otherwise, the party would not have been able 
to mount such a successful election campaign. 
e) There was confusion in the conference over what 
time dinner started. 
f) This plant’s leaves are bigger. 
g) We can encourage him to look for another job. 
h) We go to the theater around Christmas when we 
take the children. 
i) Without this, the story would probably not have 
come to light. 
j) Without this, it would never have been 
performed. 
 
 
 
1. j) But for the enthusiasm of the teachers, the school play would never have been performed. 
 
2. g) I don’t know what more we can do to help except encourage him to look for another job. 
 
3. _____ ___________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
4. _____ ___________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
5. _____ ___________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
6. _____ ___________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
7. _____ ___________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________8. _____ ___________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
9. _____ ___________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
10. _____ __________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
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46 
 
 
 
PURPOSE 
 
6. Match the sentences from each box in the most appropriate way and then write two 
sentences as one using in order (not) to or so as (not) to. Be attentive to punctuation. 
 
Example: Trees were planted along the street. This was done to reduce traffic noise. 
 Trees were planted along the street in order to / so as to reduce traffic noise. 
 In order to / So as to reduce traffic noise, trees were planted along the street. 
 
Trees were planted along the street. 
1. We crept up the stairs. 
2. I swept the broken glass off the path. 
3. We wrote Katie's name on the calendar. 
4. I didn't say anything about Colin's red nose. 
5. He bought a truck. 
6. She left the party quietly. 
This was done to reduce traffic noise. 
a. I didn't want to embarrass him. 
b. She didn't want to have to say goodbye. 
c. I wanted to prevent an accident. 
d. We didn't want to wake Suzanne. 
e. He did this to carry out his business. 
f. We didn't want to forget her birthday. 
 
1. ___________________________________________________________________________ 
2. ___________________________________________________________________________ 
3. ___________________________________________________________________________ 
4. ___________________________________________________________________________ 
5. ___________________________________________________________________________ 
6. ___________________________________________________________________________ 
 
 
 
CONDITION 
 
7. Substitute the expressions ‘in this case’ and ‘otherwise’ for if, in case, in the event that, or 
unless. 
 
Example: I might see him. In this case, I’ll invite him to our party tomorrow. 
 If I see him, I’ll invite him to our party tomorrow. (using the comma is mandatory) 
 I’ll invite him to our party tomorrow in case I see him. (no punctuation) 
 
1. The performance might be called off. In this case, I’ll let you know at once. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
2. A robbery might occur in the hotel. In this case, the management must be notified at once. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
3. You must have this leak in the roof fixed. Otherwise, the whole ceiling will be ruined. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
4. I must get the money on time. Otherwise, I can’t go on my vacation. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
47 
 
 
 
MANNER 
 
 
8. Replace ‘this way’ in the first sentence with a manner clause made from the second sentence 
using as if or as though. 
 
 
Example: That executive acts this way. He owns the company. 
 That executive acts as if / as though he owns / owned the company. 
 
 He looks this way. He hasn’t ever changed his clothes. 
 He looks as if / as though he hasn’t / he hadn’t ever changed his clothes. 
 
 He acted this way. He had never seen me before. 
 He acted as if he had never seen me before. 
 
 
1. He acted this way. He was unaware of recent developments. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
2. He looks this way. He is at peace with himself. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
3. That college professor treats his students this way. They are children. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
4. He acted this way. He was spoiled as a child. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
5. He behaves this way. The world owes him a living. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
6. He looks this way. He has had too much to drink. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
7. He acts this way. He has never been in an elegant restaurant before. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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48 
 
 
 
CONDITION, PLACE, CAUSE, TIME, CONTRAST 
 
 
9. Replace the underlined phrasal conjunctions by the single-word conjunctions from the box. 
Some words from the box will not be used. 
 
 
although as because if provided (that) 
 since though when wherever while 
 
 
 
Example: In spite of the fact that _________Although___________ she was already a 
grandmother, she looked very young. 
 
 
1. Everywhere that ____________________ he went, he was warmly received. 
 
2. During the time that ____________________ I was going to college, I was also working as a 
waitress on weekends. 
 
3. His wife is suing for divorce on the ground that ____________________ her husband did not 
support her and the children. 
 
4. At the moment ____________________ the bell rang, all the students rushed out of the 
classroom. 
 
5. Notwithstanding the fact that ____________________ their armies had been defeated many 
times, the morale of the people was quite good. 
 
6. They had a bitter quarrel on account of the fact that ____________________ each one felt 
they were being cheated. 
 
7. In the event that ____________________ you cannot meet us as planned, please let us 
know immediately. 
 
8. Owing to the fact that ____________________ the youngsters today feel very uncertain 
about the future, some of them are turning to lawless deeds, violence and rioting, taking 
drugs and running away from home. 
 
9. Regardless of the fact that ____________________ none of his friends thought it was a 
good idea, he decided to buy a house. 
 
10. In view of the fact that ____________________ we are in great financial distress at the 
moment, we would appreciate your renewing our loan. 
 
11. In proportion as ____________________ the value of land increased, the taxes on the land 
were increased. 
 
12. As long as ____________________ the tickets for the show were given to us free, we 
might as well go to see it. 
 
 
 
 
 
49 
 
 
 
CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 
10. Combine the following sentences, using conjunctions: and, but, yet, or, nor, for or so. 
Conjunctions are precededby a comma (,); this punctuation is optional. 
 
 
Example: I would like to go to the meeting. I have to work tonight. 
 I would like to go to the meeting, but I have to work tonight. 
 
 
1. Taking the bus is cheaper than driving. It conserves energy. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
2. The skier broke his leg. He couldn’t compete in the Olympics. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
3. Students may not smoke in class. They may not eat in class. (use nor) 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
4. Zoo animals must not be fed by visitors. Some snack foods are harmful to their health. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
5. The family next door had just moved in. The neighbors had a welcoming party for them. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
6. Most people buy margarine. Butter is very expensive. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
7. I bought a large car two years ago. Now I wish I had bought a small one. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
8. Would you like to go to a movie? Would you rather go ice skating? 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
 
 
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50 
 
 
ADVERBS, ADVERBIALS, PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 
 
11. Combine the following sentences, using the logical connectors (adverbs, adverbials, 
prepositional phrases) below. In initial position, logical connectors are preceded by a 
semicolon (;) or a period (.) and followed by a comma (,); in middle position, they are 
preceded and followed by a comma; in final position, they are preceded by a comma and 
followed by a period. This punctuation is mandatory. 
 
addition: also, in addition, besides, furthermore, moreover 
contrast: however, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the other hand, still 
condition: or else, otherwise 
conclusion: in conclusion, in short, to sum up 
emphasis: in fact, as a matter of fact, indeed 
explanation: in other words 
result: therefore, thus, then, hence, as a result, as a consequence, for this reason, 
consequently 
 
 
Examples: The old woman had seventeen children. She owned twelve cats. 
 The old woman had seventeen children. In addition, she owned twelve cats. 
 The old woman had seventeen children; in addition, she owned twelve cats. 
 
Working part time gives you more free time. You don’t earn as much money as full-
time workers do. 
Working part time gives you more free time. However, you don’t earn as much 
money as full-time workers do. 
Working part time gives you more free time; however, you don’t earn as much 
money as full-time workers do. 
Working part time gives you more free time. You don’t, however, earn as much 
money as full-time workers do. 
Working part time gives you more free time. You don’t earn as much money as full-
time workers do, however. 
 
1. This school will be closed next year. The children will be bused to another school. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
2. The president of that country is repressive and cruel. He is a tyrant. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
3. I’m sure you are a very intelligent person. You can’t type, so I can’t hire you. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
4. This type of flour is not made in the United States. I can’t make the Oriental cake I told you 
about. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
5. People should exercise regularly. They will get out of shape. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
51 
 
 
6. Barbara is quite a bit taller than most women. She is six inches taller than her husband. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
7. Keep your dog quiet. I will call the police. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
8. I would like to take an English literature course. I haven’t had the prerequisites yet. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
9. Mr. Smith is an intelligent and stimulating teacher. He takes an interest in the personal well-
being of his students. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
10. It’s too late to go to the movies. I don’t like the picture they’re playing. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
11. He didn’t study hard enough. He would have passed the examination. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
12. You must do as the doctor says. You will get sick again. 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS 
 
12. Combine the following sentences using the given correlatives. The punctuation in the 
parentheses is optional. 
 
Examples: The voters are angry. They feel shocked at his attitude. (not only..., but also) 
 The voters are not only angry, but (also) they (also) feel (also) shocked at his attitude. 
 Not only are the voters angry, but (also) they (also) feel (also) shocked at his attitude. 
He didn’t ask my permission. He didn’t give me an explanation of his action. (neither…, nor) 
He neither asked my permission nor gave me an explanation of his action. 
Neither did he ask my permission nor did he give me an explanation of his action. 
 
1. Say something constructive. Don’t say anything at all. (either…, or) 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
2. Americans pay income tax. They are charged high sales taxes in some states. (not only…, 
but also) 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
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52 
 
 
 
3. Mr. Parker will move to France. He will change jobs and stay here. (either…, or) 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
4. In planning for their careers, people must consider their own special interests. They must 
take the job market into careful consideration. (not only…, but also) 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
5. She decided to change her major. She decided to change universities. (not only…, but also) 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
6. The architect didn’t design the building to be modern. She didn’t design it to be attractive. 
(neither…, nor) (Use the verbs in the affirmative form.) 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
7. The psychology department didn’t offer any courses in abnormal behavior last semester. It 
didn’t offer any courses in human relations. (neither…, nor) (Use the verbs in the affirmative 
form.) 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 
 
 
 
 
CONJUNCTIONS, ADVERBS, ADVERBIALS, PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AND 
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 
13. Use conjunctions, adverbs, adverbials, prepositional phrases and correlatives to fill in the 
blanks. The punctuation will give you clues. 
 
Working in a large U.S. city can be exciting; _______________(1), it can also cause problems. 
The noise from traffic can be irritating, _______________(2) the fumes from automobiles are 
dangerous. People often spend hours in traffic every day, _______________(3) they inhale 
dangerous gases such as carbon monoxide. Of course, not everyone drives to work in a city. 
Either people can accept the inconveniences of waiting for public transportation, 
_______________(4) they can try to get a taxi. _______________(5), taxis tend to disappear 
when it is raining. They are convenient when available, _______________(6) they are an 
expensive means of transportation. _______________(7) is transportation in a large city 
expensive and time-consuming, _______________ it can _______________(8) be dangerous. 
Muggings occur frequently on city streets, _______________(9) crimes are often committed on 
subways. _______________(10), going to work in a large city is frequently irritating, 
dangerous, and expensive. 
53 
 
 
 
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT* 
 
 
If a sentence has a singular subject, it should be followed by a singular verb; and if it has a plural subject, 
it should be followed by a plural verb. 
She lives in China. 
More people live in Asia than in any other continent. 
 
 
When the subject of the sentence is complex, the following verb must agree with the main noun in the 
subject. 
Many leading members of the opposition party have tried to justify the decision. 
The only excuse that he gave for his actions was that he was tired. 
 
 
Some nouns with a singular form can be treated either as singular or plural. 
The council has (or have) postponed the decision on the new road. 
 
 
Other word like this include: 
association committee electorate generation orchestra school 
audience community enemy government population staff 
class company family group press team 
club crowd firm jury public university 
college department 
 
and the names of specific organizations such as the ‘Bank of England’, the ‘BBC’, ‘IBM’, ‘Sony’. We use a 
singular verb if we see the institution or organization as a whole unit, and a plural verb if we see it as a 
collection of individuals. Often you can use either with very little difference in meaning, although in formal 
writing it is more common to use a singular verb. 
 
 
In some contexts a plural form of the verb is needed. 
The committee usually raise their hands to vote. (not ‘raises its hands’), as this is something that the 
individuals do, not the committee as a whole. 
 
 
In others, a singular form is preferred. 
The school is to close next year. (not ‘The school are’), as we are talking about something which happens to 
the school as a building or institution, not to the individuals that comprise it. 
 
 
Some nouns are usually plural and take a plural verb. These include: 
belongings earnings riches surroundings particulars (= information) 
clothes goods savings thanks premises (= building) 
congratulations outskirts stairs 
 
The company’s earnings have increased for the last five years. 
 
 
The noun ‘whereabouts’ can be used with either a singular or plural verb. 
 
 
Some nouns always end in –s and look as if they were plural, but when we use them as the subject of a 
sentence they have a singular verb. 
The news from the Middle East seems very encouraging. 
 
 
 
 
* Source: Advanced Grammar in Use. Martin Hewings. Cambridge University Press. 1999. 
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54 
 
 
Other words like this include: 
athletics gymnastics measles politics means (= method or money) 
diabetes linguistics phonetics rabies 
economics mathematics physics statistics 
 
 
However, there are different agreements for different uses of these words. 
 
academic disciplines general use 
Politics is popular at this university. Her politics are bordering on the fascist. (= political 
beliefs) 
Statistics was always my worst subject. Statistics are able to prove anything you want them to. 
(= numerical information) 
Economics has only recently been recognized as a 
scientific study. 
The economics behind their policies are unreasonable. 
(= the financial system) 
 
With ‘any of’, ‘each of’, ‘either of’, ‘neither of’, or ‘none of’ and a plural noun, we can use a singular or 
plural verb. However, we prefer a singular verb in careful written English 
I don’t think any of them knows (or know) where the money is hidden. 
Neither of the French athletes has (or have) won this year. 
 
With ‘a/the majority of’, ‘a number of’, ‘a lot of’, ‘plenty of’, ‘all (of)’, or ‘some (of)’ and a plural noun, we 
use a plural verb. But if we say ‘the number of’, we use a singular verb. 
A number of refugees have been turned back at the border. 
The number of books in the library has risen to over five million. 
 
With ‘any of’, ‘none of’, ‘the majority of’, ‘a lot of’, ‘plenty of’, ‘all (of)’, ‘some (of)’ and an uncountable 
noun, we use a singular verb. 
All the furniture was destroyed in the fire. 
 
With ‘each’ and ‘every’ and a singular noun, we use a singular verb. 
Every room has its own bathroom. 
 
With ‘everyone’, ‘everybody’, ‘everything’, ‘someone’, ‘somebody’, ‘something’, ‘no one’, ‘nobody’ and 
‘nothing’, we use a singular verb. 
Practically everyone thinks that Judith should be given the job. 
 
Some phrases with a plural form are thought of as a single thing and have a singular verb. These include 
phrases referring to measurements, amounts and quantities. 
About three meters separates the runners in first and second places. 
The fifty pounds he gave me was soon spent. 
 
When a subject has two or more items joined by ‘and’, we usually use a plural verb. 
Jean and David are moving back to Australia. 
 
However, phrases connected by ‘and’ can also be followed by singular verbs if we think of them as making 
up a single item. 
Meat pie and peas is Tom’s favorite at the moment. 
Other phrases like this include ‘fish and chips’, and ‘research and development’.When a subject is made up of two or more items joined by ‘either… or’ or ‘neither… nor’ we use a singular 
verb if the last item is singular (although a plural verb is sometimes used in informal English), and a plural 
verb if it is plural. 
Either the station or the cinema is a good place to meet. (or ‘are’ in informal English) 
Neither the President nor his representatives are to attend the meeting. 
 
If the last item is singular and the previous item plural, we can use either a singular or plural verb. 
Either the teachers or the principal is (or are) to blame for the accident. 
 
After ‘per cent’ (or ‘percent’) we use a singular verb. 
An inflation rate of only 2 percent makes a big difference to exports. 
Around 10 percent of the forest is destroyed each year. 
 
However, in phrases where we can use ‘of’ and a plural noun, we use a plural verb. 
I would say that about 50 percent of the houses need major repairs. 
55 
 
 
EXERCISES 
 
1. Write the correct form of the verbs in parentheses. 
 
1. The issues which have been considered in the previous section _____________ (allow) us to 
speculate on problems that learners might encounter. 
2. Smuggling illegal immigrants out of Mexico _______________ (be) against the law. 
3. The country’s first general election since it won independence _______________ (be) to be 
held next month. 
4. The only people who are interested in the book _______________ (seem) to be lawyers. 
5. The view of the manufacturing and tourist industries _______________ (be) that the 
economy is improving. 
6. An early analysis of the results _______________ (show) that the Socialists have won. 
7. Reliance only on written tests of English to measure language ability _______________ 
(appear) to be a cheap option. 
 
 
2. Fill in the blanks with either ‘was/were’ or ‘has/have’. Sometimes both singular 
and plural forms are possible. 
 
1. The crowd _____________ growing restless as the day got hotter. 
2. Sony _______________ announced rising profits for the third year running. 
3. The police _______________ issued a warrant for Adamson’s arrest. 
4. When she was found, her face was bruised and her clothes _______________ torn. 
5. The public _______________ a right to know how the money is to be spent. 
6. Thomas was thought to be in Spain, although his exact whereabouts _______________ 
unknown. 
7. The stairs leading to the exit _______________ steep and dangerous, said the report. 
8. Lord Travers’ family _____________ lived in the house for twelve generations. 
9. The college _______________ spent over $500,000 on a new sports center. 
10. People _______________ running in all directions, trying to get away. 
 
 
 
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56 
 
 
3. Decide whether the sentences below are right or wrong. Correct the ones that are 
wrong. 
 
1. The island’s politics is complex, with over twelve parties competing for power. 
2. Gymnasts from over 40 countries are competing in Madrid this weekend. 
3. Economics has become an increasingly popular course at university. 
4. The latest news of the earthquake survivors are very disturbing. 
5. Jim’s politics has changed considerably since he was in his twenties. 
6. Diabetes are an illness caused by too much sugar in the blood. 
7. Recent government statistics show a sharp decline in crime. 
8. Women’s gymnastics are no longer dominated by eastern Europeans. 
9. Statistics are now compulsory for all students taking a course in engineering. 
10. Most years, over three hundred athletes competes in the games. 
11. The economics of the plan is worrying investors. 
12. Measles is still a fairly serious childhood disease in some countries. 
 
4. Fill in the blanks with either ‘is/are’ or ‘has/have’. Sometimes both singular and 
plural forms are possible. 
 
1. A number of shoppers _____________ complained about the price increases. 
2. I can assure you that everything _______________ perfectly safe. 
3. Either of the dentists _______________ available. Which one do you want to see? 
4. The majority of primary school teachers _______________ women. 
5. Each of Susan’s colleagues _______________ sent her a personal letter of support. 
6. Although some people find cricket boring, each match _______________ different. 
7. We’ve got two cars, but neither of them _______________ particularly new. 
8. All the office staff _____________ agreed to work late tonight to get the job finished. 
9. A lot of the pollution _______________ caused by the paper factory on the edge of town. 
10. None of the TV programs _______________ worth watching tonight. 
11. Researchers have reported that neither of the so-called ‘environmentally friendly’ fuels 
_____________ less damaging than petrol or diesel. 
12. I hope everyone _______________ a good holiday. See you next term. 
13. The number of pupils in school with reading difficulties _______________ fallen this year. 
14. Some people _______________ the strangest hobbies. My brother collects bottles! 
15. None of the information _______________ particularly useful to me. 
 
 
57 
 
 
INVERSIONS* 
 
 
Inversion after negative adverbials 
 
This only occurs when the adverbial occurs at the beginning of a clause, before the subject of the main 
verb. All the examples below are used in formal language, usually for rhetorical effect, such as in political 
speeches. They are not usual in everyday spoken language. Compare: 
I have never heard a weaker excuse! 
Never have I heard a weaker excuse! 
 
 
Time expressions: never, rarely, seldom 
These are most commonly used with present perfect or past perfect, or with modals such as can and 
could. Sentences of this type often contain comparatives. 
Rarely can a minister have been faced with such a problem. 
Seldom has the team given a worse performance. 
Rarely had I had so much responsibility. 
 
 
Time expressions: hardly, barely, scarcely, no sooner 
These refer to an event which quickly follows another in the past. They are usually used with past perfect, 
although no sooner can be followed by past simple. Note the words used in the contrasting clause. 
Hardly had the train left the station when there was an explosion. 
Scarcely had I entered the room when the phone rang. 
No sooner had I reached the door than I realized it was locked. 
No sooner was the team back on the pitch than it started raining. 
 
 
After only 
Here only combines with other time expressions and is usually used with past simple. Other examples are 
only if, only when, only then, only later. 
Only after posting the letter did I remember that I had forgotten to put on a stamp. 
 
 
When only refers to ‘the state of being the only one’, there is no inversion following it. 
Only Mary realized that the door was not locked. 
 
 
Phrases containing no or not 
These include under no circumstances, on no account, at no time, in no way, on no condition, not until, 
not only… but (also). 
On no condition are they to open fire without a warning. 
Not until I got home did I notice that I had the wrong umbrella. 
 
 
Little 
Little also has a negative or restrictive meaning in this sense. 
Little does the government appreciate what the results will be. 
 
 
Inversion after so with that or such with that 
 
This occurs with so and adjectives when the main verb is be. It is used for emphasis and is more common 
than the example with such. As in the examples with negative adverbials, inversion only occurs if so or 
such are the first word in the clause, positioned before the subject of the main clause. 
So devastating were the floods that some areas may never recover. 
 
 
Such used with be means so much or so great. 
Such was the force of the storm that trees were uprooted. 
 
 
www.AtualidadesConcursos.com.br58 
 
 
Inverted conditional sentences without if 
 
Three types of if-sentence can be inverted without if. This makes the sentences more formal and makes 
the event less likely. 
 
1st conditional: If you (should) hear anything, let me know. 
 Should you hear anything, let me know. 
 
 If he has cheated, he will have to be punished. 
 Should he have cheated, he will have to be punished. 
 
2nd conditional: If she/he escaped, there would be an outcry. 
 If she/he were to escape, there would be an outcry. 
 Were she/he to escape, there would be an outcry. 
 
3rd conditional: If the police had found out, I would have been in trouble. 
 Had the police found out, I would have been in trouble. 
 Were the police to have found out, I would have been in trouble. 
 
 If I had known, I would have protested strongly. 
 Had I known, I would have protested strongly. 
 Were I to have known, I would have protested strongly. 
 
 
Inversion after as 
 
This is more common in formal or written language. 
We were short of money, as were most people in our neighborhood. 
I thought, as did my colleagues, that the recession would soon be over. 
 
 
Inversion after so, neither and nor 
 
These are used in ‘echoing’ statements, agreeing with the speaker. 
‘I am going home.’ ‘So am I.’ 
‘I don’t like meat.’ ‘Neither do I.’ 
 
 
Summary of the words / expressions followed by inversion 
 
 
 
neither 
never 
never again 
never before 
nor 
not often 
not once 
not only… as well 
not only… but (also) 
not until 
 
 
barely… when 
hardly… when 
scarcely… when 
no sooner… than 
 
hardly ever 
little 
 
nowhere 
at no time 
in no way 
on no condition 
on no account 
under no circumstances 
 
 
only 
only after 
only by 
only if 
only in this way 
only later 
only once 
only then 
only when 
rarely 
scarcely 
seldom 
so 
such 
 
 
 
 
 
* Source: 
Advanced Language Practice, Michael Vince. Macmillan. 2003. 
59 
 
 
EXERCISES 
 
1. Complete each sentence by using the phrases from the box. 
 
 
Rarely have No sooner had Under no circumstances are 
 Not only did Under no circumstances will 
 as did Were you Hardly had 
 Little did Rarely have 
 
a) ____________________ we arrived at the hotel when there was a power cut. 
b) ____________________ members of the staff to accept gratuities from clients. 
c) ____________________ Detective Dawson realize what she was to discover! 
d) ____________________ to pay the full amount now, there would be a ten percent discount. 
e) I supposed, ____________________ most people, that I would be retiring at 60. 
f) ____________________ the doctors seen a more difficult case. 
g) ____________________ Jean win first prize, but she was also offered a promotion. 
h) ____________________ late arrivals be admitted to the theater before the interval. 
i) ____________________ one missing child been found, than another three disappeared. 
j) ____________________ so many employees taken sick leave at the same time. 
 
 
 
2. Complete each sentence with a suitable phrase containing the verb in parentheses in an 
appropriate form. 
 
a) Should ____________________(need) anything, could you let me know? 
b) Were the plane ____________________(take off), everyone in it would have been killed. 
c) Had ____________________(study) harder, I would probably have passed all my exams. 
d) Should ____________________(be) in the neighborhood, drop in. 
e) Had ____________________(go) to the doctor immediately, your daughter would not be so ill. 
f) Never before ____________________(spend) so much money on her daughter’s birthday. 
g) Should ____________________(feel) hungry, just call room service, and order a meal. 
h) Were ____________________(offer) her the job, we couldn’t be sure that she would accept. 
i) Had ____________________(take) the necessary measures, this political crisis could have been 
avoided. 
j) Scarcely ____________________(get) home when the police called us with news of Geoffrey. 
 
 
 
3. Choose the correct word or phrase in the parentheses. 
 
a) Jim promised that (he would never / never would he) tell anyone else. 
b) Not until it was too late (I remembered / did I remember) to call Susan. 
c) Hardly had we settled down in our seats (than / when) the lights went out. 
d) Only after checking three times (I was / was I) certain of the answer. 
e) At no time (I was aware / was I aware) of anything out of the ordinary. 
f) Only Catherine and Sally (passed / did pass) the final examination. 
g) Only when (Pete has arrived / has Pete arrived) can we begin the program. 
h) No sooner had it stopped raining (than / when) the sun came out. 
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60 
 
 
 
4. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using 
the word given. Do not change the word given. 
 
 
a) It was only when the office phoned me that I found out about the meeting. 
find 
Not until _______________________________________________________________ about the meeting. 
 
 
b) The facts were not all made public at the time. 
later 
Only _____________________________________________________________________ all made public. 
 
 
c) The response to our appeal was so great that we had to take on more staff. 
response 
So ____________________________________________________________ to our appeal that we had to 
take on more staff. 
 
 
d) Harry broke his leg and also injured his shoulder. 
but 
Not only __________________________________________________________ also injured his shoulder. 
 
 
e) The police didn’t suspect at all that the judge was the murderer. 
did 
Little ______________________________________________________________ as being the murderer. 
 
 
f) The bus driver cannot be blamed for the accident in any way. 
held 
In ____________________________________________________________ responsible for the accident. 
 
 
g) If the government raised interest rates, they would lose the election. 
raise 
Were ____________________________________________________________ interest rates, they would 
lose the election. 
 
 
h) As soon as I got home, I realized I’d left my bag in the store. 
had 
No sooner ____________________________________________________________ I realized I’d left my 
bag in the store. 
 
 
i) It was only when I asked a passer-by that I realized where I was. 
did 
Not until ___________________________________________________________________ where I was. 
 
 
j) The minister was interrupted just after starting his speech. 
when 
Hardly ________________________________________________________________ he was interrupted. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
61 
 
 
 
ADVANCED STRUCTURES* 
 
For the sentences below, complete the second sentence so that it has a similar 
meaning to the first sentence. 
 
INVERSIONS 
 
1. We were not allowed into the country until our visas had been double-checked. 
 
Only __________________________________________________ into the country. 
 
 
2. You are not to visit the old part of town on your own, whatever happens. 
 
Under __________________________________________________ the old part of town. 
 
 
3. This is the first time that television has played such an important role in our lives. 
 
Never __________________________________________________ in our lives. 
 
 
4. You do not often come across someone as well-informed as Charles Osborne. 
 
Seldom _________________________________________________ aswell-informed as Charles Osborne. 
 
 
5. He would not have learned the news if he hadn’t been listening to the radio. 
 
Had __________________________________________________ the news. 
 
 
6. We had just sat down to eat when the telephone rang. 
 
No sooner __________________________________________________ the telephone rang. 
 
 
7. I refuse to work for that company again. 
 
Never __________________________________________________ for that company. 
 
 
8. She didn’t really realize what was about to happen. 
 
Little __________________________________________________ about to happen. 
 
 
9. He acts so well that the audience hangs on his every word. 
 
So __________________________________________________ on his every word. 
 
 
10. It was to be another six months before Sally met him again. 
 
Not __________________________________________________ him again. 
 
 
THE PASSIVE 
 
11. The mayor will give a prize to the best architect. 
 
The best architect __________________________________________________ by the mayor. 
62 
 
 
12. This year the police have arrested more drivers than usual for speeding. 
 
This year an __________________________________________________ for speeding. 
 
 
13. A total ban on smoking takes effect from next month. 
 
Smoking __________________________________________________ from next month. 
 
 
14. Refusal to obey the local laws about noise could lead to arrest. 
 
One __________________________________________________ local laws about noise. 
 
 
15. They insisted that my brother should complete all the application forms again. 
 
My brother ________________________________________________ in all the application forms again. 
 
 
16. The completion of the project should have taken place last month. 
 
The project __________________________________________________ last month. 
 
 
17. A quick solution to the housing problem is an urgent priority. 
 
The housing problem __________________________________________________ as possible. 
 
 
IMPERSONAL PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 
 
18. He is alleged not to have known about the situation. 
 
It __________________________________________________ of the situation. 
 
 
19. He is thought to be arriving later in the day. 
 
It __________________________________________________ in the day. 
 
 
20. According to reports, the police have already arrested a man. 
 
The police __________________________________________________ a man. 
 
 
21. She is believed to have been using a false passport to enter the country. 
 
It __________________________________________________ to enter the country. 
 
 
22. He was said not to have been aware of the gravity of the situation. 
 
It __________________________________________________ of the gravity of the situation. 
 
 
23. He is claimed to have known exactly what was happening. 
 
It __________________________________________________ exactly what was happening. 
 
 
 
* Source: 
New Proficiency Gold. Jacky Newbrook & Judith Wilson. Longman. 2001. 
63 
 
 
 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE* 
 
The verb form called ‘subjunctive’ is used especially to talk about ‘unreal’ situations: things which are 
possible (conditionals), desirable (words of persuasion) or imaginary. Older English had subjunctives, but 
in modern English they have mostly been replaced by uses of ‘should’, ‘would’ and other modals verbs, by 
special uses of past tenses, and by ordinary verb forms. English only has a few subjunctive forms left: 
third-person singular present verbs without ‘–s’ (for example, ‘she see’, ‘he have’) and special forms of ‘be’ 
(for example ‘I be’, ‘he were’). Except for ‘I were’, ‘he were’, ‘she were’, ‘it were’ after ‘if’, they are not 
very common. 
 
 
‘that she see’ 
 
Ordinary verbs only have one subjunctive form: a third person singular present with no ‘-s’ (for example, 
‘she see’). It is sometimes used in ‘that’ clauses in a formal style, especially in American English, after 
words which express the idea that something is important or desirable (for example, ‘suggest’, 
‘recommend’, ‘ask’, ‘insist’, ‘vital’, ‘essential’, ‘important’, ‘advice’). The same forms are used in both 
present and past sentences. ‘Do’ is not used in negative subjunctives. Note the word order. 
It is essential that every child have the same educational opportunities. 
It was important that James contact Arthur as soon as possible. 
Our advice is that the company invest in new equipment. 
The judge recommended that Simmons remain in prison for life. 
We felt it desirable that he not leave school before eighteen. 
With verbs that are not third-person singular, the forms are the same as ordinary present-tense verbs (but 
they may refer to the past). 
I recommended that she move to another office. 
 
 
‘be’ 
 
‘Be’ has special subjunctive forms: ‘I be’, ‘you be’, etc. 
It is important that Helen be present when we sign the papers. 
The Director asked that he be allowed to advertise for more staff. 
‘I were’ and ‘he / she / it were’, used after ‘if’ and ‘wish’ in a formal style, are also subjunctives. 
If I were you I would stop smoking. 
I wish it were Saturday. 
 
 
fixed phrases 
 
Subjunctives are also used in certain fixed phrases, for example: 
God save the Queen! Long live the King! 
God bless you. Heaven forbid. 
He’s a sort of adopted uncle, as it were. (= in a way) 
Be that as it may… (= whether that is true or not) 
If we have to pay $2,000, then so be it. (= we can’t do anything to change it) 
 
 
other structures 
 
Most subjunctive structures are formal and unusual in British English. In that clauses, British people 
usually prefer ‘should’ + infinitive, or ordinary present and past tenses. 
 
It is essential that every child should have the same educational opportunities. (OR ‘that every child has’) 
It was important that James should contact Arthur as soon as possible. (OR ‘that James contacted’) 
 
 
 
 
 
* Adapted from: Practical English Usage. Michael Swan. Oxford University Press. 2005. 
64 
 
 
 
EXERCISE 
 
 
Write the correct form of the verbs in parentheses. Besides affirmative forms, 
negative and passive constructions are possible. 
 
 
1. It is important that she _____________ (remember) to take her medicine twice a day. 
2. I suggest that Frank _______________ (read) the directions carefully before assembling the 
bicycle. 
3. Mrs. Finkelstein demanded that the heater _______________ (repair) immediately. 
4. It is vital that the United States _______________ (focus) on improving its public education 
system. 
5. The monk insisted that the tourists _______________ (enter) the temple until they had 
removed their shoes. 
6. Judy asked that we _______________ (attend) her graduation ceremony next week. 
7. It is a little difficult to find the restaurant. I propose that we all _______________ (drive) 
together so that nobody gets lost along the way. 
8. The woman insisted that the lost child _______________ (take) to the store’s information 
desk so his parents could be paged. 
9. The nutritionist recommended that Sally _______________ (reduce) her daily fat intake. 
10. The environmental leader felt it was extremely important that the people of the city 
_______________ (allow) to voice their concerns over the new hotel being built on the bay. 
11. The sign at the pool recommended that you _______________ (swim) after eating a large 
meal. 
12. It is necessary that a lifeguard _______________ (monitor) the swimming pool while the 
children are taking their swimming lessons. 
13. John insists that Sarah _______________ (invite) to the wedding; otherwise he will not 
attend. 
14. It is imperative that the world _______________ (work) towards a solution to global 
warming before the weather patternsof the world are disrupted irreparably. 
 
 
65 
 
 
 
 
VERBS AS OBJECTS 
 
 
VERB PATTERN EXAMPLE 
agree, appear, apply, arrange, dare, decide, encourage, fail, force, 
forget, go on, help, hope, intend, long, manage, mean, plan, prefer, 
pretend, promise, regret, remember, stop, threaten, try, used, want 
infinitive I have applied to go to university. 
After school he went on to study at university.* (He moved on to a new 
stage.) 
She helped him to cross the road.* (She assisted him.) 
I hope to go soon. / I hope to have gone by tomorrow. 
I didn’t mean to insult him.* (I didn’t have that intention.) 
I prefer to work alone. 
He promised to help us. 
I regret to tell you that your application has been unsuccessful.* 
Remember to call him.* (Remember and call in the future.) 
Please try to remember. 
I want to see that film. 
ask, choose, expect, intend, need, want, wish (object) + infinitive 
(object may not be used) 
He chose (her) to be the leader. 
advise, allow, apply, assume, believe, compel, consider, force, imagine, 
invite, know, order, remind, tell, want 
object + infinitive 
(object must be used) 
We have applied for her to do the course. 
The doctor advised her to stay in bed. 
I forced him to take the job. 
We knew him to be trustworthy. 
The robbers told everyone to lie down. 
I want him to see that film. 
can, could, dare, had better, may, might, must, shall, should, used to, 
would rather 
bare infinitive (infinitive 
without ‘to’) 
We had better leave now. 
She could swim very well when she was younger. 
have, let, make object + bare infinitive They had him paint the walls all over again. 
She made him go to school on his bike. 
She helped him cross the road.* (She assisted him.) 
hear, listen to, notice, observe, see, watch object + either bare 
infinitive or “-ing” 
We heard the orchestra play several new pieces.* (whole concerts) / 
We heard the orchestra playing as we arrived.* (parts of concerts or 
songs) 
They saw her walking across the field.* (when they looked, she was 
crossing the field) / They saw her walk across the field.* (they saw her 
cross the whole field) 
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66 
 
 
VERB PATTERN EXAMPLE 
admit, advise, avoid, be used to, consider, deny, enjoy, feel, feel like, 
finish, force (someone) into, forget, go on, help, like, look forward to, 
mean, mind, postpone, prefer, recommend, regret, remember, 
suggest, (cannot) stand, stop 
“-ing” The doctor advised staying in bed. 
He went on studying until six o’clock in the morning.* (He continued 
the same action.) 
I couldn’t help laughing.* (I couldn’t control myself and laughed.) 
The new job meant leaving everything she knew.* (Leaving was the 
implication of the new job.) 
We postponed making any decision. 
I prefer working alone. 
I regret not having been to university.* (I should have been to it.) 
I can’t remember even having seen him before.* (I don’t remember 
that happening in the past.) 
The doctor suggested taking a holiday. 
 
commit, look forward to + “-ing” The contract commits him to playing for the team for the next 3 years. 
My boss says she’s looking forward to meeting you. 
 
anticipate, appreciate, describe, dislike, enjoy, insist on, recall, risk either (object) or 
(possessive) + “-ing” 
I appreciate you / your doing that for me. 
We insisted on them / their being present. 
I recall him / his having won first prize at school. 
 
admit, advise, agree, anticipate, appear, appreciate, arrange, assume, 
believe, consider, decide, expect, forget, hear, hope, imagine, know, 
mean, notice, observe, plan, pretend, promise, recall, recommend, 
regret, remember, see, suggest, tell, wish 
“that” clause The doctor advised her that she should stay in bed. 
I appreciate it that you invited me. (only if preceded by “it”) 
We heard that the orchestra played several new pieces. 
I hope that he and I will go soon. 
He promised (me) that he would help us. 
The doctor suggested that we (should) take a holiday. 
The robbers told us that we were hostages. 
 
 
 
 
*For these verbs, the use of a different pattern as an object implies a different meaning. 
 
 
 
 
 
67 
 
 
 
 
1. Translate the underlined verb phrases into English using the verbs in 
parentheses. 
 
1. Nós gostamos de dirigir. (enjoy) 
________________________________________ 
 
2. Nós costumávamos dirigir.(used to) 
________________________________________ 
 
3. Nós estamos acostumadas a dirigir.(used to) 
________________________________________ 
 
4. Nós preferimos dirigir.(would rather) 
________________________________________ 
 
(prefer) 
________________________________________ 
 
5. Nós estamos tentando dirigir.(try) 
________________________________________ 
 
6. Nós decidimos dirigir.(decide) 
________________________________________ 
 
7. Nós estamos pensando em dirigir.(think) 
________________________________________ 
 
8. É aconselhável que nós dirijamos.(had 
better) 
________________________________________ 
 
9. Nós paramos de dirigir.(stop) 
________________________________________ 
 
10. Nós paramos de andar de bicicleta para 
dirigir.(stop) 
________________________________________ 
 
11. Nós queremos dirigir.(want) 
________________________________________ 
 
12. Nós esperamos dirigir.(hope) 
________________________________________ 
 
13. Eles nos deixaram dirigir.(let) 
________________________________________ 
 
14. Nós estamos ansiosos para dirigir.(look 
forward to) 
________________________________________ 
 
15. Nós evitamos dirigir.(avoid) 
________________________________________ 
 
 
16. Nós sugerimos dirigir.(suggest) 
________________________________________ 
 
17. Nós sugerimos que ele dirigisse.(suggest) 
________________________________________ 
 
18. Nós nos incomodamos em dirigir.(mind) 
________________________________________ 
 
19. Nós os vimos dirigir.(see) 
________________________________________ 
 
20. Nós os lembramos de dirigir.(remind) 
________________________________________ 
 
21. Nós conseguimos dirigir.(manage) 
________________________________________ 
 
22. Nós não temos vontade de dirigir.(feel like) 
________________________________________ 
 
23. Nós fomos forçados a dirigir.(forced to) 
________________________________________ 
 
(forced into) 
________________________________________ 
 
24. Eles nos forçaram a dirigir.(made) 
________________________________________ 
 
(forced) 
________________________________________ 
 
25. Nós prometemos dirigir.(promise) 
________________________________________ 
 
26. Nós não pudemos evitar dizer.(help) 
________________________________________ 
 
27. Nós ousamos dizer.(dare) 
________________________________________ 
 
28. Nós ameaçamos dizer.(threaten) 
________________________________________ 
 
29. Nós não suportamos dirigir.(stand) 
________________________________________ 
 
30. Nós os ajudamos a dirigir.(help) 
________________________________________ 
 
31. Nós os encorajamos a dirigir.(encourage) 
________________________________________ 
 
 
 
 
 
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68 
 
 
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS* 
 
 
GRADABLE AND UNGRADABLE ADJECTIVES 
 
• Gradable adjectives are used to express the idea that something or someone has more or 
has less of a particular quality. 
 
• Ungradable adjectives are used to express the idea that something or someone has a 
particular quality ‘to a large degree’. 
 
adverbs adjectives 
used with gradable adjectives 
extremely, deeply, fairly, hugely, immensely, 
pretty (informal), rather, really, reasonably, 
slightly, very 
gradable adjectives 
angry, big, busy, comfortable, common, 
happy, important,quiet, rich, strong, young, 
effective, difficult, hard, disappointed, sorry, 
entertaining, enjoyable, successful, simple, 
complicated, popular 
used with ungradable adjectives 
absolutely, completely, entirely, incredibly, 
pretty, really, simply, totally, utterly 
ungradable adjectives 
absurd, amazed, awful, clear, devastated, 
dreadful, enormous, essential, exhausted, 
furious, huge, impossible, invaluable, 
marvelous, necessary, sure, terrible, terrified, 
true, unbearable, unrecognizable, useless, 
wonderful 
 
 
POSITION OF ADJECTIVES 
 
• There is often a preferred order if there is more than one adjective before a noun: opinion + 
size/physical quality/shape/age + color + participle (-ed or –ing) adjectives + origin + 
material + type + purpose. 
 
Examples: 
an old plastic container 
a hard red ball 
a frightening Korean mask 
a round cookie jar 
a small broken plate 
a useful digital alarm clock 
age + material 
quality + color 
opinion + origin 
shape + purpose (for holding cookies) 
size + participle adjective 
opinion + type + purpose 
 
• Gradable adjectives (which describe opinion, size, quality, shape, color and age) usually 
precede ungradable adjectives (participle adjectives and adjectives which describe origin, 
material, type and purpose). 
 
• When two gradable adjectives which convey an opinion come before the noun, either a 
comma or ‘and’ is used between them. 
an attractive, clean garden OR an attractive and clean garden 
 
• Two ungradable adjectives have ‘and’ between them if they are from the same class, but not 
if they are from different classes. 
financial and political conditions BUT dire financial conditions 
 
 
 
 
* Adapted from: Advanced Grammar in Use. Martin Hewings. Cambridge University Press. 1999. 
69 
 
 
POSITION OF ADVERBS 
 
There are three main positions for adverbs which modify a verb. 
• Front position (before the subject) 
Finally he could stand the noise no longer. 
• Mid position (between the subject and verb, or immediately after ‘be’ as a main verb) 
He usually plays better than this. 
She is usually here by 10.00. 
• End position (after the verb) 
I have been waiting for hours. 
 
 
Most types of adverb can go in front position. 
The value of the yen has fallen. As a result, Japan faces a crisis. 
The last few days have been hot. Tomorrow the weather will be much cooler. 
She has just heard that her sister is ill. Presumably, she will want to go home. 
 
 
The following types of adverb usually go in mid position. 
• indefinite frequency (always, never, usually) 
• degree (completely, quite) 
• focus (just, even) 
He always sings when he is having a shower. 
I completely forgot her birthday, and I just do not know how to make it up to her. 
 
 
Most adverbs of time or place are not used in mid position. 
Jane had a baby in October. (NOT Jane in October had a baby.) 
 
However, a few are, including already, finally, now, recently, soon, still. 
I finally met Roy at the conference in Madrid. 
 
 
In mid position, adverbs have the same position as not, or after it if not is already 
there; in verb phrases, they come after the first auxiliary verb. 
Sue is not at home now. / Sue is never at home these days. 
I do not understand. / I do not fully understand. 
It has not been seen here before. / It has seldom been seen here before. 
She has not been studying Math. / She has not recently been studying Math. 
You are always complaining about the weather. 
 
 
In end position, adverbs are usually used after an object or complement if there is 
one. 
He studied the problem briefly. (NOT He studied briefly the problem.) 
 
However, if an object or complement is very long, then the adverb is often used 
between the verb and its object or complement. 
We considered briefly the long-term solution to the problem. 
 
 
When there is more than one adverb in end position, the usual order in English is: 1) 
manner; 2) place and 3) time. 
In the accident she was thrown violently against the door. (manner + place) 
 
However, if one adverb is much longer than another, then it is usually placed last. 
They left at 3.00 with a great deal of noise. (time + manner) 
70 
 
 
 
1. Decide if the adjectives in bold are gradable or ungradable. Then choose an 
appropriate adverb for each. Try to use a different adverb each time. 
 
a) The play was _______________ marvelous. 
b) The answer is _______________ simple. 
c) His new flat is _______________ enormous. 
d) He was _______________ devastated by the news. 
e) The instructions were _______________ complicated. 
f) I was _______________ disappointed. 
g) The answer was _______________ absurd. 
h) The questions were _______________ hard. 
i) Her books are _______________ popular. 
j) I was _______________ terrified by the film. 
k) He’s a(n) _______________ successful artist. 
l) He’s a(n) _______________ essential member of the team. 
 
 
 
 
2. Put the adjectives in parentheses in the most appropriate order. 
 
a) Hers is the ______________________________ car. (blue, Japanese, small) 
b) I’ve just bought a ______________________________ table. (beautiful, coffee, wooden) 
c) Their ___________________________ forces soon overcame the invasion. (combined, 
military, powerful) 
d) Have you seen this ______________________________ invention? (fantastic, German, new) 
e) There was a ______________________________ rug on the floor. (soft, wonderful, woolen) 
f) She gave me a ______________________________ box. (jewelry, metal, small, square) 
 
 
 
 
3. Put the adjectives in parentheses in the most appropriate order. Write ‘and’ 
between the adjectives if possible. 
 
a) Cycling is a(n) ______________________________ activity. (outdoor, popular) 
b) They live in ______________________________ houses. (mud, straw) 
c) He was a ______________________________ doctor. (famous, medical) 
d) There was an ______________________________ meeting. (important, urgent) 
e) I’ve just finished a ______________________________ novel. (boring, depressing) 
 
 
 
 
71 
 
 
 
4. Improve these sentences by placing the adverbs in more likely positions. 
1. We together walked to the end of the garden. 
2. I just have bought a new car. 
3. He speaks fluently five languages. 
4. Jenny has been appointed recently Professor of Nursing. 
5. He had been to London never before. 
6. Susan became soon bored with the new toys. 
7. John frequently was away from home in his new job. 
8. They are at home these days hardly ever. 
9. Being alone brought her usually a sense of peace. 
 
 
 
5. Circle the most likely adverb in this position in the sentences. 
1. We (often / in the park) saw them playing tennis. 
2. We (before long / soon) began to meet every week. 
3. Ron had (never / last year) visited the Taj Mahal. 
4. I (totally / at the meeting) disagreed with his suggestions. 
5. The players (yesterday / recently) met for the first time. 
6. We (on Sundays / always) play tennis with Liz and Adam. 
 
 
 
6. Complete the sentences by placing the words/phrases in parentheses in the most 
likely order for written English. 
 
1. I last saw __________my keys on Monday__________. (on Monday / my keys) 
2. She sailed __________________________________________________ (around the world / 
in ten months) 
3. He was arrested __________________________________________________ (at the 
customs desk of Bangkok international airport / last week) 
4. He stayed __________________________________________________ (all day / at home) 
5. You should not take __________________________________________________ (what she 
says / seriously) 
6. He walked __________________________________________________ (dangerously/ 
along the top of the wall) 
7. The recipe uses __________________________________________________ (only / the 
finest Indian ingredients) 
8. She sat __________________________________________________ (for a few minutes / 
silently) 
9. We are going __________________________________________________ (to Athens / next 
summer) 
10. He waited __________________________________________________ (patiently / outside 
the door) 
11. They cheered __________________________________________________ (throughout 
the match / excitedly) 
 
72 
 
 
COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS* 
 
Nouns can be either countable or uncountable. Countable nouns are those which 
can have the word “a” or “an” before them or be used in the plural. Uncountable 
nouns are not used with “a” or “an” nor in the plural: 
We’ve got three birds, two cats and a dog.(countable nouns) 
It was good to get out into the countryside and breathe some fresh air. (uncountable nouns) 
 
 
Some nouns in English are normally uncountable; in many other languages they are 
countable: 
 There’s always housework to do. 
 Her jewelry must have cost a fortune. 
 
accommodation cutlery housing nonsense rubbish 
advice dancing information parking safety 
applause dirt leisure pay scenery 
assistance employment litter permission shopping 
baggage equipment luck photography sightseeing 
camping evidence luggage poetry sunshine 
cash fun machinery pollution transport 
chaos furniture money produce underwear 
chess harm mud progress violence 
clothing health music publicity weather 
conduct homework news research work 
courage 
 
 
Sometimes a noun is uncountable when referring to the whole substance or idea, 
but countable when referring to: 
- recognized containers for things: 
I prefer tea to coffee. (uncountable) 
Three teas, please. (= three cups of tea; countable) 
 
- a type, brand or make: 
There’s cheese in the fridge. (uncountable) 
There dozens of cheeses at the party last night. (=kinds of cheese; countable) 
 
- a particular example of a physical or concrete thing 
 She has blond hair. (uncountable) 
 There’s a hair in my soup! (countable) 
 
- a particular instance of a substance or an idea 
 The statue was made of stone. (uncountable) 
 I had a stone in my shoe. (countable) 
 
 
There are many other nouns like this: 
abuse difficulty life sound 
beer (dis)agreement noise space 
business dislike pain stone 
cake fear pleasure success 
chicken fruit protest thought 
coffee improvement rain toothpaste 
conversation land shampoo war 
development language snow washing powder 
 water 
73 
 
 
Some words have different meanings when they are used as countable nouns from 
the ones they have when they are used as uncountable nouns. 
 
Bolivia is one of the world’s largest producers of tin. (= the metal; uncountable) 
The cupboard was full of tins. (=cans, metal food containers; countable) 
 
Other nouns like this include: 
accommodation iron property speech 
competition jam room time 
glass lace sight work 
grammar paper 
 
 
Some nouns that are usually uncountable can be used as countable nouns, but only 
in the singular form, including: 
education importance knowledge resistance traffic 
 
She has an extensive knowledge of property prices in this area. 
The decision to build the bridge later took on an unexpected strategic importance. 
The word damage can be used as a countable noun, but only in the plural form. 
Sue is claiming damages for the injuries caused. (= money paid as compensation) 
 
 
 
EXERCISES 
 
1. Choose two of the words below as the most likely ways of completing each 
sentence. For one answer the word needs to be in the plural, and for the other no 
changes will be necessary. 
 
accommodation house luggage sunshine 
bag jewelry painting tool 
equipment job shower work 
 
1. On the weather forecast they said there would be _______________ this afternoon. 
2. The waiting room was so full of people and their _______________, there was nowhere to 
sit. 
3. Repairing car engines is easy if you have got the right _______________. 
4. In Stockholm at the moment there is a fascinating exhibition of _______________ from 19th 
century Sweden. 
5. Both my brothers are looking for _______________. 
6. The price of _______________ has increased by 12% this year alone. 
 
 
2. Choose from the words below to complete each sentence. Decide if the word 
should be countable or uncountable. If the word is countable, either add “a” or 
“an” or make it plural as appropriate. 
 
 chicken dislike improvement language life success 
 
1. Mary used to keep _______________ in her garden until they started to get out. 
2. A score of 40% may not be very good but it is certainly _______________ on her last mark. 
3. After so many previous _______________, it was inevitable that one of his films would be 
unpopular. 
4. _______________ is too short to worry about keeping your house spotlessly clean. 
5. I have had _______________ of green vegetables ever since I was a child. 
6. Our students study both _______________ and literature in their English degree. 
74 
 
 
 
3. Choose from the words below to complete each pair of sentences. Use the same 
word in (a) and (b). Decide if the word should be countable or uncountable. If the 
word is countable, either add “a” or “an” in the correct position in the sentence or 
make the noun plural. 
 
 damage education paper resistance speech traffic 
 
 
1. a) I had to go through very strict and traditional _______________. 
 b) _______________ has been hit once again in the government’s spending cuts. 
 
2. a) _______________ was building up on the motorway as the fog got thicker. 
 b) Since the war, illegal _______________ in weapons was grown. 
 
3. a) Outnumbered by at least three to one, he knew that _______________ was useless. 
 b) After a while we seemed to build up _______________ to mosquitoes. 
 
4. a) The judge awarded Mr Sinclair _______________ of nearly £50,000. 
 b) The accident caused some _______________ to my car but it was not worth getting it 
repaired. 
 
5. a) Muriel gave _______________ at the conference on the psychological effects of divorce. 
 b) The use of recycled _______________ is saving thousands of trees from being cut down 
each year. 
 
6. a) It is said to be _______________ that distinguishes us from other animals. 
 b) We had to listen to some long and boring _______________ after the meal. 
 
 
 
4. Look at these pairs of words and decide which is countable (C) and which is 
uncountable (U). Then translate the words into Portuguese. 
 
 
1. advice _____ hint _____ 17. laughter _____ smile _____ 
2. air _____ breath _____ 18. luck _____ accident _____ 
3. architecture _____ plan _____ 19. luggage _____ suitcase _____ 
4. behavior _____ reaction _____ 20. peace _____ ceasefire _____ 
5. bridge _____ engineering _____ 21. permit _____ permission _____ 
6. cash _____ coin _____ 22. poetry _____ poem _____ 
7. clothing _____ garment _____ 23. progress _____ exam _____ 
8. cooking _____ kitchen _____ 24. report _____ news _____ 
9. experiment _____ research _____ 25. safety _____ guard _____ 
10. fact _____ information _____ 26. thunderstorm ____ lightning _____ 
11. flu _____ cough _____ 27. traffic _____ vehicle _____ 
12. gadget _____ equipment _____ 28. tune _____ music _____ 
13. harm _____ injury _____ 29. university _____ education _____ 
14. job _____ work _____ 30. water _____ drop _____ 
15. joke _____ fun _____ 31. weather _____ shower _____ 
16. journey _____ travel _____ 
 
75 
 
 
 
5. Some nouns maybe either countable (C) or uncountable (U), depending on their 
meaning. Look at these examples and decide when the noun is (C) and when it is 
(U). Then translate the sentences into Portuguese. 
 
1. a) Let me rest my weary bones. 
 b) It is an exquisite African necklace made of bone. 
 
2. a) Talking to him is like talking to a brick wall. 
 b) We will need many more bricks to finish this wall. 
 
3. a) She’s away on business. 
 b) The number of small businesses is increasing. 
 
4. a) Would you like a slice of chocolate cake? 
 b) Do you think two cakes will be enough for the party? 
 
5. a) She rubbed at the stain with a damp cloth. 
 b) This is the best cotton cloth you can get in town. 
 
6. a) We moved here ten years ago because there was very little crime. 
 b) A woman was charged with the crime after the murder weapon was found in her home. 
 
7. a) Ronnie caught three huge fish this afternoon. 
 b) White wine is traditionally drunk with fish. 
 
8. a) How much fruit was sold? 
 b) My favorite fruits are oranges and mangoes. 
 
9. a) Polly cut herself on a piece of broken glass. 
 b) This is not appropriate: I need a wine glass. 
 
10. a) Andrea’s native language is Italian. 
 b) I speak English, but I cannot understand the text because it is full of medical language. 
 
11. a) My grandmother led a full and happy life. 
 b) She was bored with country life and longed for London. 
 
12. a) We could see a tiny glimmer of light in the distance. 
 b) Please turn the light on. 
 
13. a) The frame is made of metal. 
 b) Hydrogen behaves like a metal only at very high pressures. 
 
14. a) Try not to make a noise when you go upstairs. 
 b) Stop making so much noise. 
 
15. a) Take these drugs to relieve the pain. 
 b) Her face was contorted and she was clearly in great pain. 
 
16. a) Painting is not as easy as it looks. 
 b) I enjoy looking at paintings. 
 
17. a) The gift was wrapped in brown paper. 
 b) The history paper was really easy. 
 
18. a) I don’t have any cash. Do you accept plastics? 
 b) Today all children’s toys are made of plastic. 
76 
 
 
 
19. a) The children used to get a lot of pleasure out of that game when they were young. 
 b) I prefer the simple pleasures of life. 
 
20. a) The theme was the relationship between religion and literature. 
 b) Islam has become a widespread religion among athletes. 
 
21. a) Strange sounds came from the next room. 
 b) We apologize for the loss of sound during that report. 
 
22. a) There is space for a table and two chairs. 
 b) There was just an empty space where my bicycle had been. 
 
23. a) Our house is built of stone. 
 b) There’s a stone in my shoe. 
 
24. a) Put some more wood on the fire. 
 b) Pine is a soft wood. 
 
 
 
6. Find the mistakes in these sentences and correct them. 
 
1. If there has been robbery you should call a police. 
2. Her brothers were all in the bed asleep when she left the home in morning. 
3. The most houses in South of England are built of the brick. 
4. He’s in the hospital having operation. 
5. What a wonderful news about the Henry’s sister getting scholarship! 
6. How many luggages are you going to take on plane? 
7. I’d like some informations on holidays in the USA. Can you give me an advice? 
8. What magnificent view of mountains in distance! 
9. He has some beautiful brown eyes and one moustache. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
* Sources: 
Advanced Grammar in Use. Martin Hewings. Cambridge University Press. 1999. 
New Cambridge Advanced English. Leo Jones. Cambridge University Press. 2004. 
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Longman. 2005. 
 
 
77 
 
 
RELATIVE CLAUSES* 
 
A relative clause is an adjective clause, which can be either restrictive or non-
restrictive. If it is restrictive, it is not preceded by any punctuation; in this case, 
both the pronouns “that” and “who” can be used to refer to people and both the 
pronouns “that” and “which” can be used to refer to something. If it is non-
restrictive, it has to be preceded by a comma; in this case, the pronoun “that” 
cannot be used. 
 
 
In restrictive relative clauses, the relative pronoun can be subject of the clause. 
Rockwall is an uninhabited island which/that lies northwest of mainland Scotland. 
We have a friend who/that plays the piano. 
 
 
The relative pronoun can also be the object of the clause. 
He showed me the rocks which/that he had brought back from Australia. 
That’s the man who/that I met at Allison’s party. 
 
 
In the cases above, the relative pronoun can be omitted (object of the clause). 
He showed me the rocks he had brought back from Australia. 
That’s the man I met at Allison’s party. 
 
 
In restrictive clauses, use “that” after: 
- “something”, “anything”: Is there anything (that) I can do to help? (not “anything which I can do”) 
- superlatives: She’s one of the kindest people (that) I know. (not “who I know”) 
- “all”, “little”, “much”, “none”: These walls are all that remain of the city. (not “all which remain”) 
 
 
In non-restrictive relative clauses, the relative pronoun can be the subject of the 
clause. 
One of the people arrested was Mary Arundel, who is a member of the local council. 
These drugs, which are used to treat stomach ulcers, have been withdrawn from sale. 
 
 
The relative pronoun can also be the object of the clause. 
Professor Johnson, whom I have long admired, is to visit the university this week. 
That Masters course, which I took in 2000, is no longer taught at the college. 
 
 
“Which” is also used to refer to the whole situation mentioned in the main clause. 
The book won’t be published until next year, which is disappointing. 
I have to go to hospital on Monday, which means I won’t be able to see you. 
 
 
In non-restrictive relative clauses, use “of which” or “of whom” after “all”, “both”, 
“each”, “many”, “most”, “neither”, “none”, “part”, “some”, and a number and 
superlatives: 
The speed of growth of a plant is influenced by a number of factors, most of which are uncontrollable. 
The bank was held up by a group of men, three of whom were said to be armed. 
The President has made many visits to Japan, the most recent of which began today. 
 
 
* Sources: 
Advanced Grammar in Use. Martin Hewings. Cambridge University Press. 1999. 
Advanced Language Practice, Michael Vince. Macmillan. 2003. 
78 
 
 
 
In formal style, the preposition is often used before the relative pronouns “which” 
and “whom”. 
The rate at which a material heats up depends on its chemical composition. 
In the novel by Peters, on which the film is based, the main character is a teenager. 
An actor with whom Gelson had previously worked contacted him about the role. 
Her many friends, among whom I like to be considered, gave her encouragement. 
 
 
After a preposition, “who” and “that” cannot be used, and the pronoun cannot be 
omitted. 
Is it right that politicians should make important decisions without consulting the public to whom they are 
accountable? (not “the public to who they are accountable”) 
The valley in which the town lies is heavily polluted. (not “in that the town”) 
Arnold tried to gage the speed at which they were traveling. (not “the speed at they were traveling”) 
 
 
“When” can be omitted. “Whose”, “where” and “whereby” cannot be omitted. 
That was the year when the miners were on strike. = That was the year the miners were on strike. 
The man whose opinion we respect teaches at the local community college. 
That’s the room where I was born. 
The factory devised a system whereby we could get more overtime work. 
 
 
Other relative pronouns: 
- whose: We need to learn from companies whose trading is more healthy than our own. 
- where: Thiswas the place where I first went to school. 
- when: Do you know the date when we have to submit the first essay? 
- whereby: The government is to end the system whereby framers make more money from leaving land 
unplanted. 
- why: I didn’t get a raise, but this wasn’t the reason why I left. 
- whatever: I’m sure they’ll enjoy eating whatever we cook. 
- whoever: Whoever wins will go on to play Barcelona in the final. 
- whichever: Whichever one of you broke the window will have to pay for it. 
 
 
 
EXERCISES 
 
1. Fill in the blanks with an appropriate relative pronoun. Also, write X where it is 
possible to omit the relative pronoun. 
 
1. The thought of going home to his family was all _______________ kept him happy while he 
was working abroad. 
2. She was probably the hardest working student _______________ I’ve ever taught. 
3. Lewis, the man _______________ Johnson beat in the last World Championships, has 
broken the world record. 
4. Lighting bonfires at this time of the year is a tradition _______________ goes back to the 
17th century. 
5. Dorothy said something _______________ I couldn’t hear clearly. 
6. There was little _______________ we could do to help her. 
7. The Royal Floridian is an express train _______________ runs between New York and Miami. 
8. The machine _______________ I have to use in my job cost over a million pounds. 
9. The diary _______________ Ron kept when he was in prison was sold for $50,000. 
10. I have a friend _______________ ran in the New York Marathon last year. 
11. We were told that we would be held responsible for anything _______________ went 
wrong. 
12. He’s probably the best golfer _______________ I’ve played against. 
79 
 
 
2. Include one of the pieces of information below in each sentence as a non-
restrictive relative clause and add the correct relative pronoun. 
 
has more than 50 members stole a computer from the office 
caused such damage in the islands is set in the north of Australia 
is an aviation expert ended yesterday 
 
1. The Southam Chess Club meets weekly on Friday evenings. 
2. Dr. Richard Newman was asked to comment on the latest helicopter crash. 
3. The strike by train drivers is estimated to have cost over $3 million. 
4. John Graham’s latest film is his first for more than five years. 
5. The police are looking for two boys aged about 14. 
6. The hurricane has now headed out to sea. 
 
 
3. Write two sentences as one, using a non-restrictive relative clause beginning with 
“all”, “both”, “each”… and “of which” or “or whom”. 
 
1. The film is about the lives of three women. Kate Dillon plays all the women. 
2. The island’s two million inhabitants have been badly affected by the drought. Most of the 
island’s inhabitants are peasant farmers. 
3. She has two older brothers. Neither of her brothers went to university. 
4. About 30 of her friends and relations came to the airport to welcome her back. Many of her 
friends and relations had traveled long distances. 
5. The minister has recently visited Estonia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. They all have large 
Russian minorities. 
6. The fish are multicolored. The biggest of the fish is only 2cm long. 
7. Scotland has won its last five international games. One of these games was against England. 
 
 
4. Join the sentence halves using “which” or “whom” after an appropriate 
preposition. 
 
I would never have finished the work it was primarily written 
we know nothing they got a good view he learned how to play chess 
Dennis scored three goals in the final she was born it was discovered 
 
1. They climbed up to the top of a large rock, 
2. I would like to thank my tutor, 
3. She has now moved back to the house on Long Island 
4. The star is to be named after Patrick Jenks, 
5. This is the ball 
6. He is now able to beat his father, 
7. The book is enjoyed by adults as well as children, 
8. There are still many things in our solar system 
 
www.AtualidadesConcursos.com.br
80 
 
 
5. Rewrite these sentences so that they are more appropriate for formal written 
English. Use a preposition + “which” or a preposition + “whose”. 
 
1. Tom Sims, whose car the weapons were found in, has been arrested. 
2. Tom Hain, whose novel the TV series is based on, will appear in the first episode. 
3. Dr. Jackson owns the castle whose grounds the main road passes through. 
4. Tessa Parsons is now managing director of Simons, the company that she was once a 
secretary in. 
5. Allowing the weapons to be sold is an action that the government should be ashamed of. 
6. The dragonfly is an insect that we know very little of. 
 
 
6. Correct the faulty punctuation of the sentences below. 
 
1. Many people think that Saturn is the biggest planet which is wrong. 
2. That’s the man, I used to live next door to. 
3. I couldn’t remember, which house I had to deliver the card to. 
4. The coat she wore to the party, was similar to one I have at home. 
5. Lynn is the only person in my circle of friends, who is married. 
6. Whoever catches the ball, must come into the middle of the circle. 
 
 
7. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first 
sentence, using the word given (in bold). Do not change the word given. 
 
1. I waited for him until 6.30 and then gave up. 
which 
I waited for him until 6.30, _______________________________________________________ 
gave up. 
 
2. The whole summer was sunny and warm, for a change. 
made 
The whole summer was sunny and warm, _________________________________________ 
nice change. 
 
3. The police never caught the culprit. 
committed 
The police never caught _________________________________________________________ 
the crime. 
 
4. I can’t remember the last heavy rain. 
when 
I can’t remember _______________________________________________________________ 
heavily. 
 
5. Do you get on with your next door neighbor? 
who 
Do you get on with _________________________________________________________ lives 
next door? 
 
 
81 
 
 
FALSE COGNATES* 
 
Fill in the middle column (translation) in the table below. 
 
WORD TRANSLATION EXAMPLE / DEFINITION 
accost On the station she was accosted by a man asking for money. 
actually Did he actually attack you, or just threaten you? 
adept (at) She soon became adept at predicting her son’s moods. 
advert Did you see that advert for her new book? 
He adverted briefly to the news of the day. 
ailment The medicine was supposed to cure all kinds of ailments, ranging from colds to back pains. 
alias Carlos, alias “The Jackal”, is wanted by police in several countries. 
amass For twenty-five years Darwin amassed evidence to support his theories. 
amenities The town has grown, and offers many more amenities – a new shopping mall, play areas and a variety of 
restaurants. 
anniversary They will celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the school’s foundation. 
anticipate She was eagerly anticipating her mother’s arrival. 
It is anticipated that next year interest rates will fall. 
antique The palace is full of priceless antiques. 
apologize I must apologize for the delay in replying to your letter. 
apparel We would like to draw your attention to the sales of men apparel on the second floor. 
appoint O’Connell was appointed as Chairman of the Council. 
argue The family argued bitterly over who should inherit the house. 
Croft argued that a date should be set for the withdrawal of troops. 
assault Policemen were assaulted by young demonstrators. 
The MP was assaulted with a torrent of abuse from angry strikers. 
assume I didn’t see your car, so I assumed you’d gone out. 
The President assumes his new responsibilities in January. 
avail No excuse will avail. 
available The universityis trying to make more accommodation available for students. 
barrack The politician was barracked by students at the back of the hall. 
block It’s three blocks to the store from here. 
She has a mental block about speaking French. 
bond The two countries are linked by bonds of friendship going back many years. 
My father put all his Money into Canadian Northern Railway bonds. 
candid He was candid about his dislike of our friends. 
candor I appreciate your candor in this matter. 
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82 
 
 
WORD TRANSLATION EXAMPLE / DEFINITION 
casualty First reports of the air crash tell of more than 50 casualties. 
caution Evidence given by convicted criminals should always be treated with caution. 
claim He denies claims that he is involved in a drugs ring. 
college Many firms will only have college graduates. 
commitment Her commitment to work is beyond question. 
The psychiatrist recommended commitment. 
commotion The bar was packed, and the winning touchdown caused an immense commotion. 
complexion Drinking lots of water is good for the complexion. 
These latest findings have put a whole new complexion on the affair. 
compliment She is used to receiving compliments on her appearance. 
complimentary Your teacher made some very complimentary remarks about your work. 
comprehensive There was a comprehensive inspection of the nuclear plant. 
condescending She’d be a better teacher if she weren’t condescending to her students. 
condition She has a serious heart condition. 
The garden was in a condition of total neglect. / There were strict conditions to letting us use the information. 
consistent In order to prove the theory, we need consistent results. 
This evidence is not consistent with what you said earlier. 
construe Party leaders felt that such an action would be construed as political persecution. 
contemporize The new production of Romeo and Juliet contemporizes it as the love of two modern teenagers in a Chicago 
high school. 
conversant Before signing, make sure you are conversant with the details of the contract. 
converse I had the converse opinion. 
costume The dancers were all in national costume. 
cynical (adj) 
cynic (noun) 
 Since her divorce she’s become very cynical about men. 
data (plural) We cannot tell you the results until we have looked at all the data. 
deception Many businessmen use some form of deception, at times, to achieve their objectives. 
deputy Martin Roberts was not in the office, but I spoke to his deputy, Mr. Harris. 
devolve The governor devolved the choice upon the committee. 
discrete There are two discrete breeding groups on the island. 
discuss I'd like to discuss my contract with you. 
disgrace Your conduct is a complete disgrace to the medical profession, and I'll see your license is revoked. 
disgust The thought of dissecting a frog disgusts me. 
dispense Villagers dispensed towels to people involved in the accident. 
dispense with I think we can dispense with a translator. 
divert The company should divert more resources into research. 
83 
 
 
WORD TRANSLATION EXAMPLE / DEFINITION 
education They had worked hard to give their son a good education. 
elaborate an elaborate mosaic consisting of thousands of tiny pieces 
He said he had new evidence, but refused to elaborate any further. 
engross Their revolutionary talk engrossed him, and he listened intently. 
enroll There were 500 people enrolled in the Western Civilization class. 
equivocate When asked directly for his position on disarmament, the candidate only equivocated. 
estate She left her estate to her husband. 
estranged She was shot in bed by her estranged husband. / Molly became increasingly estranged from her son. 
eventually He worked so hard that eventually he made himself ill. 
exhaustive As a result of exhaustive inquiries the police are at last able to issue a description of the murderer. 
exigency They must be free to act in any exigency. 
exit They made a swift exit when they saw the police approaching. 
expedient We have decided it would be expedient to appoint a committee to investigate the problem. 
expert He’s an expert in electronic music. 
exquisite The colors of the tapestry were rich and exquisite. 
extensive The storm caused extensive damage. 
extenuate Do not extenuate the difficulties we are in. 
extrapolate It’s my job to extrapolate future developments from contemporary trends. 
fabric The family is the most important unit in the social fabric. 
I prefer to wear woolen fabrics in winter. 
facility a five-star hotel with fantastic facilities 
faculty There was a mixed reaction to the proposal among the faculty. 
Though very sick, he is in full possession of all his faculties. 
fastidious She is a very fastidious eater. 
gratify I was very gratified to hear how much they liked my work. 
Hoping to gratify my curiosity, I opened the door. 
hazard Ice on the road is a major hazard at this time of the year. 
Would you like to hazard a guess as to how much he earns? 
idiom ‘Under the weather’ is an idiom meaning ‘ill’. 
impugn The honor of our country has been grossly impugned! 
indulge I haven’t had strawberries and cream for a long time, so I'm really going to indulge myself. 
infatuation As I thought, it was another passing infatuation. 
inflammatory His inflammatory remarks about the homeless were seized on by the press. 
ingenious A scanner is an ingenious device which enables you to feed pictures or documents into a computer system. 
ingenuity She is a designer of great ingenuity. 
inhabitable All the island is perfectly inhabitable. 
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84 
 
 
WORD TRANSLATION EXAMPLE / DEFINITION 
inquisitive Don’t be so inquisitive – it makes people uncomfortable. 
intend He was insulted by my remark, but I hadn’t intended it to be offensive. 
jest He pointed at me and in jest told the woman that I was a nuclear scientist. 
journal She kept a journal during her European trip. 
I just received the October issue of The English Journal. 
large Los Angeles is the second largest city in the US. 
lecture She’s giving a series of lectures on molecular biology. 
liquor We bought some gin at a liquor store on Fifth Avenue. 
lunch I'm starved. Let’s have lunch. 
luxury Caviar for breakfast! I was not used to such luxury. 
malice There was no need for Jane to tell them – she did it out of sheer malice. 
manage Managing four restaurants is extremely hard work. 
He tried to walk, but managed only a few shaky steps. / I think I could manage another glass of wine. 
miserable He sat alone in his room, thoroughly miserable. He had never felt so lonely in his life. 
morose Daniel seems very morose and gloomy. 
nervous I was so nervous about my exams that I couldn’t sleep. 
notice That notice on the wall says ‘No smoking.’ 
notorious The region is notorious for its terrible snowstorms. 
novel That’s a novel idea – opening an English restaurant in France. 
I always try to read a good novel in my free time. 
oblong I want an oblong picture frame, about 50cm by 30 cm. 
ordinary Nothing out of the ordinary had happened. 
parent The baby had to be taken away from her natural parents because they were unfit to look after her. 
phrase Who first coined the phrase “Iron Curtain”? 
physician His parents are both physicians in a busy hospital. 
policy The company operates a very strict policy on smoking. 
You should obtain a separate policy covering valuable household items. 
prejudice Women still have to face a great deal of prejudice in the workplace. 
presently The doctor will be here presently. 
pretend We’re not really sisters; we’re just pretending. 
procure Somehow he had procured us an invitation. 
professor Ted’s a college professor. 
proffer She proffered him a cigarette.qualification The status of barrister provides a qualification for various public appointments. 
The committee expressed support for our plans but with certain qualifications. 
We need to beat Poland to ensure qualification for the World Cup finals. 
85 
 
 
WORD TRANSLATION EXAMPLE / DEFINITION 
realize Tim didn’t realize his mistake until the next day. 
recipient He was that year’s recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. 
reclaim You may be entitled to reclaim some tax. 
relapse Grandad was getting much better, but then he had an unexpected relapse and died within a week. 
relative She inherited the money from a distant relative who died in Australia. 
repeal It’s high time this unfair law was repealed. 
report I'd like to report a theft. / He was eventually reported to the police. 
All visitors must report to the site office. 
This is Gavin Williams, reporting from the United Nations in New York. 
resign The manager was forced to resign his post after allegations of corruption. 
respite The noise went on all night without even a moment’s respite. 
resume Let us resume where we left off. 
retire In the UK, men usually retire at the age of 65 and women at 60. 
retribution She feared retribution for having told the police the gang leader’s name. 
sensible Surely it would be sensible to get a second opinion. 
supper I heated up some left-over chicken for supper then went to bed. 
stationery The letter was written on hotel stationery. 
sympathy The victim’s parents have received thousands of messages of sympathy. 
tax The government claimed it would lower taxes. 
tentative We’ve fixed a tentative date for the meeting. 
tint She had put red tints in her hair. 
transpire The manager fired the employee last month when it transpired that he had broken the bank’s rules on trading. 
tutor She had been too ill to attend school so she studied at home with a private tutor. 
As well as lecturing, each member of staff acts as personal tutor to two or three students. 
union The air traffic controllers’ union has decided for the strike. 
utilities Does your rent include utilities? 
venture Jeff ventured his whole fortune on one throw of the dice. 
voluble She broke into voluble and perfect Italian. 
 
*Sources of sentences: 
Language Activator. Longman. 1993. 
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Longman. 1995. 
Random House Dictionary. Random House, Inc. 2010. 
 
 
 
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86 
 
 
 
VOCABULARY – 1* 
 
Changes 
 
A. Look at the pairs of sentences in 1-20 and choose a verb from the box which can be used 
with both sentences. In some cases, the meaning of the verb may change slightly. 
 
adapt demote expand reduce swell 
adjust disappear fade renew switch 
alter dissolve increase renovate transform 
cure exchange promote replace vary 
 
1. We need to _______________ these cars so disabled people can drive them. 
The country found it hard to _______________ to the new government. 
 
2. If the trousers are too tight, take them back to the shop and ask them to _______________them. 
He found it hard to _______________ to living in a tropical country. 
 
3. You must _______________ the voltage or the system will blow up. 
He decided to _______________ his appearance by having plastic surgery. 
 
4. Our bills will be less if we _______________ from gas to electricity. 
They had to _______________ flights at Heathrow Airport. 
 
5. You can't _______________ the terms of the contract once it has been signed. 
He wants to _______________ his appearance. 
 
6. It will help your digestion if you _______________ your diet. 
Prices of flats _______________ from a few thousand to millions of pounds. 
 
7. We need to _______________ our pounds for dollars. 
You can usually _______________ goods which are faulty if you show the receipt. 
 
8. We have had to _______________ our sales force to cope with the extra demand. 
Water will _______________ when it is frozen. 
 
9. The price of oil will _______________ next year. 
Most bosses refuse to _______________ salaries when they are asked. 
 
10. The management decided to _______________ the company and sell the offices. 
_______________ the sugar in boiling water. 
 
11. More and more people are moving to cities to _______________ the population there. 
The wasp sting caused his leg to _______________ up. 
 
 
87 
 
 
* Source: Check your vocabulary for IELTS. Rawdon Wyatt. Peter Collin Publishing. 2001. 
 
12. The market for typewriters will probably _______________ completely in the next few years. 
The police are baffled by the increasing number of people who _______________ each year. 
 
13. The old contract ran out and we had to _______________ it. 
Many people argue that it's futile to _______________ old hostilities. 
 
14. They have received funds to _______________ the old buildings. 
We need to _______________ the central heating as it is old and worn out. 
 
15. The boss offered to _______________ him from salesman to manager. 
Our main aim is to _______________ tourism in the country. 
 
16. They wanted to _______________ me from manager to salesperson. 
If we _______________ you, you will lose a large part of your salary. 
 
17. If you wash it too much, the colour will _______________. 
We watched the islands _______________ away into the distance. 
 
18. The company decided to _______________ the permanent staff with freelancers. 
You must _______________ the books on the shelf when you have finished with them. 
 
19. The doctors were unable to her illness. 
_______________ the meat in salt water for between three and five days. 
 
20. Governments are trying to _______________ pollution. 
The best way to save money is to _______________ the number of staff. 
 
 
 
B. Look at these sentences and decide if the statement which follows each one is true or 
false. Use the words and expressions in bold to help you decide. If you decide that the 
sentence is false, correct the expression in bold. 
 
1. The population of the country has trebled in the last 25 years. There has been a dramatic increase in 
the number of people living in the country. 
2. Unemployment has dropped by about 2% every year for the last six years. There has been a steady 
decrease in the number of people out of work. 
3. The government has spent a lot of money improving roads around the country. There has been a 
deterioration in the national road system. 
4. The number of exam passes achieved by the school's pupils has risen by almost 50%. There has been a 
decline in the number of exam passes. 
88 
 
 
5. American travellers abroad have discovered that they can buy more foreign currency with their dollar. 
There has been a weakening of the dollar. 
6. It is now much easier to import goods into the country than it was a few years ago. There has been a 
tightening up of border controls. 
7. We're increasing our stocks of coal before the winter begins. We're running down our stocks of coal. 
8. Prices have gone up by about 4% every year since 1998. There has been a constant rise in the rate 
of inflation. 
9. The pass rate for the exam was 3% lower this year than it was last year. There has been a sharp fall 
in the pass rate. 
10. The alliance is going to reduce the number of conventional weapons in their armed forces. The 
alliance is going to build up the number of weapons they have. 
11. Deflation has adversely affected industries around the country. There has been a growth in industrial 
activity. 
12. The rules are much stricter now than they were before. There has been a relaxation of the rules. 
13. Last year, 12% of the population worked in industry and 10% workedin agriculture. This year, 14% of 
the population work in industry and 8% work in agriculture. There has been a narrowing of the 
gap between those working in different sectors of the economy. 
14. Some management roles in the company will not exist this time next year. Some management roles 
are going to be phased out. 
15. More people are shopping at large supermarkets rather than small village shops. There has been an 
upward trend in the number of people shopping in small village shops. 
16. Her English is dearly better now than it was when she first arrived. There has been marked progress 
in her English. 
17. People live in better houses, drive nicer cars and eat higher-quality food than they did twenty years 
ago. There has been a general improvement in the standard of living. 
18. Our company has opened factories in France, Germany and Italy in the last five years. Our company 
has witnessed considerable expansion in the last five years. 
19. The government will spend less on the National Health Service next year. There are going to be cuts 
in healthcare spending next year. 
20. British people nowadays want to see more of the world. British people nowadays want to narrow 
their horizons. 
 
 
89 
 
 
 
Joining / becoming part of something bigger 
 
 
The sentences below all contain a word or expression in bold which is related to joining two 
or more things, sometimes with the result of becoming part of something bigger. However, 
the words and expressions have all been put into the wrong sentence. Put them into their 
correct sentence. In some cases, more than one answer is possible. 
 
 
 
C. Move the verbs into the right sentences. 
 
1. His salary is merged to the cost of living and increases on an annual basis. 
 
2. The International Book Association blended with Universal Press in 1999 to form the International 
Press. 
 
3. To get a better finish, he swallowed up the two paints together. 
 
4. The firm integrated with its main competitor in the battle to win more customers. 
 
5. The suggestions from all the committees were took over into the main proposal. 
 
6. The immigrants faced hostility when they were first incorporated into the community. 
 
7. A lot of students had problems before they amalgamated into college life. 
 
8. When the large international college got together the smaller school, a lot of people lost their jobs. 
 
9. The students linked one evening and decided to protest about their situation. 
 
10. A large international company assimilated our firm last month and started making immediate 
changes. 
 
 
 
 
 
D. Move the nouns into the right sentences. 
 
1. The alloy between England and France came close to breaking down many times during the nineteenth 
century. 
 
2. The synthesis between England and Scotland is over 300 years old. 
 
3. The company has ten directors who provide a blend of different expertise. 
 
4. Brass is a well-known alliance of copper and zinc. 
 
5. Water is a coalition of hydrogen and oxygen. 
 
6. The plan is a unification of several earlier proposals. 
 
7. The merger of Italy did not occur until the second half of the nineteenth century. 
 
8. The company made its fortune by selling a popular union of coffee. 
 
9. The proposed federation of the Liberal and Labour Parties in the election was cause for much ridicule. 
 
10. As a result of the compound with the other company, Flax International became the largest in its 
field. 
 
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90 
 
 
Stopping something 
 
 
E. For each of the examples 1-15, choose an appropriate verb from the box which best fits the 
description and can be used in the sample sentence. 
 
 
back out deny give up remove sever 
cancel deter put an end to repeal suppress 
delete dissuade quash rescind turn down 
 
 
 
1. to cut out part of a document, a computer file, etc 
To stop your hard disk becoming too full, you should _______________ any unwanted programs. 
 
2. to officially end a law so that it is no longer valid 
The new government bill seeks to _______________ the existing legislation. 
 
3. to discourage someone from doing something 
The threat of severe punishment did not _______________ the thieves from striking again. 
 
4. to persuade someone not to do something 
The college tries to _______________ students from entering exams which are not suitable for them. 
 
5. to annul or cancel a contract or agreement 
The committee decided to _______________ its earlier resolution on the use of its premises. 
 
6. to limit something, such as a person's freedom 
The military government attempted to _______________ the democracy movement by arresting its 
leaders. 
 
7. to end something suddenly and finally 
The Cornucopian government decided to _______________ relations with Utopia. 
 
8. to refuse something which is offered 
You should never _______________ a good job when it is offered to you. 
 
9. to decide not to support or be part of a project or activity after agreeing to do so 
We decided to _______________ when we discovered the company was in financial difficulty. 
 
10. to state that something is not correct 
Before his trial, his lawyer advised him to _______________ embezzling company funds. 
 
11. to stop something which has been planned 
There is no refund if you _______________ your holiday less than three weeks before the date of the 
departure. 
 
12. to make a judging or ruling no longer valid 
He applied for a judicial review to _______________ the verdict. 
 
13. to stop doing something that you have done for quite a long time 
You should _______________ smoking if you want to feel healthier. 
 
14. to stop something which has been going on for a long time 
They agreed to _______________ their long-standing dispute. 
 
15. to take something away 
I would be grateful if you would _______________ my name from your mailing list. 
 
 
 
91 
 
 
Opposites 
 
 
F. Replace the words in bold in the sentences with a word from the box which has an opposite 
meaning. 
 
 
VERBS 
 
abandoned denied loosened rejected set 
defended deteriorated lowered retreated simplified 
demolished fell refused rewarded withdrew 
 refused (to let) 
 
_____________ 1. They accepted the offer of a ceasefire. 
_____________ 2. He admitted telling lies in his original statement. 
_____________ 3. The army slowly advanced, leaving a trail of devastation in its path. 
_____________ 4. They agreed to meet to discuss the future of the organization. 
_____________ 5. The minister attacked his party's policies in a speech in Parliament. 
_____________ 6. The apartments blocks they built were the ugliest in the city. 
_____________ 7. He complicated matters by rewriting the original proposal. 
_____________ 8. They continued their plans to assassinate the king when he opened the parliament. 
_____________ 9. He deposited £7,000 – half his college fees for the forthcoming year. 
_____________ 10. Relations between the two countries have improved considerably in the last year. 
_____________ 11. He permitted us to present our petition directly to the President. 
_____________ 12. The members of the commune were punished for their part in the revolution. 
_____________ 13. He raised the overall standards of the company within 2 months of his appointment. 
_____________ 14. As soon as the sun rose, the demonstrators began to appear on the streets. 
_____________ 15. Prices rose sharply in the first three months of the financial year. 
_____________ 16. As soon as he had tightened the knots, he pushed the boat out. 
 
 
 
 
 
ADJECTIVES 
 
approximate compulsory detrimental even innocent 
clear crude dim flexible reluctant 
clear delicate easy graceful scarce 
 
 
_____________ 1. The meaning of his words was very ambiguous._____________ 2. According to his colleagues, he is a very awkward person to deal with. 
_____________ 3. When she first started dancing, she was very awkward. 
_____________ 4. His policies were beneficial to the economy as a whole. 
_____________ 5. We need exact figures before we embark on a new venture. 
_____________ 6. The jury decided he was guilty of the crime. 
_____________ 7. Add up all the odd numbers between 1 and 20 to get a result. 
_____________ 8. Despite the weather, supplies of food after the harvest were plentiful. 
_____________ 9. The laws protecting the green belt around the city are very rigid. 
_____________ 10. There is a slight difference in the way the company is run these days compared with 
a few years ago. 
_____________ 11. The device is very sophisticated and should only be operated by someone who is 
familiar with it. 
_____________ 12. The spices used in the production of some international dishes have a very strong 
flavour. 
_____________ 13. The strong light from the torch picked out details on the walls of the cave. 
_____________ 14. Attendance at afternoon classes should be voluntary. 
_____________ 15. A lot of students are willing to attend classes on Saturday morning. 
 
 
 
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92 
 
 
VOCABULARY – 2* 
 
Money and finance 
 
A. Use a dictionary to find the difference between the words and expressions below. 
 
1. make a profit X make a loss 
2. extravagant X frugal / economical 
3. a current account X a deposit account 
4. a loan X a mortgage 
5. to deposit money X to withdraw money 
6. a wage X a salary 
7. broke X bankrupt 
8. shares X stocks X dividends 
9. income tax X excise duty 
 
10. to credit X to debit 
11 . a bank X a building society 
12. a discount X a refund 
13. worthless X priceless 
14. save money X invest money 
15. inflation X deflation 
16. income X expenditure 
17. to lend X to borrow 
18. something which was a bargain X something which 
was overpriced X something which was exorbitant 
 
 
B. Match the sentences in column A with the sentences in column B. 
 
Column A Column B 
 
_____ 1. The managing director believes the 
company should start producing pocket 
computers. 
_____ 2. I always put my money in a building 
society and not in a bank. 
_____ 3. I can't afford to buy a new car right now. 
I don't have enough money. 
_____ 4. I find Christmas a very expensive time. 
_____ 5. I came into a lot of money recently when 
my uncle died. 
_____ 6. Look at this check that came in the post 
this morning from the Inland Revenue. 
_____ 7. I've been spending too much recently. 
_____ 8. In my country, there are a lot of very 
poor people and only a few rich ones. 
_____ 9. I lost my job last month. 
_____ 10. I retire next month. 
_____ 11. Prices are rising quickly everywhere. 
_____ 12. The January sales start tomorrow. 
 
 
A. I'm really looking forward to spending my 
pension. 
B. The cost of living seems to go up every day. 
C. Of course, it's always so difficult to economize. 
D. Shops all over the country are making huge 
reductions on just about everything. 
E. I always seem to run up a huge overdraft at the 
bank at this time of the year. 
F. Of course, the potential global market for them 
is enormous. 
G. Fortunately I receive unemployment benefit. 
H. There is a very uneven distribution of wealth. 
I. The interest they pay me is much higher. 
J. It's the first time I've inherited something. 
K. It seems to be some kind of tax rebate. 
L. Maybe I should consider getting one on credit. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
* Source: Check your vocabulary for IELTS. Rawdon Wyatt. Peter Collin Publishing. 2001. 
93 
 
 
Business and industry 
 
 
C. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box. Take into consideration the definitions that 
precede the sentences. 
 
 
 
1. automation 5. taxation 9. secondary industries 13. output 
2. unemployment 6. GNP 10. service industries 14. income tax 
3. inflation 7. interest rates 11. nationalised industries 15. VAT 
4. balance of payments 8. primary industries 12. monopoly 16. deficit 
 17. key industries 
 
 
A. the percentage charged for borrowing money (The Bank of England has raised _______________.) 
B. industries involved in the manufacture of goods (_______________ rely on the ready supply of raw 
materials.) 
C. the value of goods and services paid for in a country, including income earned in other countries (Last 
year's _______________ was close to £25 billion.) 
D. the amount which a firm, machine or person produces (The factory has doubled its _______________ 
in the last six months.) 
E. industries involved in the production of raw materials (Coal mining is one of the important 
_______________.) 
F installing machinery in place of workers (_______________ can be a mixed blessing – machines usually 
tend to be out of order when you need them most.) 
G. industries which do not make products but offer a service such as banking, insurance and transport 
(_______________ have become more important in the last decade.) 
H. the difference in value between a country's imports and exports (The government is trying to reduce 
the _______________ deficit.) 
I. the amount by which expenditure is more than receipts in a firm's or country's accounts (The company 
announced a two million pound _______________.) 
J. a system where one person or company supplies all of a product in one area without any competition 
(The state has a _______________ of the tobacco trade.) 
K. industries which were once privately owned, but now belong to the state (Workers in 
_______________ are to get a 3% pay rise.) 
L. lack of work (The figures for _______________ are rising.) 
M. the action of imposing taxes (Money raised by _______________ pays for all government services.) 
N. the most important industries in a country (Oil is one of the _______________ which are essential to 
the country's economy.) 
O. a state of economy where prices and wages are rising to keep pace with each other (The government 
is trying to keep _______________ down below 3%.) 
P. a tax on money earned as wages or salary (She pays _______________ at the lowest rate.) 
Q. a tax imposed as a percentage of the invoice value of goods or services; an indirect tax 
(_______________ in Britain currently runs at 17.5%.) 
 
 
 
 
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94 
 
 
 
D. Number the words in the box according to their opposites in bold in the sentences. 
 
 
_____ bust / recession _____ expenditure _____ net _____ white-collar 
_____ credit _____ exports _____ private _____ take on 
_____ demand for _____ lending _____ retail _____ unskilled laborers 
_____ employees/ 
workers /staff 
 
_____ loss _____ shop floor _____ state-owned 
industries 
 
1. We have a limited supply of computer base units. 
2. Last year, our company made a huge profit. 
3. Our gross profits are up by almost 150% on last year. 
4. Banks across the country are reporting a sharp drop in borrowing. 
5. The company will debit your bank account with £528 each month. 
6. The wholesale market has experienced a downturn since the recession began. 
7. The government is encouraging short-term investors to put their money into the public sector. 
8. Private enterprises are under a lot of financial pressure. 
9. Skilled workers are demanding a 15% pay rise. 
10. If this continues, we will have to lay off members of staff. 
11. Blue-collar workers across the country are demanding improved working conditions. 
12. He works for a company which imports camera equipment. 
13. A lot of people have benefited from the recent boom in the electrical industry.14. The management refuses to compromise on the quality of their products. 
15. Overall revenue is down by almost 15%. 
16. A fight broke out in the boardroom over terms and conditions of employment. (Note: you will have to 
change the preposition “in” to “on”) 
 
 
E. Now fill in the blanks below with the words / expressions from exercises 1 and 2 above. 
More than one answer may be possible. You may need to change some of the word forms. 
 
_______________(1) rates are to rise by a further half a percent next month, putting further 
pressure on homeowners paying mortgages. It will also discourage people from _______________(2) 
money from the high street banks, who are already under a lot of pressure. Last year, the National Bank 
was forced to _______________(3) 2,000 members of staff across the country, adding to the country's 
rapidly rising rate of _______________(4). _______________(5) rose in the last year by almost 6%, 
despite the government's pledge to keep price and wage rises no higher than 3%. This has had a negative 
impact on _______________(6), since the strong pound coupled with rising prices has made it almost 
impossible for foreign companies to buy British goods and services. Especially affected are the 
_______________(7) producing pharmaceuticals and chemicals. _______________(8) workers in 
_______________(9) industries across the country are demanding higher _______________(10). Unions 
and workers are negotiating with _______________(11) chiefs for an eight percent rise. This follows the 
announcement that the government want more investors to put their money into the _____________(12) 
sector. _______________(13) for home computers has finally overtaken the _______________(14), 
making it once again a seller's market. There is now a two-week waiting list to receive a new computer. 
This has pushed prices up by almost a third. Bradford Aerospace Technologies, where overall 
_______________(15) for sales of aircraft parts has dropped by almost 10% in the last quarter, will 
shortly become a _______________(16) industry in a final desperate attempt to keep it open. The 
government has promised it will keep on the current workforce. Bad news too for Ranger Cars, who this 
week announced a _______________(17) of almost five million pounds. A spokesman for the company 
blamed high labor costs and the reluctance by union leaders to approve increased _______________(18) 
at the firm's factories. They insist that the installation of new machinery will lead to redundancies. 
95 
 
 
The environment 
 
 
F. Match the first part of each sentence in the left-hand column with its second part in the 
right hand column. Check that each sentence you put together is grammatically correct. 
 
 
_____ 1. Some modern agricultural methods have 
been heavily criticized,... 
_____ 2. If you wear a fur coat in public,... 
_____ 3. It is illegal to kill pandas, tigers... 
_____ 4. If we don't do more to protect pandas,... 
_____ 5. A lot of British people are interested in 
unusual animals,... 
_____ 6. National parks in Kenya are currently 
recruiting experts... 
_____ 7. In an attempt to preserve forests around 
the country... 
_____ 8. We would like to carry out more scientific 
study into rainforests... 
_____ 9. I don't like zoos because I think... 
_____ 10. I saw a fascinating documentary about 
the way animals live in Venezuela and 
thought... 
_____ 11. In order to increase the birth rate, the 
Chinese government has spent a lot of 
money... 
_____ 12. Hunters have killed so many animals 
that... 
 
 
A ...in many countries poaching is considered more 
serious than drug smuggling. 
B ...and rare breeds parks are very popular with 
many. 
C ...in wildlife management. 
D ...the government's conservation program has 
been very successful. 
E ...they'll soon be extinct. 
F ...with battery farming in particular receiving a lot 
of condemnation. 
G ...it was fascinating to observe their natural 
behavior. 
H ...on a successful panda breeding program. 
I ...keeping animals in captivity is cruel. 
J ...or any other endangered species. 
K ...but it is often difficult to get people to fund the 
research. 
L ...you risk coming under attack from animal 
rights activists. 
 
 
 
 
G. Number the words in the box according to their synonyms in bold in the sentences. 
 
 
____ acid rain ____ emissions ____ genetically 
modified 
____ organic 
____ biodegradable packaging ____ environmentalists ____ global warming ____ rain forest 
____ contaminated ____ erosion ____ Green Belt ____ recycle 
____ ecosystem ____ fossil fuels ____ greenhouse ____ unleaded 
petrol 
 
 
1. In Britain, building is restricted or completely banned in the area of farming land or woods and 
parks which surrounds a town. 
2. Many companies are developing boxes, cartons and cans which can easily be decomposed by 
organisms such as bacteria, or by sunlight, sea, water, etc. 
3. The burning of some fuels creates carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, methane 
and other gases which rise into the atmosphere. 
4. Farmers have cleared hectares of thick wooded land in tropical regions where the precipitation 
is very high. 
5. Planting trees provides some protection from the gradual wearing away of soil. 
6. We should all try to process waste material so that it can be used again. 
7. These potatoes are cultivated naturally, without using any chemical fertilizers and pesticides. 
8. This bread is made from wheat which has been altered at a molecular level so as to change 
certain characteristics which can be inherited. 
96 
 
 
9. More and more cars are built to use fuel which has been made without lead additives. 
10. Polluted precipitation which kills trees falls a long distance away from the source of the pollution. 
11. Human beings have had a devastating effect on the living things, both large and small, in many 
parts of the world. 
12. The gases and other substances which come from factories using oil, coal and other fuels which 
are the remains of plants and animals can cause serious damage to the environment. 
13. Don't drink that water! It's been made dirty by something being added to it. 
14. Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace and other people concerned with protecting the environment 
are holding a forum in London next month. 
15. The heating up of the earth's atmosphere by pollution is threatening life as we know it. 
 
 
 
 
 
H. Fill in the blanks below with one of the words or expressions from exercises 1 and 2. In 
some cases, more than one answer may be possible. You may need to change the form of 
some of the words. 
 
There is no doubt that the environment is in trouble. Factories burn _______________(1) which 
produce _______________(2), and this kills trees. At the same time, _______________(3) gases rise into 
the air and contribute to _______________(4), which threatens to melt the polar ice cap. Meanwhile 
farmers clear huge areas of _______________(5) in places such as the Amazon to produce feeding land 
for cattle or produce wood for building. Rivers and oceans are so heavily _______________(6) by 
industrial waste that it is no longer safe to go swimming. Cars pump out poisonous _______________(7) 
which we all have to breathe in. _______________(8) and overfishing are killing off millions of animals, 
including whales, elephants and other _______________(9). In fact, all around us, all living things large 
and small which comprise our finely balanced _______________(10) are being systematically destroyed 
by human greed and thoughtlessness. 
There is a lot we can all do, however, to help prevent this. The easiest thing, of course, is to 
_______________(11) waste materialsuch as paper and glass so that we can use it again. We should also 
check that the things we buy from supermarkets are packaged in _______________(12) packaging which 
decomposes easily. At the same time, we should make a conscious effort to avoid foods which are 
_______________(13) (at least until someone proves that they are safe both for us and for the 
environment). If you are truly committed to protecting the environment, of course, you should only buy 
_______________(14) fruits and vegetables, safe in the knowledge that they have been naturally 
cultivated. Finally, of course, he should buy a small car that uses _______________(15) which is less 
harmful to the environment or, even better, make more use of public transport. 
The serious _______________(16), however, do much more. They are aware of the global issues 
involved and will actively involve themselves in _______________(17) by making sure our forests are kept 
safe for future generations. They will oppose activities which are harmful to animals, such as 
_______________(18). And they will campaign to keep the _______________(19) around our towns and 
cities free from new buildings. We cannot all be as committed as them, but we can at least do our own 
little bit at grass roots level. We, as humans, have inherited the earth, but that does not mean we can do 
whatever we like with it. 
 
97 
 
 
 
Social tensions 
 
 
I. Match each newspaper headline in the box with the first line of its accompanying story 
below. 
 
 
A. ILLEGAL ALIENS TO BE EXPELLED 
B. ETHNIC MINORITIES 'LIVING BELOW POVERTY LEVEL' 
C. HOMELESS SQUATTERS EVICTED 
D. INSTITUTIONAL RACISM STILL A PROBLEM 
E. INTERNALLY DISPLACED IN NEW GENOCIDE HORROR 
F. EXTREMISTS ACCUSED OF PROMPTING HOSTILITY 
G. UNREST, RIOTS AND ANARCHY CONTINUE 
H. REBELS VICTORIOUS IN LATEST POWER STRUGGLE 
I. DISCRIMINATION AND EXPLOITATION A MAJOR PROBLEM IN BRITISH INDUSTRY 
J. DISSIDENTS ASK AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT FOR POLITICAL ASYLUM 
 
 
 
_____ 1. Officers from the Thames Valley Police Force swooped on a house in Kidlington earlier this 
morning and forcibly removed a family who had been staying there illegally since they lost their 
home in August. 
_____ 2. Almost 50% of factory workers in national companies claim they have received bad treatment or 
have been taken advantage of because of their class, religion, race, language, color or sex, it 
has been revealed. 
_____ 3. The UN has accused the government of Zarislavia of further atrocities committed in the west of 
the country, where hundreds of migrants are reported to have been killed by security forces. 
_____ 4. Opponents of the government in Yugaria have asked to stay in Sydney because the political 
situation in their own country is making it unsafe for them to return. 
_____ 5. The police have once again been accused of discriminating against minority groups, despite their 
reassurances earlier this year that they had reformed their practices. 
_____ 6. Neo-Nazi groups in Paris were today condemned for inciting violence against non-whites in the 
centre of the city. 
_____ 7. A shocking survey has revealed that almost 30% of Asian and African racial groups living in 
London are suffering financial hardship. 
_____ 8. Following further devaluation of the Malovian dollar, violence has once again erupted on the 
streets of the capital. 
_____ 9. Groups fighting against the government of George Malikes in Livatia have succeeded in capturing 
and occupying the parliament building. 
_____ 10. The Government has ordered the immediate deportation of over 200 immigrants who entered 
the country without passports or visas last year. 
 
 
 
 
 
J. Match the words and expressions in the first box with a word or expression in the second 
box which is either the closest in meaning or which is normally associated with it. 
 
 
civil rights outcast prejudice 
ethnic cleansing picket line refugee 
harassment poverty-stricken rebel 
 
 
 
blackleg displaced person non-conformist 
destitute human rights racial purging 
discrimination intimidation rejected 
 
 
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98 
 
 
 
K. Now look at this news program and fill in the blanks with one of the words or expressions 
from exercises 1 and 2 above. In some cases, more than one answer may be possible. You 
may need to change the form of some of the words. 
 
 
Good evening. Here is the news. 
 
• Neo-Nazis and other _______________(1) have been held responsible for a wave of 
_______________(2) in the Bratilovan Republic, The United Nations estimates that over 20,000 people 
have been murdered there in the last six months. _______________(3) who have escaped from the 
country have asked the British government to grant them _______________(4) , as they fear for their 
safety if they have to return. 
 
• The government are to deport 500 _______________(5) whose visas have expired. Angry members of 
the opposition have accused the government of _______________(6), as most of the deportees are of 
African origin. Meanwhile, the police have been accused of _______________(7) , after Asian families 
in Bradford complained they had been pestered and worried by officers following a series of robberies 
in the city. 
 
• _______________(8) leaders in the USA have held a demonstration in Washington against the death 
penalty. They have called for a total abolition of capital punishment, claiming that it is contrary to basic 
_______________(9) principles outlined in the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights. 
 
• _______________(10) fighting the government of President Stanislow have taken control of the 
television station in the centre of the capital. This follows a long-standing _______________(11) . 
between Mr Stanislow and the principal opposition party which has seriously weakened his power. 
 
• A spokesman for the _______________(12) community in London has presented a petition to the 
government asking them to provide housing for everyone. He argues that the government's refusal to 
raise the minimum wage rate has resulted in thousands living in _______________(13) , with not 
enough money to pay for somewhere to live. Meanwhile, the Metropolitan Police evicted several 
_______________(14) who took over a house in the city centre last week and refused to leave until 
the government took positive action. 
 
• A recent survey reveals that at least 30% of public companies have been accused of 
_______________(15) and _______________(16) in the past year. The main offender is Anglo-
Amalgamated Telecommunications, a Bristol-based company. Their employees, many of them Asian 
women, claim they have received bad treatment or been taken advantage of by the company. 
 
• And finally, the Cardiff police are preparing for angry scenes at the Welsh International Computers 
factory tomorrow when _______________(17) , anxious to return to work after six months on strike, 
will attempt to break through the picket line. A senior officer has expressed his concern that there will 
be _______________(18) and people will get hurt as a result. 
 
99 
 
 
VOCABULARY – 3* 
 
Success & failure 
 
A. Match the first part of each sentence in the left-hand column with its second part 
in the right-hand column using an appropriate word from the central column. It 
is possible to use the words in the central column with more than one sentence. 
 
1. The two warring countries 
managed to... 
 
 
...secure... 
 
 
...accomplish... 
 
 
...attain... 
 
 
...achieve... 
 
 
...fulfil... 
 
 
...realise... 
 
 
...reach... 
...his ambitions of being 
promoted to marketing manager. 
2. During his first year as 
President he managedto... 
...my aims of doing well at 
school and then going to 
university. 
3. The company couldn't afford 
to move to new premises but 
were able to... 
...an agreement for a new 
lease. 
4. He worked hard at his job and 
was soon able to... 
...its targets - those of free 
education and healthcare – 
within eight years. 
5. The country badly needed to 
increase its overall standard of 
living and attempted to... 
...his obligations to his current 
employer. 
6. After four years of hard work, 
the motor racing team managed 
to... 
...their goal of becoming 
millionaires. 
7. He wanted to start a new job, 
but first of all he had to... 
...their dreams of winning the 
Monaco Grand Prix. 
8. Many people want to be rich 
but few... 
...a lot more than his 
predecessor had in the previous 
five. 
9. I have a lot of plans, and one 
of them is to... 
...a compromise over the terms 
for peace. 
 
 
B. Circle the correct answer. 
 
1. The People's Foundation Party decided to _______________ its plans to establish a coalition 
government with the Democratic Liberal Party. 
A. abate B. abandon C. abhor 
 
2. Peace talks between the two countries _______________, with neither side able to agree on terms. 
A. collapsed B. collaborated C. collared 
 
3. Progress in the talks _______________ when the inevitable impasse was reached. 
A. faulted B. faltered C. fondled 
 
4. Our planned visit to the Czech Republic _______________ because we were unable to get the visas. 
A. fell over B. fell down C. fell through 
 
5. The company _______________ with debts of over £1 million. 
A. faulted B. folded C. foiled 
 
6. Their plans to impose stricter import quotas when the European Bank declared their 
actions illegal _______________. 
A. mistook B. mislead C. misfired 
 
 
 
 
 
 
* Source: Check your vocabulary for IELTS. Rawdon Wyatt. Peter Collin Publishing. 2001. 
100 
 
 
Likes & dislikes 
 
C. Look at the words and expressions in the box and decide if they have a positive 
connotation (likes) or a negative connotation (dislikes). 
 
appeal to detest fond of passionate about 
attracted to dread keen on repel 
cannot bear disgust loathe revolt 
cannot stand fancy long for tempted by 
captivated by fascinated by look forward to yearn for 
 
 
D. Now look at these pairs of sentences. Sometimes, both sentences are right, 
sometimes one of them is wrong (either the construction is wrong or it does not 
sound natural). Decide which ones are right (R) and which ones are wrong (W). 
 
1. A. It was well-known that he was loathed by the other teachers. 
B. It was well-known that the other teachers loathed him. 
 
2. A. Sometimes I yearn for some time on my own. 
B. Sometimes some time on my own is yearned for. 
 
3. A. Sport is passionate about by a lot of people. 
B. A lot of people are passionate about sport. 
 
4. A. Animals are quite fond of by British people. 
B. British people are quite fond of animals. 
 
5. A. The first time I visited Venice, I was captivated by the city. 
B. The first time I visited Venice, the city captivated me. 
 
6. A. Going to the cinema tonight is fancied by me. 
B. I fancy going to the cinema tonight. 
 
7. A. From a young age, the idea of travelling was keen on me. 
B. From a young age I was keen on the idea of travelling. 
 
8. A. I look forward to hearing from you soon. 
B. To hearing from you soon I look forward. 
 
9. A. It is a well-known fact that students dread exams. 
B. It is a well-known fact that exams are dreaded by students. 
 
10. A. Most children long for the long summer holiday to arrive. 
B. The long summer holiday is longed for by most children. 
 
11. A. His sense of humor is appealed to by watching other people suffer. 
B. Watching other people suffer appeals to his sense of humor. 
 
12. A. Racism is really detested by me. 
B. I really detest racism. 
 
13. A. A lot of people cannot stand the long British winters. 
B. The long British winters cannot be stood by a lot of people. 
 
14. A. The idea of living in a cold country repels me. 
B. I am repelled by the idea of living in a cold country. 
101 
 
 
15. A. She was attracted to the tall, handsome man who had helped her. 
B. The tall, handsome man who had helped her attracted her. 
 
16. A. I have always been fascinated by information technology. 
B. Information technology has always fascinated me. 
 
17. A. Were you tempted by his offer of a job in Australia? 
B. Did his offer of a job in Australia tempt you? 
 
18. A. His mannerisms and habits disgusted me. 
B. I was disgusted by his mannerisms and habits. 
 
19. A. Bigoted, arrogant people revolt me. 
B. I am revolted by bigoted, arrogant people. 
 
20. A. Getting up early in the morning cannot be born by me. 
B. One thing I cannot bear is getting up early in the morning. 
 
 
Size, quantity & dimension 
 
E. Look at the following list and decide whether we are talking about something big 
(B) (in terms of size, quantity or dimension) or something small (S). 
 
_____ 1. a minute amount of dust 
_____ 2. a minuscule piece of cloth 
_____ 3. an enormous book 
_____ 4. a mammoth job 
_____ 5. a huge waste of time 
_____ 6. a gigantic wave 
_____ 7. a tiny car 
_____ 8. a monumental error 
_____ 9. a colossal statue 
_____ 10. plenty of food 
_____ 11. dozens of times 
_____ 12. a giant building 
 
_____ 13. a gargantuan meal 
_____ 14. a wide avenue 
_____ 15. a broad river 
_____ 16. a tall man 
_____ 17. a high mountain 
_____ 18. a deep lake 
_____ 19. a shallow pool 
_____ 20. a long-distance journey 
_____ 21. a vast crowd of supporters 
_____ 22. tons of work 
_____ 23. a great deal of time 
 
 
 
F. Now complete these sentences using one of the expressions above. In some 
cases, more than one answer is possible. 
1. Before you embark on _______________, it is essential that you be well-prepared. 
2. We spent _______________ working on the plans for the new library. 
3. I've told you _______________ not to smoke in here. 
4. _______________ must have blown into the camera and scratched the film. 
5. Villages along the coast were destroyed when _______________ caused by the earthquake 
swept houses into the sea. 
6. It was _______________ going there; he didn't even turn up. 
7. One of the Roman emperor Nero's greatest excesses was to build _______________ of 
himself in the city centre. 
8. Despite the poor harvest, there was _______________ for the whole population. 
9. _______________ called the Thames separates the city of London from the suburbs to the 
south. 
10. _______________ gathered to see their favourite football team. 
11. We ate _______________ and then lay down to rest. 
12. He was _______________ and his voice echoed around the walls. 
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102 
 
 
13. We have _______________ to do in the next few days, so I suggest we start as soon as 
possible. 
14. Loch Ness is _______________ in the Highlands of Scotland. 
15. The only evidence was _______________ which was stuck on a branch of one of the trees 
in the garden. 
16. 'Sumo' is _______________ containing almost 1,000 pictures by the controversial 
photographer Helmut Newton. 
17. He had _______________ to do, so took the phone off the hook, made himself some coffee 
and sat down at his desk. 
18. The Matterhorn _______________, in Switzerland, has claimed the lives of many who have 
tried to climb it. 
19. He made _______________ in his calculations and had to start all over again. 
20. The manufacturers have built _______________ which is ideal for getting around the city. 
21. The NEC in Birmingham is _______________ which is used for concerts and exhibitions.22. The main feature of the town is a _______________ lined with shops and cafes. 
23. I could see the key glittering at the bottom of _______________. 
 
 
Confusing words & false friends 
 
CONFUSING WORDS 
Confusing words are two or more words which have a similar meaning to each other but are 
used in a different way. OR Are related to the same topic, but have a different meaning. OR 
Look similar, but have a different meaning. 
 
FALSE FRIENDS 
False friends are words in English which have a similar-looking word in another language but 
which have a different meaning. 
 
G. Complete the following sentences with the appropriate word. 
 
1. action / activity 
The police took immediate _______________ when they realized the situation was getting out 
of hand. 
Economic _______________ stagnated as the recession took hold. 
 
 
2. actually / currently 
He may look young but he is _______________ 45. (in reality) 
They need more help than is _______________ available. (at present) 
 
 
3. advice / advise 
Can you _______________ me on the best course of action to take? 
He offered me some excellent _______________. 
 
4. affect/effect 
Cuts in spending will have a serious _______________ on the National Health Service. 
The strike will seriously _______________ train services. 
 
 
5. appreciable / appreciative 
There is an _______________ difference between manslaughter and murder. 
She was very _______________ of our efforts to help. 
 
 
 
103 
 
 
6. assumption /presumption 
They raised taxes on the _______________ that it would help control spending. 
It's sheer _______________ for the government to suggest things have improved since they 
came to power. 
 
 
7. assure / ensure / insure 
All the necessary steps had been taken to _______________ their safety. (guarantee) 
Mom _______________ us that everything would be all right. (comforted) 
It would be wise to _______________ your property against storm damage. 
 
 
8. beside / besides 
The office is just _______________ the railway station. 
_______________ their regular daytime job, many people do extra work in the evening. 
 
 
9. briefly /shortly 
_______________ before the conflict began, the army pulled down the border posts. 
The minister spoke _______________ about the need for political reform. 
 
 
10. channel /canal 
The television _______________ received a formal complaint about the program. 
The Suez _______________ was built in the second half of the nineteenth century. 
 
 
11. conscientious / conscious 
Most people are _______________ of the need to protect the environment. 
_______________ workers should be rewarded for their hard work. 
 
 
12. continual/ continuous 
A _______________ trade embargo has badly affected the economic infrastructure. 
The computer has given us _______________ problems ever since we installed it. 
 
 
13. control / inspect 
Environmental health officers regularly _______________ kitchens and other food preparation 
areas. 
The government plans to _______________ the price of meat to make sure it doesn't go up too 
much. 
 
 
14. criticism(s) / objection(s) 
They didn't raise any _______________ when we insisted on inspecting the figures. 
The government's plan was met with severe _______________. 
 
 
15. damage / injury / harm 
It was a severe _______________ which needed immediate hospital treatment. 
A lot of _______________ was caused to buildings along the coast during the storm. 
There's no _______________ in taking a break from your job now and then. 
 
 
16. discover / invent 
When did he _______________ the telephone? 
Did Alexander Fleming _______________ penicillin? 
104 
 
 
17. economic / economical 
She was brought up to be _______________ with the housekeeping money. 
We are faced with a deepening _______________ crisis. 
 
 
18. governor / ruler 
A _______________ with total power in a country is called an autocrat or a dictator. 
Arnold Schwarzenegger was the 38th _______________ of California. 
 
 
19. historic / historical 
This is the _______________ building where the peace treaty was signed. 
This town has many _______________ buildings. Actually, they badly need restoration. 
 
 
20. however/ moreover 
The plan was good in theory. _______________, in practice it was extremely difficult to 
implement. 
The plan was excellent. _______________, it was clear from the beginning that it was going to 
be a success. 
 
 
21. inconsiderate / inconsiderable 
An _______________ amount of money was wasted. 
_______________ behavior makes life unpleasant for everybody. 
 
 
22. indigenous / Indian(s) 
There were no snakes _______________ to the island. 
Located on tribal land in the Great Smoky Mountains, this non-profit organization tells the story 
of the Eastern Band of Cherokee _______________. 
 
 
23. intolerable /intolerant 
I consider his behavior to be quite _______________. 
The government is _______________ of other political parties. 
 
 
24. job / work 
Everybody has the right to a decent _______________ with good pay. 
Following the recession, many people are still looking for _______________. 
 
 
25. lay(s)/lie(s) 
The city of Quito _______________ near the equator. 
The manager made it clear he intended to _______________ down some strict rules. 
 
 
26. look at /watch 
We must _______________ the situation in Lugumba carefully, and be prepared to act if 
violence flares again. 
We need to _______________ the problem carefully and decide if there is anything we can do 
about it. 
 
 
27. permission / permit 
I'm afraid we can't _______________ photography in here. 
They received _______________ to attend the sessions as long as they didn't interrupt. 
105 
 
 
 
28. practice (verb AmE); practise (verb BrE) /practice (noun) 
It's important to _______________ your English whenever possible. 
You need more _______________ before you take the exam. 
 
 
29. priceless / worthless 
_________ paintings by artists like Van Gogh should not be in the hands of private collectors. 
As inflation spiraled out of control, paper money suddenly became _______________. 
 
 
30. principal(s) /principle(s) 
Many people refuse to eat meat on _______________. 
The _______________ of the college is an ardent non-smoker. 
The _______________ country's products are paper and wood. 
Not many people are familiar with the _______________ of nuclear physics. 
 
 
31. process / procession 
The _______________ made its way down the avenue. 
Applying for a visa can be a long and frustrating _______________. 
 
 
32. raise/rise 
As prices _______________, demand usually drops. 
In response to the current oil shortage, most airlines plan to _______________ their fares. 
 
 
33. respectable / respectful 
The _______________ delegates listened in silence as the chairman spoke. 
They want to bring up their children in an area which is considered to be _______________. 
 
 
34. specially / especially 
Crime is growing at a rapid rate, _______________ in urban areas. (mainly) 
I had this dress made _______________ for the wedding. (specifically) 
 
 
35. treat/cure 
Hospitals are so understaffed that they find it almost impossible to _______________ patients 
with minor injuries. 
They were unable to _______________ the disease, and hundreds died as a result. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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