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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem
Bioactive compounds of beetroot and utilization in food processing industry:
A critical review
Navnidhi Chhikaraa, Komal Kushwahaa, Paras Sharmab, Yogesh Gata, Anil Panghala,⁎
a Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Lovely Professional University, Punjab, India
bNational Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, India
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Beta vulgaris
Betalains
Natural colorant
Non-toxic
Food processing
A B S T R A C T
Beetroot is recognized as health promoting food due to presence of essential components such as vitamins,
minerals, phenolics, carotenoids, nitrate, ascorbic acids and betalains that promote health. Betalains occur in
two forms i.e. betacyanin (red-violet pigment) and betaxanthin (yellow-orange pigment) and are recognizable
commercially as a food dye due to non-precarious, non-toxic, non-carcinogenic and non-poisonous nature.
Beetroot is premeditated as a boon for the food industry and used as food colorant or additive in food products
such as ice-cream, yogurts and other products. The beetroot extract is used to improve the redness in tomato
pastes, soups, sauces, desserts, jams, jellies, sweets and breakfast cereals. Overall objective of this review is to
provide a brief knowledge about the valuable phytochemicals and bioactive compounds present in beetroot and
their association with health benefits, beetroot processing for food application and their effect on beetroot
pigment.
1. Introduction
Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) belongs to family Chenopodiaceae and
was originated in Asia and Europe. Chenopodiaceae family includes
approximately 1400 species divided into 105 genera (Chawla, Parle,
Sharma & Yadav, 2016) and the members of dicotyledonous family.
Beetroot is a flowering, true biennial or, rarely perennial plant and has
several varieties with bulk colors ranging from yellow to red (Gokhale
& Lele, 2014). Species of genus Beta are B. vulgaris ssp. maritima, B.
vulgaris ssp. vulgaris, B. vulgaris ssp. adanensis (Ford-Lloyd & Williams,
1975), B. macrocarpa, B. macrocarpa Guss., B. patula, B. patula Ait., B.
intermedia, B. intermedia Bunge, B. macrorhiza, B. macrorhiza Stev., B.
trygina, B. corolliflora, B. corolliflora Zoss., B. patellaris, B. patellarisMoq.,
B. procumbens, B. procumbens Chr. Sm., B. webbiana, B. webbiana Moq.,
B. tranzschel, B. lomatogona F., B. trigyna W. and B. nana Boiss
(Tranzschel, 1927; Ulbrich, 1934; Lange, Brandenburg & De Bock,
1999). Three subspecies of species B. vulgaris that are present com-
mercially are B. vulgaris, B. maritima and B. adanensis. B. vulgaris ssp.
vulgaris is most vital and known as the common beet/sugar beet/garden
beet commercially (Arnaud, Fenart, Cordellier & Cuguen, 2010). The
edible portion of beetroot (B. vulgaris L.) is the root, having an average
height of 1–2m; the main root is long, tapered, and stout; and side roots
form a dense texture. The roots are generally globe or cylindrical
shaped with red-purple/golden yellow/red-white in color depending on
the variety of the beets. Leaves of beetroot arise from the crown of
hypocotyl and are varied in size, shape and color. Seeds are known as
multi-germ seeds as one seed can give rise to more than one seedling.
Corky exterior of seed contains phenolic compounds and inhibit ger-
mination as physical barrier. Stems are decumbent, erect and multi
branched. The flower is very small with five petals (Kezi & Sumathy,
2014). Beets are available throughout the year. It is a cool season ve-
getable and a fairly tolerant to high temperature, optimum temperature
ranges from 15 to 19 °C. The lower temperature promotes the devel-
opment of deep red pigmentation in the beetroot (Yashwant, 2015).
Harvest time of beetroot is 75–90 days in summer and 100–120 days in
winter. The sugar content of beetroot depends on the nitrogen avail-
ability and nitrogen is applied in the early stages of growth. Harvesting
technique is similar to that of potatoes and the yield of harvesting de-
pends on the fertilization, climate, disease infestation and variety of the
plant (Yashwant, 2015).
Beets are vegetable that have world-wide distribution. World pro-
duction of beetroot was found to be 269,714 million tonnes in 2014.
France, produced 37,844,567 tonnes and the Russia produced
33,513,369 tonnes of beetroot in 2014, with other major producers are
Germany (29,748,100 tonnes), United States of America
(28,381,270 tonnes), Turkey (16,743,045 tonnes), Ukraine
(15,734,050 tonnes), Poland (15,488,875 tonnes), Egypt
(11,045,639 tonnes), United Kingdom (9,430,000 tonnes) and China
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.08.022
Received 21 February 2018; Received in revised form 4 August 2018; Accepted 6 August 2018
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: anilpanghal@gmail.com (A. Panghal).
Food Chemistry 272 (2019) 192–200
Available online 11 August 2018
0308-8146/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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(8,000,400 tonnes) respectively (Food & Agriculture Organization of
United Nations, 2014).
Beetroot is a root vegetable with carotenoids, nitrates, flavonoids,
vitamins, minerals such as potassium, sodium, phosphorous, calcium,
magnesium, copper, iron, zinc, manganese and water soluble pigments
betalains like betacyanins (red-violet color) and betaxanthins (yellow-
orange color), all of which have numerous nutritional and health ben-
efits (Panghal, Virkar, et al., 2017). Several researchers have reported
that beetroot is an important source of health promoting phytochem-
icals (Clifford, Howatson, West, & Stevenson, 2015). The polyphenols,
carotenoids and vitamins of beetroot have antioxidant, anti-in-
flammatory, anticarcinogenic and hepato-protective activities (Slavov
et al., 2013) and also have anti-diabetic, cardiovascular disease low-
ering, hypertensive and wound healing benefits. Therefore, utilization
of beetroot as an ingredient in different food products imparts bene-
ficial effects on human health and provides opportunity for develop-
ment of different functional foods.
1.1. Historical background
Plant foods are vital to human survival. During the third century,
beetroot was used for food and beverages although they had been
grown for thousands of years for medicinal purposes. According to the
written records in Europe, beetroot were cultivated prior to the tenth
century (Yashwant, 2015). It originated in 8th century from Mesopo-
tamia and was indigenous to Asia Minor and Europe. Several varieties
of beetroot such as yellow beets were originated in 1700 s and sugar
beets were developed by Prussians in the 1800 s (Chawla et al., 2016).
Now, red beets are more popular and these are native to the Medi-
terranean region. These are widely cultivated in Europe, America and
throughout Asia (Chawla et al., 2016; Zohary et al., 2012).
1.2. Varieties of beetroot
There are four main varieties of beetroot including, Detroit Dark
Red, Crimson Globe, Crosby Egyptian and Early Wonder. Detroit Dark
Red beetroot has smooth roots, uniform, with dark red flesh. Crimson
Globe beetroots have little shoulders; flesh is medium dark red with
diverse zones. Crosby Egyptian beetroot is a flat globe and internal
color is dark purplish red with indistinct zones. Their maturity reaches
in 55–60 days after sowing. Early Wonder root is flattened and the in-
terior flesh is dark red with some lighter red zones. The topmost is
heavy green leaves with red veins globe having rounded shoulders with
a smooth texture (Chawla et al., 2016).
2. Nutritional composition of beetroot
Vegetables contain significant amount of essential nutrients like
vitamins,
minerals, fibers; phytochemicals and health promoting ben-
efits (Panghal, Kumar, et al., 2017). Beetroot is one of the important
roots vegetable and rich in carbohydrates, fat, protein, micronutrients
and several functional constituents having substantial health-promoting
properties. Beetroot processing and products consumption is increasing
steadily due to its recognition as an important source of natural anti-
oxidants.
2.1. Macronutrients
Studies have shown that the nutritional composition of fresh beet-
root varies due to different varieties, genetics, ecological conditions and
harvesting conditions. Early studies reported that beetroot contains
carbohydrates (9.96 g/100 g) such as starch, fructose, sucrose, glucose,
dietary fiber; protein (1.68 g/100 g), fat (0.18 g/100 g) and leaves also
contain carbohydrates (5 g/100 g), starch (4.5 g/100 g) and protein
(14.8 mg/100 g) (Agarwal & Varma, 2014; Richardson, 2014). Beetroot
contain the considerable amount of both essential and non-essential
amino acids. These are tryptophan (0.019 g), isoleucine (0.048 g), leu-
cine (0.068 g), lysine (0.058 g), threonine (0.047 g), methionine
(0.018 g), phenylalanine (0.046 g), tyrosine (0.038 g), valine (0.056 g),
cystine (0.019 g), arginine (0.042 g), histidine (0.021 g), alanine
(0.060 g), glutamic acid (0.428 g), glycine (0.031 g), proline (0.042 g),
aspartic acid (0.116 g) and serine (0.059 g) per 100 g of edible portion
(Nemzer et al., 2011). Beetroot contains total saturated fatty acids
(0.027 g), total monounsaturated fatty acids (0.032 g), total poly-
unsaturated fatty acids (0.060 g) and phytosterols (25mg) per 100 g of
edible portion (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2014).
2.2. Micronutrients
Micronutrients are comprised of vitamins and minerals. Early stu-
dies reported that beetroot contains various type of vitamins such as
vitamin A (2 µg), thiamine (0.31mg), riboflavin (0.27mg), niacin
(0.331mg), pantothenic acid (0.145mg), vitamin B6 (0.067mg), as-
corbic acid (3.6 mg), folate (80 µg) and minerals such as sodium
(77mg), calcium (16mg), iron (0.79 mg), phosphorus (38mg), po-
tassium (305mg), magnesium (23mg) and zinc (0.35 mg) per 100 g of
edible portion (Yashwant, 2015). Furthermore, beet leaves are more
nutritious than beetroots. Beetroot leaves contains vitamins such as
vitamin A (3.93mg), vitamin K (280mg) and minerals includes calcium
(2220mg), iron (16.90 mg), magnesium (350mg), potassium
(1400mg) and phosphorus (330mg) per 100 g. These are used to re-
duce blood pressure, important for cardiovascular health and act as a
tool to fight against cancer. A recent study also observed the effec-
tiveness of protein extraction (Agarwal & Varma, 2014); biochemical
screening of beetroot leaf (Maraie, Abdul-Jalil, Alhamdany & Janabi,
2014) and the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of the beet plant
extracts (Richardson, 2014).
3. Bioactive compounds in beetroot
Beetroot contains highly active pigments, betalains (Guldiken et al.,
2016), ascorbic acid (Clifford et al., 2015), carotenoids (Ninfali &
Angelino, 2013), polyphenols, flavonoids, saponins and high levels of
nitrate (644–1800mg/kg) (Lidder & Webb, 2013). Some bioactive
compounds have been found at low levels such as glycine, betaine and
folate. The bioactive compounds identified by researchers (Wootton-
Beard & Ryan, 2011; Clifford et al., 2015), are presented in Fig. 1 and
their structures are presented in Fig. 2.
3.1. Phenolic compounds
Phenolic compounds are a large class of plant subordinate meta-
bolites and significant for quality of plant based foods. Beetroot has
high amount of phenolic compounds and flavonoids. The total content
of phenolic acids in beetroot has been reported to be 50–60 μmol/g dry
weight (Kathiravan, Nadanasabapathi & Kumar, 2014). In addition,
beetroot peel have the second highest dry weight concentration of total
phenols. The highly unstable phenolic compounds isolated from the
peel of the red beetroot were 5,50,6,60-tetrahydroxy-3,30-biindolyl; a
dimer of 5,6-dihydroxyindolecarboxylic acid and betalains comprised
of vulgaxanthin I, vulgaxanthin II, indicaxanthin, prebetanin, iso-
betanin, betanin and neobetanin. In addition, two phenolic amides N-
trans-feruloyltyramine and N-trans-feruloylhomovanillylamine were
isolated from the seed wall of beetroot (Nemzer et al., 2011). Beta
vulgaris var. cicla was reported to enclose a significant quantity of hy-
droxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, the two major
classes of phenolics acids. These phenolic acids are epicatechin, ca-
techin hydrate, rutin, vanillic, p-coumaric, protocatechuic, caffeic acid,
syringic acids, proline and the monoterpenedehydro-vomifoliol (Maraie
et al., 2014). Phenolic compounds were recognized in betalain extracts
from intact B. vulgaris cv. Detroit Dark Red plants extract contains 4-
hydroxybenzoic acid (0.012mg/g), chlorogenic acid (0.018mg/g),
N. Chhikara et al. Food Chemistry 272 (2019) 192–200
193
caffeic acid (0.037mg/g), catechin hydrate (0.047mg/g), epicatechin
(0.032mg/g) and rutin (0mg/g), whereas extract of hairy root cultures
possess 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (0.396mg/g), chlorogenic acid (0.0 mg/
g), caffeic acid (0.203mg/g), catechin hydrate (0.372mg/g), epica-
techin (0.857mg/g) and rutin (1.096mg/g) (Georgiev et al., 2010).
The phenolic contents were quantified in Detroit beetroot pomace ex-
tract using the HPLC results showed that ferulic acid (132.52 mg), va-
nillic acid (5.12 mg), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (1.13mg), caffeic acid
(7.11 mg), Protocatechuic acid (5.42 mg), catechin (37.96mg), epica-
techin (0.39mg) and rutin (0.25 mg) per 100 g of dry weight of beetroot
pomace. Health benefits of these phenolic compounds are briefed in
Table 1. Vasconcellos and co-workers (Vasconcellos et al., 2016) com-
pared the total phenolic content in beetroot juice, chips, powder and
cooked beetroot. Root parts generally contain the least content of
phenolic compounds. Beetroot juice (3.67 GAEmg/g) and cooked
beetroot (2.79 GAEmg/g) were reported to possess higher total phe-
nolic content values than beetroot chips (0.75 GAEmg/g) and powder
(0.51 GAEmg/g) due to loss of compounds during drying process.
3.1.1. Flavanoids
Flavonoids are the biologically active compounds with good anti-
oxidant potential and numerous health benefits (Chhikara et al., 2018).
Vulic et al. (2014) reported that the main classes of flavonoids in
beetroot were betagarin, betavulgarin, cochliophilin A, and dihy-
droisorhamnetin. Two flavanones were isolated from beetroot leaves,
the betagarin (5,2-dimethoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavanone) and beta-
vulgarin (2′-hydroxy-5-methoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyisoflavone). Other
flavonoid compounds separated from beetroots were 3,5-dihydroxy-
6,7-methylenedioxyflavanone, 5-hydroxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavone,
2,5-dihydroxy-6, and 7-methylenedioxyisoflavone (Lim, 2016). The
ethyl acetate fraction of B. vulgaris ssp. perennis reported were quer-
cetin, rutin and 4′-hydroxy-5-methoxy-6,7-methylenedioxy flavanone
(Maraie et al., 2014).
3.1.2. Saponins
Saponins are bioactive compounds produced by plants to counteract
pathogens and herbivores. Early studies identified eleven triterpene
saponins in the B. vulgaris. All the saponins were including oleanolic
acid derivatives. Betavulgarosides I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII saponins
were identified from root whereas betavulgarosides I, II, III, IV, V, IX,
and X saponins were identified in the leaves (Mroczek, Kapusta, Janda
& Janiszowska, 2012; Lim, 2016). Mikolajczyk-Bator et al. (2016) also
reported that 26 triterpene saponins were characterized in beetroots in
which 17 triterpene saponins had not been previously reported in
beetroots and 7 triterpene saponins were identified as new compounds.
3.2. Phytochemicals
Phytochemicals in peel extract were found to be 5,5,6,6-tetra-
hydroxy-3,3-biindolylandin, in the aerial parts of B. vulgaris cicla were
norisoprenoids (+)-dehydrovomifoliol and 3-hydroxy-5α,6α-epoxy-
β–ionone (Lim, 2016). Poly 3-hydroxyalkanoate
component was iso-
lated from beetroot which was composed of 3-hydroxybutyrate with a
molecular weight (Mn=9,124 Da) and polydispersity index (PDI)
equals 1.01 (Lim, 2016). Beetroot leaves contain beetins which are
virus-inducible type 1 ribosome-inactivating proteins (Iglesias, Citores,
Di Maro & Ferreras, 2015) and are composed of a single polypeptide
chain with a varying degree of glycosylation. These compounds are of
great significance in health of human being due to physiological action
on human body (Table 1).
3.3. Betalains
Betalains are water-soluble nitrogenous plant pigments. Two beta-
lains i.e. betacyanin (red pigment) and betaxanthin (yellow pigment)
compounds has been on the basis of their chemical structures and
compositions. Beetroot is one of the richest sources of betanin pigment,
used for imparting a desirable red or yellow color. The varieties and
redness of beetroot depend on the ratio of betacyanin and betaxanthins
(Szopinska & Gawęda, 2013). Betaxanthin is further categorized into
two types i.e. vulgaxanthin-I and vulgaxanthin-II (Ravichandran et al.,
2013). Several betacyanins were found in the peel of beetroots such as
betanin, prebetanin, isobetanin, and neobetanin (Nemzer et al., 2011).
About 75–95% betanin of the total betacyanin are considered as active
Fig. 1. Bioactive compound in beetroot (Ninfali and Angelino, 2013; Clifford et al., 2015).
N. Chhikara et al. Food Chemistry 272 (2019) 192–200
194
compounds of beetroot. Betalain synthesis process initiates from tyr-
osine. The massive accumulation of tyrosine (hydroxylated by tyrosine
hydroxylase) produces dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) which is con-
verted to the cycloDOPA by the diphenol/DOPA oxidase activity of
tyrosinase catalyzes. The betalamic acid is formed by the cleavage of
the aromatic ring of DOPA (Hatlestad et al., 2012). Betacyanin is
formed by condensation of cycloDOPA with betalamic acid and betax-
anthin is obtained by condensation of an amino acid with betalamic
acid. Betacyanins are non-glycosylated betanidin or isobetanidin chro-
mophores. The whole biosynthesis process involves two key enzymes
tyrosinase and DOPA. Early study analyzed the betalain content in
betalain extracts from hairy root cultures and intact B. vulgaris cv. De-
troit Dark Red plants. The intact beetroot plant extracts produced
39.76 ± 0.98mg/g of dry extract (DE) of betalains (20.75mg/g of DE
betacyanins and 19.01mg/g of DE betaxanthins), whereas hairy root
extract contained 47.11mg of betalains/g DE (16.33mg/g DE beta-
cyanins and 30.78mg/g DE betaxanthin). The extracts from hair roots
had higher betalain content as compared to intact B. vulgaris cv. Detroit
Dark Red plants (Georgiev et al., 2010). The data for individual betalain
content in pressed juice from beetroot were found to be vulgaxanthin-I
(104.1 mg/100 g), vulgaxanthin-II (57.4mg/100 g), betanin
(312.5 mg/100 g), isobetanin (71.3mg/100 g), betanidin (18.2mg/
100 g) and isobetanidin (4.6 mg/100 g). The total betalain content was
found to be 606.34mg/100 g dry matter (Slavov et al., 2013).
3.4. Carotenoids
Carotenoids are a group of phytochemicals that are liable for dif-
ferent colors of the fruits and vegetables, playing a vital role in the
prevention of mortal diseases. Carotenoids present in beetroot act as
antioxidant, anticarcinogens and immuno-enhancers (Table 1). Car-
otenoids widely spread in beetroot are potent antioxidants. They have
been reported to have mutagenesis inhibition activity responsible for
decreased risks of cancer (Sardana et al., 2018). Beetroot leaves contain
β-carotene and oxygenated derivatives known as xanthophyll such as
lutein. Rebecca et al. (2014) reported 1.9mg/100 g of carotene in
Fig. 2. Structures of Phytochemicals Presents in Beetroot.
N. Chhikara et al. Food Chemistry 272 (2019) 192–200
195
beetroot.
4. Antioxidant activity
Beetroot is a gold mine of antioxidants like many other colored
vegetables (Singh & Hathan, 2014; Guldiken et al., 2016). Fidelis et al.
(2017) demonstrated that beetroot juice (5.45 pH, 9 °Brix) possess
higher amount of total phenolics (1169mg GAE/L), flavonoids (925mg
catechin equivalent/L) and pigments (854mg/L) accounting for better
antioxidant profile observed in terms of DPHH (325mg ascorbic acid
equivalent/L) as compared to citrus fruits, yellow passion fruit, apple
and cranberry. Betanin with its aglyconebetanidine have been found to
have great antioxidant activity (Wootton-Beard & Ryan, 2011) and
found to be effective in preventing lipid peroxidation (Kathiravan et al.,
2014). Vasconcellos et al. (2016) reported total antioxidant activity of
beetroot chips (95.70%), beetroot powder (95.31%), cooked beetroot
(85.79%) and beetroot juice (80.48%). There was no significant dif-
ference between beetroot chips and beetroot powder and their values
were higher than cooked beetroot and beetroot juice.
5. Health benefits of beetroot
Beetroot contains bundle of bioactive compounds accounting for
natural antianemic, anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive, antioxidant,
anticarcinogenic, antipyretic, antibacterial, detoxicant and diuretic
properties (Hobbs, George & Lovegrove, 2013; Lidder & Webb, 2013).
Table 1
Uses and health benefits of bioactive compounds present in different varieties of beetroot.
Compounds Plant
parts
Uses and health benefits Source
Phenolic compounds:
N-cis-Feruloyl 3-o-methyldopamine, N-cis-
Feruloyltyramine, N-trans-Feruloyl 3-o-methyldopamine,
N-trans-Feruloyltyramine,
5,50,6,60-tetrahydroxy-3,30-biindolyl, Coumarins
(scopoletin, esculetin, umbelliferone, peonidin,
cyanidins)
Seed,
Peel
Contribution to stress resistance, Antimicrobial properties,
Antiviral activity, Anti-inflammatory activity, Antitumor activity,
Anticancer activity
Nemzer et al. (2011)Maraie
et al. (2014)
Ascorbic acid Root,
Leaf
Enhance the human immune defense system by enhancing the
random migration of human polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes to the
site of infection.
Clifford et al. (2015)
Flavonoids:
Betagarin, betavulgarin, cochliophilin A, quercetin,
dihydroisorhamnetin, rutin, tiliroside, astragalin,
rhamnocitrin, rhamnetin, kaempferol
Root,
Leaf, Peel
Antioxidants activities, Antibacterial activity, Antiviral activity,
Anti-inflammatory activity, Hepato-protective activity, Anticancer
activity
Slavov et al. (2013), Vulic et al.
(2014)
Carotenoids Root,
Leaf
Their role in the prevention of chronic diseases such as CVD,
Cancer, HIV and Osteoporosis,
It act as anticarcinogens and immunoenhancers
• Pro-vitamin A Activity• Antioxidant function• Xenobiotics/Drug metabolism
Rebecca et al. (2014)
Betalains:
Betacyanin (betanin, prebetanin, isobetanin and
neobetanin) Betaxanthin (vulgaxanthin-I, vulgaxanthin-
II and indicaxanthin)
Root The important role in chemoprevention against lung and skin
cancers.
To regulate the vascular homeostasis
Nowacki et al. (2015), Hobbs
et al. (2013), Ravichandran
et al. (2014)
Nitrate Root Maintains NO mediated vasodilatation in hypoxic condition,
Protect from ischemic-reperfusion injury in liver, heart, brain and
kidney
Reduce pulmonary hypertension
Improve whole body exercise efficiency
Gilchrist et al. (2013)
Saponins:
Oleanolic acid, Hedrageninaglycone, betavulgarosides I,
II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, and X
Root,
Leaf
Biological effects on:
Cell membrane permeability, Cholesterol metabolism, Protein
digestion, Transverse-tubular system and sarcoplasmic reticulum
membrane
Biological properties includes:
Virucidal activity, Hypolipideamicactivity, Hypoglycemic activity,
Antifungal activity and Antimicrobial activity
Mroczek et al. (2012), Lim
(2016)
Ferulic acid Root Biomedical effects including
Antioxidant, antiallergic, hepatoprotective, anticarcinogenic, anti-
inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, vasodilatory effect,
antithrombotic
and helps to increase the viability of sperms
Kumar and Pruthi (2014)
Taurine Leaf Preventing the serum cholesterol, liver cholesterol, triglycerides &
reduced lipid accumulation.
Schalinske and Smazal
(2012)
Triterpenes/Steroid:
Beta-amirin acetate, Boehmerylacetate, Friedelin
Leaf,
Root
Health benefits of Triterpenes by inhibiting or slowing down
growth of cancer, colon cancer, breast cancer, oral mucosa cancer,
HIV, hepatoprotective, inflammatory response, antioxidant
activities, antibacterial activities, analgesic and anti-nociceptive
and anxiolytic
Mroczek et al. (2012)Lim
(2016)
Sesquiterpenoids:
6-myoporol, 4-hydroxy dehydro-myoporone,
Ipomeamarone.
Root Several mechanisms are proposed for the reduction of
inflammation, tumorigenesis and also responsible for prevention of
neurodegeneration, antimigraine activity, analgesic and sedative
activities and treatment of ailments such as diarrhoea, flu, and
burns
Chadwick, Trewin, Gawthrop
and Wagstaff (2013)
Alkaloid:
CalystegineB1, Calystegine B2, Calystegine C1,
Calystegine B3, Ipomine
Root,
Leaf
Reversible alterations in the estrous cycle pattern and
antiprosgesterogenic activity
Lim (2016)
N. Chhikara et al. Food Chemistry 272 (2019) 192–200
196
These properties expressed by different parts of the beetroot plant and
are presented in Table 1.
Betalains possess a broad spectrum of therapeutic, anticarcinogenic,
hepato-protective and antitumor properties (Wootton-Beard et al.,
2011) by insulating the injured tissue and had no obvious consequences
towards normal cell lines (Nowacki et al., 2015). The aspect of betalains
pigments in chemoprevention of lung and skin cancers were demon-
strated and reported that it can obstruct the cell proliferation of various
human tumors cells. The flavonoids present in beetroot such as vitexin,
vitexin-2-O-rhamnosideand vitexin-2-O-xyloside exhibited excellent
antiproliferative activity on cancer cell lines (Slavov et al., 2013). They
exert anticarcinogenic activities, reduce inflammatory response slightly
and modulate immune response (Iglesias et al., 2015).
The nitrates present in beetroot have capability to lower down the
blood pressure, protect against ischemia-reperfusion damage and
modulation of mitochondrial function (Satyanand et al., 2014). It re-
duces the bad cholesterol, oxidized LDL cholesterol and normalizes the
blood pressure (Guldiken et al., 2016). Beetroot extracts have anti-
hypertensive and hypoglycaemic activity (Ninfali & Angelino, 2013).
Function of betalains is to reduce the homocysteine concentration
(Machha & Schechter, 2011) which regulates the vascular homeostasis,
maintains platelet function, thrombotic activity, vascular tone and de-
licate stability among the release of vasodilating and vasoconstricting
agents. The risk factor of endothelial dysfunction is cardiovascular
disorders which implicated in hypertension and atherosclerosis (Krajka-
Kuzniak, Szaefer, Ignatowicz, Adamska, & Baer-Dubowska, 2012).
Eating beetroot in diet reduces the chances of inflammation (an
innate response including infection, erythema, edema, trauma, fever
and pain that causes due to cell damage by the antigens) (Monteiro &
Azevedo, 2010). Betalains extracts guard slim lining of one’s blood
vessels and diminish the inflammation while current pharmacological
therapies are associated with adverse side effects (Miraj, 2016). The
anti-inflammatory effect of beetroot ethanolic extract on gentamicin-
induced nephrotoxicity was elucidated (El Gamal, et al., 2014). The
water, after boiling beetroot is an excellent application for skin infec-
tion and outbreaks of pimples and pustules. Beetroot is healthy boost
for the entire digestive system. The potential mechanism is based on
significant reduction of cleaved caspase 3, Bax and increased Bcl-2
protein expression (El Gamal et al., 2014). Red beet provides phyto-
chemicals that stimulate the hematopoietic, immune system, kidney
and liver protection (Miraj, 2016).
Phytochemicals present in beetroot are beneficial in reducing age-
associated oxidative stress as well as maintain the cognitive functions
like perception, learning, communication and decision-making.
Beetroot is a nitric oxide (NO) generator having potential to improve
cerebrovascular flow (Presley et al., 2011). It has been reported that
dietary nitrate (NO3−) supplementation affect cerebral haemodynamics
(Haskell et al., 2011), enhance neurovascular coupling in response to
visual stimuli and improve perfusion to brain areas which associated
with executive function (Presley et al., 2011; Aamand et al., 2013). The
consumption of beetroot enhanced the plasma nitrate level about 96%
(Satyanand et al., 2014). Some nitrite is converted into nitric oxide
when swallowed into the acidic medium of the stomach, whereas re-
main nitrite is absorbed to proliferate circulating plasma nitrite (Wylie
et al., 2013).
The beetroot juice is good for the skin and a mixture of little vinegar
to beet juice clears dandruff, relieve running sores and ulcers. It also
comprises high amounts of boron which is directly related to the pro-
duction of human sex hormones. The dietary supplementation with
beetroot juice, positively impact the biological responses to exercise
and improves the cardiovascular health (Wylie et al., 2013). These
properties are due to prompt of endogenous synthesis of nitric oxide
(Gilchrist et al., 2013). Beetroot juice is reported to help in purification
of the blood and identified as a great blood builder being rich in iron
content, regenerates and reactivates the red blood cells and delivers
fresh oxygen to the body (Coles & Clifton, 2012). Beetroot contains
macronutrient and micronutrient that are responsible for excellent
physiological properties. Folic acid present in beetroot helps to prevent
cancer and with vitamin B cooperation contributes to the proper
functioning of the nervous system (Szekely et al., 2016). The regular
consumption of beetroot products in the food protects against oxidative
stress-related ailments and maintains good digestion (Chandran, Nisha,
Singhal & Pandit, 2012). The copper content in beetroot helps to make
the iron more available to the body. Beetroot used as a treatment for
fevers and constipation (Yashwant, 2015).
Pharmacological research by many researchers advised that beet-
root was effective and advantageous in the treatment of various ail-
ments. Furthermore, anti-stress, anti-anxiety and anti-depressive effects
of beetroot extract of leaves were investigated in mice. It exhibits an-
xiolytic and antidepressant activity in stressed mice along with the good
antioxidant property. Uridine, extracted by sugar beetroot can be used
with omega-3 to overwhelmed or prevent depression by changing mood
and relaxing the body (Sulakhiya et al., 2016; Miraj, 2016). The anti-
viral, antimicrobial effects (Slavov et al., 2013) and antiradical activ-
ities (Ciz et al., 2010; Slavov et al., 2013) of betalains pigments have
been reported. Saponins of beetroot has effective impact on different
human cancers such as prostate, renal, breast, colon, lung, leukemia
and melanoma (Podolak et al., 2010).
6. Beetroot processing for food application
The global functional foods and beverages market value was 129.39
billion USD in 2015 and is growing at a CAGR (compound annual
growth rate) of about 8.6% (Panghal, Janghu, et al., 2018). Beetroot
usage for food application have been investigated by various re-
searchers and food industries due to prevailing effect of their color,
flavor and nutritional aspect (Table 2) making it a super food and a
miracle vegetable. Deep red-colored beets are used as a food source for
humans, both raw as salad and cooked as stews. Beetroot is consumed
throughout the world. In Eastern Europe, beetroot soup is a popular
meal and pickled beets are a traditional food of the South America.
Nowadays large proportion of beetroot is being used commercially in
the production of pickles. Small proportions of beetroot are utilized as
juice (Yashwant, 2015). In Australian sandwiches, beetroots are com-
monly found. Fresh leaves and stem of beetroot are steamed and eaten
and older stems are stir-fried. Beetroot can be considered as a re-
placement of
synthetic colorants (Slavov et al., 2013) and can become a
marketing tool in the food industry. Consumers are also favoring for
green consumerism with fewer synthetic additives (Yadav et al., 2014).
Natural colorants are regarded as safe substances for consumption.
Therefore natural colorants are more anticipated than synthetic col-
orant for commercial application as food additives. Synthetic colorants
have negative effects on the human health, causes allergy and have
carcinogenic response on prolonged consumption (Panghal, Yadav,
Khatkar, Sharma & Chhikara, 2018). Natural colors are water-soluble
facilitating their incorporation into aqueous food systems. Along with
this natural food colorants are more attractive, improve visual acuity
properties and have potential health effects due to potent antioxidants.
The beets are prevailing in two primary forms for foods and beverage
manufacturers: ground dehydrated beets and beet juices. Dehydrated
beets grounded into a powder and beet juices can be spray dried into
powder form (Georgiev et al., 2010; Kazimierczak et al., 2014). Fresh
beetroot or beetroot powder or extracted pigments are used to advance
the red color of tomato pastes, soups, sauces, desserts, jams, jellies,
sweets ice-cream, and breakfast cereals (Singh & Hathan, 2014; Sruthi
et al., 2014).
Beetroot juice is utilized to coloring a variety of foods like dairy
products, yogurts, processed cheese, and candy. It changes color on
thermal treatment so it is used only in ice-cream, sweets, and another
confectionary. It may be implemented in the mayonnaise recipe, either
raw or freeze-dried form, in the place of synthetic antioxidants (Szekely
et al., 2016; Raikos et al., 2016). The dietary supplementation with
N. Chhikara et al. Food Chemistry 272 (2019) 192–200
197
beetroot juice enhances the tolerance to high-intensity exercises and
physical activities (Satyanand et al., 2014). Beetroot colors has no al-
lergic or other side-effects and also cheap. In various studies beetroot
was utilized for manufacturing different food products are discussed in
Table 2.
Sugar beets are used for manufacturing of sugar and their byproduct
such as pulp, molasses, fiber etc, are used as feed. When sugar beetroot
is grown in areas of livestock production, greens of the plant may also
be used for fodder. The highly complicated process of sugar production
is started with fluming, flushing and ended with the refinery and the
end products of this process are sugar, molasses, and bagasse. Molasses
are used for alcohol production and in other forms of fermentation
(Tsialtas & Maslaris, 2010; Wenninger, 2011). Fiber is normally the
remainder, i.e., (bagasse-moisture-sucrose and other soluble solids-ash).
7. Effects of processing on bioactive compounds
The processing methods have a significant impact on antioxidant
activity and bioaccessibility of phytochemicals. Beetroot processing
such as vacuum-microwave drying, fermentation and irradiation en-
hance the antioxidant capacity and pigment stabilization while hot air
drying decreases the color retention (Latorre, Narvaiz, Rojas &
Gerschenson, 2010; Gokhale and Lele, 2011). The factors influencing
the stability of antioxidants or betalains pigment during processing and
storage are pH, temperature, water activity oxygen, metals and ion
radiation (Fig. 3). The first order reaction of betanine degradation has
been confirmed (Wootton-Beard et al., 2011; Guldiken et al., 2016).
7.1. pH
The optimum stability of betalains was demonstrated at pH range
from 3 to 7 suggesting its use in different food formulations especially
in acidic foods. Betalains are stable in extracts at 5 pH, however, below
pH 3, the color of betanin moves towards violet and above pH 7, color
shift towards blue due to longer wavelength (Wootton-Beard et al.,
2011). Betanin is degraded at alkaline condition by hydrolysis of aldi-
mine bond producing ferulic acid with an amine group. Betanin de-
gradation rate was found to be three-fold higher at pH 3 than pH 5
under fluorescent light. It was found that betalain was more stable
between pH 5.5 and 5.8 in the presence of oxygen. Under anaerobic
conditions, betalain was stable at 4–5 pH (Manchali, Murthy, Nagaraju
& Neelwarne, 2013, Ravichandran et al., 2014; Paciulli, Medina-Meza,
Chiavaro & Barbosa-Cánovas, 2016).
7.2. Water activity
Water activity controls the rate of bio-chemical conversion. Water
activity affects the betalain stability by controlling the water-dependent
hydrolytic reactions for aldimine bond cleavage. Decrease in water
activity (below 0.63) during different processing treatments like spray
drying and concentration enhance the betalains stability (Kearsley &
Katsaboxakis, 1980). Raise in water activity from 0.32 to 0.75 enhances
the rate of betalain degradation. However in encapsulated beetroot
pigment, highest degradation of betanin occured at aw 0.64 (Serris &
Biliaderis, 2001).
7.3. Temperature
Thermal processing is usually used in development of different
processed products. Temperature affects betalains stability and increase
in temperature results in betalains degradation as well as degradation
of PPO (polyphenol oxidase) enzymes. However, thermal degradation is
also affected by temperature range, heating extent, oxygen presence,
and concentration of pigments (Herbach et al., 2006).
7.4. Light
Color are oxidized and degraded in presence of light. There is a
reverse relationship between light intensity in the range 2200–4400 lux
and betalain stability. Immersion of light in the UV and visible range
excites electrons of the betalain chromophore to a more energetic state,
initiating higher reactivity or lowered activation energy of the mole-
cule. However, light effect is negligible under anaerobic conditions
(Manchali et al., 2013; Ravichandran et al., 2014; Paciulli et al., 2016).
7.5. Metal
Some metal cations were identified to facilitate or accelerate be-
tanin degradation, such as iron, copper, tin, and aluminum etc. Early
study indicates that beetroot juice is less vulnerable to the metal ions
Table 2
Beetroot based food products and their processing.
Food products Ingredients used and processing methods Sources
Yoghurt Skimmed milk was preheated at 80–85 °C for 15min, cooled at 42–45 °C then inoculated and
incubated for 12 h and refrigerated. The colored yoghurt was prepared by adding beetroot
powder into the yoghurt at different concentration levels (0, 6, 8 and 10%) and stored at 4 °C
Yadav et al. (2016)
Ice-cream Beetroot juice was included in the production of strawberry flavored ice-cream and stored. Ice
cream was prepared by the raw materials, milk (5% fat), butter (80% fat) and skimmed milk
powder. Milk was preheated 55–60 °C, skim milk powder, butter, stabilizer were added and
hemogenized to 2500 and 500 psi then pasteurized at 80 °C for 30 s, cooled overnight, reheated
and beetroot juice was mixed.
Manoharan, Ramasamy, Kumar, Dhanalashmi
and Balakrishnan (2012)
Beetroot jelly Jelly was successfully developed by adding 2% pectin, 0.5% citric acid, and 61% sugar in the
clear beetroot extract while heating. Heating was continued with constant stirring uptill the TSS
reached to 65° Brix and desired consistency was reached.
Chaudhari and Nikam (2015)
Beetroot Candy Beetroot candy was prepared with 65% sugar, 3% pectin and 0.5% citric acid. Beetroot paste was
first heated to boil with sugar and pectin was added to the boiling paste and was continuously
stirred. The paste was then heat desiccated for 55min with continuous stirring and at the end
point of desired consistency citric acid was added. Finally it was allowed to cool to ambient
temperature and the thick paste was rolled into candies of desired shape
Fatma, Sharma, Singh, Jha, and Kumar (2016)
Snacks Beetroot fortified multigrain snacks were prepared by mixing refined wheat flour, wheat flour and
defatted soya flour and spices and salt, hot oil and beetroot paste were added to make dough and
then frying at 170 °C after giving a desire shape.
Dhadage, Shinde and Gadhave (2014)
Beetroot cream cheese
spread
Cream cheese prepared by adding the 1 Tbsp of lemon juice in 1 Cup of boiled milk and stirred
until the whey water & cheese separates and beetroot puree was made by adding roasted beetroot,
onion and garlic.
Sandhya and Priya (2017)
Biscuits fortified with Red
beetroot
Biscuit dough was prepared by mixing of powdered sugar, eggs, and margarine, water containing
vanillin, baking powder, salt and the biscuits are fortified with red beetroot
Youssef and Mousa (2012), Amnah (2013)
N. Chhikara et al. Food Chemistry 272 (2019) 192–200
198
because of the existence of metal complexing agents. Chelating agents
(citric acid and EDTA) were reported to stabilize betanin against metal
catalysed degradation (Manchali et al., 2013; Ravichandran et al.,
2014; Paciulli et al., 2016).
8. Conclusion
Beetroot is grown and consumed in both raw and cooked form all
over the world owing to their high nutritive and medicinal value.
Beetroot provides valuable essential nutrients and adequate amount of
beneficial bioactive compounds accounting for health promotion, dis-
ease prevention and treatment response. Antioxidant activity of
bioactive compounds and successful utilization of beetroot in disease
prevention and health promotion is increased in last few decades. There
is a need for further research to explore and utilize natural colorants,
antioxidants and dietary fiber present in beetroot for functional food
formulation. High amount of bioactive compounds in beetroot pulp can
be utilized as functional food source against many diseases like dia-
betes, cancer, cardiovascular disease and various other oxidative
stresses induced chronic diseases. Beta vulgaris can be used to make
different and innovative value added products, so that consumer may
receive the health benefits through the food products which are in-
corporated with Beta vulgaris.
Funding sources
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Conflict of interest
All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
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B
E
T
A
L
A
I
N
 
 
pH 3-7, Low aw, Low 
temperature, Darkness, High 
pigment content, High 
degree of acylation, High 
degree of glycosylation,
Antioxidant, Chelating 
agents,
Nitrogen atmosphere, 
Matrix constitutes.
pH <3 or > 7, High aw, High
temperature, Light, Low 
pigment content, Low 
degree of acylation, Low 
degree of glycosylation,
Oxygen, Metal cation, H2O2,
Degrading enzymes (POD, 
PPO, Glucosidases)
Positive betalains stability Negative betalains stability 
Fig. 3. Factors governing betalains stability (Wootton-Beard et al., 2011, Manchali et al., 2013; Slavov et al., 2013).
N. Chhikara et al. Food Chemistry 272 (2019) 192–200
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	Bioactive compounds of beetroot and utilization in food processing industry: A critical review
	Introduction
	Historical background
	Varieties of beetroot
	Nutritional composition of beetroot
	Macronutrients
	Micronutrients
	Bioactive compounds in beetroot
	Phenolic compounds
	Flavanoids
	Saponins
	Phytochemicals
	Betalains
	Carotenoids
	Antioxidant activity
	Health benefits of beetroot
	Beetroot processing for food application
	Effects of processing on bioactive compounds
	pH
	Water activity
	Temperature
	Light
	Metal
	Conclusion
	Funding sources
	Conflict of interest
	References