Baixe o app para aproveitar ainda mais
Prévia do material em texto
REVIEW PAPER FLUID FLOW AND KINETIC MODELLING IN FLOTATION RELATED PROCESSES Columns and Mechanically Agitated Cells---A Review J. B. Yianatos� Department of Chemical, Biotechnological and Environmental Processes, Santa Maria University, Valparaı́so, Chile. Abstract: In this paper, fluid flow and kinetic models related to minerals flotation process are presented and the advantages and limitations of using this type of models are discussed. The modelling of such processes was firstly developed assuming perfect mixing for the whole system as a black box. Then, a more realistic approach was developed recognizing the inter- action between two zones, the particle–bubble collection zone and the froth transport zone. From a hydrodynamic point of view, experimental data showed that single large mechanical flotation cells can deviate significantly from perfect mixing, while the mixing conditions in a flo- tation bank of mechanical cells (three to nine cells in series) can be well described as a series of continuous perfectly mixed reactors. From plant experience, it was observed that per- formance of large industrial pneumatic flotation columns, originally regarded as a counter-current operation, also operate closer to a single perfectly mixed reactor. Advances in the field of modelling and design of flotation cells and columns, have been achieved because the fluid flow regime, the mass transport conditions at the pulp/froth interface and the froth transport mechanisms are better known and understood. Key parameters such as the bubble surface area flux, related to the bubble generation and the rate of particle collection, bubble loading related to the mass transport across the pulp-froth interface and froth recovery, which is mainly related to the gas residence time in the froth, are relevant for a deeper understand- ing of this type of equipment. Keywords: modelling; froth flotation; flotation machines; residence time distribution. INTRODUCTION Flotation is a widely used process within min- erals processing industry in the last century, as well as being used for water and waste water treatment, and more recently for de-inking of recycled paper and electrolyte cleaning (oil separation) among other less conventional applications. In the case of water and waste water treat- ment the aim of the process is to remove very fine particles of few microns, in very low con- centrations, which are collected by small bubbles of 50–100 mm. In mineral processing, however, particles from few microns to several hundred of microns, in 10–40% solid suspen- sions, are selectively collected by bubbles of 0.5–2 mm. This makes a difference in terms of the type of flotation used, i.e., dissolved air flotation DAF for the water treatment and dis- persed air flotation for minerals separation. Studies on DAF modelling are rather scarce and mainly related to hydrodynamics (i.e., Kwon et al., 2006). Recently, Emmanouil et al. (2006) presented the basis for a three phase modelling of an industrial scale DAF tank, using flotation kinetic concepts. In the last decade, flotation equipment related to mineral processing industry has shown a dramatic increase in size, reaching values of 250 m3 in unitary mechanical flo- tation cells (Weber et al., 2005) and more than 250 m3 in pneumatic columns (De Aquino et al., 1998). The general feeling, however, is that despite the great advances observed in terms of process knowledge, the mechanisms and principles as well as the design and scale-up of industrial flotation 1591 Vol 85 (A12) 1591–1603 �Correspondence to: Professor J.B. Yianatos, Department of Chemical, Biotechnological and Environmental Processes, Santa Maria University, P.O. Box 110-V, Valaparaiso, Chile. E-mail: juan.yianatos@usm.cl DOI: 10.1205/cherd07068 0263–8762/07/ $30.00þ 0.00 Chemical Engineering Research and Design Trans IChemE, Part A, December 2007 # 2007 Institution of Chemical Engineers cells, are still not fully understood. Thus, the scope of this paper is mainly addressed to mineral processing flotation applications, particularly columns and mechanical cells. From a unit operation point of view, flotation is a solid–solid separation, where fine solid particles, suspended in water, contact an air bubble swarm, in a well-mixed air–pulp dis- persion. Particles are classified as floatable if they adhere to the bubbles and are transported up to a froth layer. Flotation separation is based on different mineral surface properties. Hydrophobic particles can attach to air bubbles, while hydrophilic particles do not. In this form hydrophobic particles can be selectively separated by levita- tion against gravity in the aqueous medium. Thus, it can be seen that flotation is a multi-component, multiphase and heterogeneous separation process. From a conceptual point of view flotation can be observed as a sequence of two operations, ‘reaction’ and ‘separation’ (Finch, 1995), as it is shown in Figure 1. The reactor is fed with the slurry containing the solids to be separated. Chemical reagents (collector, frother, depressant, and so on.) are added to induce differences in particle sur- face properties in order to promote the selective aggregation of particles with air bubbles. Energy is required to keep the solids in suspension, typical particle size around 50–150 microns, and to disperse the air into fine bubbles, typically of 1–2 mm. The specific power used at present in large size industrial flotation cells is about 1 kW m23. The probability of collection and transfer of a mineral par- ticle from the pulp to the froth can be described as a product of probabilities of occurrence of several sub-processes (Ek, 1992). However, for practical purposes it is very difficult to quantify most of these probabilities. Alternatively, the collec- tion process has been represented similar to a chemical reac- tion. In this approach the ‘reactants’ are hydrophobic mineral particles that collide with and adhere to air bubbles. The reac- tion ‘product’ is a particle-bubble aggregate that is less dense than the medium and moves upwards against gravity while hydrophilic particles are reported down to the tails. A necessary condition for mineral separation in a flotation process is the existence of a froth zone with a distinctive pulp-froth interface. Conditions for the co-existence of the froth and fluid (pulp) phases in a flotation column has been theoretically derived from hydrodynamics for two phase sys- tems (air–water), i.e., Pal and Masliyah (1990), Xu et al. (1991a), Langberg and Jameson (1992). The critical bound- ary conditions for industrial flotation equipment in terms of bubble size and superficial gas rate, regarding the loss of the pulp–froth interface, froth stability and limiting carrying capacity has been reported by Yianatos and Henrı́quez (2007). Thus, it was found that for typical superficial gas rates, JG ¼ 1–2 cm s 21, the optimal range of bubble diameter at the pulp/froth interface level was dB ¼ 1.0–1.5 mm, in order to maximize the bubble surface area flux, SB ¼ 50–100 s 21. Otherwise several constraints, i.e., loss of pulp/froth interface (flooding) or greater disturbance at the interface level (boiling), limit the flotation process (Finch et al., 2007). Mechanically Agitated Cells Figure 2(a) shows the schematic view of the forced-air cell, with the rotor located near the bottom, and Figure 2(b) shows the self-aerated cell, with the rotor located near the top. In both designs, pulp circulation through the rotor is required to enhance the particle collection performance. Recently, a mid-rotor cell has been developed where the rotor is located at the center of the cell (Lelinski et al., 2005). Also, froth crow- ders and internal radial launders have been incorporated in order to enhance the froth transport. Pneumatic Cells Pneumatic flotation columns are devices of simple construc- tion in which a gas is distributed at the bottom and rises up in the form of a dispersed phase of bubbles in a continuousfluid phase which also contains suspended fine particles. Counter-current column Figure 3(a) shows a scheme of the classical flotation column design, considering counter-current contact between Figure 1. Conceptual flotation design. Figure 3. Counter-current and co-current pneumatic flotation. Figure 2. Mechanical flotation cells. Trans IChemE, Part A, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 2007, 85(A12): 1591–1603 1592 YIANATOS the pulp feed and a bubble swarm, generated by the gas sparger near the bottom of the column (Finch and Dobby, 1990). The feed pulp descends by gravity allowing that hydrophobic particles collide and adhere to the bubbles. The froth zone consists of an approximately 1 m froth bed. At the top of the froth wash water is distributed over the column cross-section. The water plays an important role in eliminating fine particles entrainment (Yianatos et al., 1987). Industrial columns are circular in cross-section with diameter up to 4.5 (m), square up to 4 (m) side and rectangular, i.e., 2 � 8 or 4 � 6 (m) in side. The total column height varies typically between 10–15 (m) height (De Aquino et al., 1998). Co-current contact cells An interesting point of discussion has been related to the inefficient collision mechanism for attaching mineral particles to a large number of small bubbles in the pulp zone of flo- tation columns. In this sense, alternative designs of pneu- matic cells considering intensive contact of pulp and bubbles in a downflow co-current column have been devel- oped. Figure 3(b) shows a typical co-current flotation device (Jameson, 1988). In this device, pulp and air bubbles flow co-currently downwards against the buoyancy of the bubbles which creates high gas holdups. Here, the active collection zone is located in the downcomer tube, which provides an efficient particle–bubble interaction. FLOTATION MODELLING Fundamental Collection Models Historically, a large number of fundamental models have been developed to describe the flotation process, mainly related to the collection zone in terms of hydrodynamics. A comprehensive description on fundamentals of the flotation process modeling of mechanical cells has been presented by King (2001), and for column flotation by Finch and Dobby (1990), Rubinstein (1995) and Finch et al. (1995). A general flotation model for bubble–particle capture occurring within a turbulent environment was reported by Pyke et al. (2003). Recently, Kostoglou et al. (2006) presented a critical review on the state of the art of flotation fundamental modelling, and also introduces a new generalized particle–bubble aggregation model, developed for a combined gravitational and turbulent flow field. Also, particle collision and detachment frequencies in flotation have been related to the turbulent energy density (Bloom and Heindel, 2002). In addition, the number of bubble–particle collisions has been predicted by CFD simulation of flotation cells (Koh et al., 2000; Koh and Schwarz, 2003). Another complex problem is to link the model parameters with the surface-chemical properties such as the degree of hydrophobicity. In this sense, the surface forces measurement has been used to model pulp flotation rates, including particle–bubble attach- ment and detachment, in terms of surface chemistry par- ameters (contact angle, zeta potential, Hamaker constant and surface tension), by relating the energy barriers to the kinetic energies of the bubble–particle interaction (Yoon, 2000). Recent evidence indicates that the surface properties of the solid, the type and concentration of dissolved gas, and surface microbubbles all influence the stability of the thin, aqueous film that forms between a particle and a gas bubble during the final stages of the capture process (Ralston et al., 2001). A different approach to model the flotation pro- cess considers the specific floatability of particles as a func- tion of particle size, degree of liberation and chemical adsorption of reagents (Niemi, 1995). However, quantitative models of flotation cell performance do not at present make any significant use of quantitative chemical parameters such as the pH of the slurry and the concentration of chemi- cal collectors or frothers to define overall process behaviour (King, 2001). Flotation Rate Models From a practical point of view, the overall flotation process was generally represented by a first order system with lumped parameters, assuming the collection zone was per- fectly mixed. Equation (1) shows the first order model for a perfect mixed batch flotation process (Ek, 1992), R R1 ¼ 1� e�kt (1) where R represents the mineral recovery at time t, R1 rep- resents the maximum flotation recovery at infinite time, and k is the kinetic rate constant which involves all the micro- scopic sub-processes. A similar first order model can also be used to describe the operation, closer to plug flow, in lab- oratory and pilot flotation columns (Finch and Dobby, 1990). On the other hand, the mineral recovery of a continuous flotation process can be described by the general equation (Polat and Chander, 2000), R R1 ¼ ð1 0 ð1 0 (1� e�kt)F(k)E(t)dkdt (2) where the term (12 e 2kt) represents the mineral recovery of a first order process with invariant kinetic constant k, as a time function. F(k) is the kinetic constant distribution function for mineral species with different flotation rates, and E(t) is the residence time distribution function for continuous processes with different mixing characteristics. According to equation (2), the mineral recovery depends on the mixing regime in the collection zone and the actual mean residence time that is related to the effective pulp volume in flotation equipment. Equation (1) can be derived from equation (2) considering the batch condition E(t) ¼ d(t), equivalent to plug flow, and a single rate constant k for the whole operation, assuming F(k) ¼ d(k). Industrial Flotation: Model Structure Industrial flotation processes are continuous and multi- stage. Also, the presence of different mineral species and the critical effect of different particle sizes, among other con- ditions, make it necessary to develop flexible and different approaches to describe the flotation performance. For example, assuming that the gas and pulp phases are com- pletely mixed, or partially mixed, different model approaches can be developed. In all cases, the residence time of the phases as well as the mechanisms for particle–bubble aggregate formation and separation must be known. Math- ematical models for flotation cells and columns are based on the law of conservation and can have various structures. Trans IChemE, Part A, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 2007, 85(A12): 1591–1603 COLUMNS AND MECHANICALLY AGITATED CELLS 1593 The single phase model The flotation process was originally characterized as a well-mixed cell, where the froth zone was neglected. Accord- ing to Harris (1978), problems which may be encountered are: (1) inadequate solids suspension and dispersion; (2) particle, density and size distribution gradients in pulp; (3) inadequate dispersion of air throughout the pulp. Multiphase models A two-phase model was introduced in order to account for the presence of two distinct zones, pulp and froth, in flotation machines. Assumptions made in the original model are: (1) the pulp and froth phases are each ideally mixed and (2) material transport occurs between the phases in one or both directions, and first order flotation rates in both direc- tions was most favoured. Harris (1978) pointed out that divid- ing the cell contents into froth and pulp is not an assumption of the model but the recognition of a fact of flotation cell operation. Flint (1974) refers to equation (1) as the apparent cell per- formance where the net result of all processes occurring within a cell to be first-order with respect to concentration. In this case an apparent first-order rate constant can be obtained, but the problem is to relatethis apparent recovery rate to process conditions which affect the various transport rates within a cell. With this in aim, Flint (1974) developed a multiphase model (Figure 4) to include material transfer steps in the sub-processes occurring in the cell. Thus, the internal transport rates such as bubble transport, entrain- ment, drainage, particle attachment and detachment, were identified. In formulating the model, first order rate equations were used to describe particle collection by bubbles. The contribution of this work lies in the general structure of the model and the application of it to experimental systems, as a means of gaining insight into flotation processes, rather than in the particular forms of the model equations themselves. Harris et al. (1975) derived a recycle flow model for the col- lection zone of mechanical cells assuming that the pulp circu- lates between two perfectly mixed regions: an intensely stirred impeller region and the remainder of the cell volume. The model also considered the effective liquid residence time in the cell. Multiphase models including more than two phases have been described, i.e., two froth phases plus one pulp phase, or two pulp phases plus one froth phase (Harris, 1978). Laplante et al. (1983a, b) developed a two phase model for transient studies on the mass transfer from the pulp to the froth and from the froth over the cell lip. This allowed the identification of the flotation rate from the slurry to the froth using a specially designed batch flotation cell. A different approach was presented by Deglon et al. (1999) and Deglon (2003) who introduced a bubble population balance methodology applied to a mechanical flotation cell. This approach together with an attachment–detachment model for the collection process allowed for description of the non-linear dependence among the flotation rate constant (s21), the specific power input (W kg21) and the bubble sur- face area flux SB (s 21) for mechanical flotation cells of different volume. Here, the new relevant parameter was the gas residence time in the collection zone. Vera et al. (1999), Alexander et al. (2003) and Seaman et al. (2004) also considered a two phase model (pulp and froth) to characterize the flotation process, but they still kept the idea of using an apparent flotation rate constant k to account for the overall cell performance. The apparent rate constant k was related to the collection zone rate constant kC and the froth recovery Rf, by equation (3). k ¼ kC � Rf (3) Equation (3) is strictly valid only if the maximum collection zone recovery R1 is equal to 100%, which is an ideal condition. Recently, Savassi (2005) described a compartment model to account for the mass transfer inside a conventional flo- tation cell. In this model the total volume of the cell was divided into three compartments: pulp collection zone, pulp quiescent zone and froth region. The model also takes into account the simultaneous mechanisms of true flotation and entrainment, and considers a first order process for particle collection. The principal mass transfer factors are identified as: the flotation rate constant, the mean residence time in the collection zone, the froth recovery of attached particles, the degree of entrainment through the froth and the water recovery from the feed to the concentrate. In this approach the overall recovery was obtained as the interaction of three independent zones (collection, quiescent and froth). Despite the effort to separate both phases, a single overall flotation rate constant has been typically used to represent the combined effect of particle collection and froth transport. This approach has been used for design, simulation and optimization of flotation cells and circuits. However, it is widely recognized that the knowledge and characterization of the sub-processes involved in flotation are more powerful regarding the effect that multiple variables have on flotation performance. Unfortunately, most of the more complex models are not practical, because they involve a large number of parameters, which are generally difficult to measure. Alternatively, a good compromise to characterize industrial flotation equipment has been described by Finch and Dobby (1990), where the collection zone and froth recoveries are identified and considered independently in order to estimate the overall flotation performance, according to Figure 5.Figure 4. Concept of the multipath model (Flint, 1974). Trans IChemE, Part A, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 2007, 85(A12): 1591–1603 1594 YIANATOS From a mass balance, R ¼ RCRf 1� RC(1� Rf ) (4) where R is the overall flotation recovery, RC is the collection zone recovery and Rf is the froth zone recovery. Bubble load- ing, a key parameter in developing the model further, needs to be evaluated to calculate froth recovery. Bubble loading BL corresponds to the apparent density (ton m23) of the particle–bubble aggregates entering the froth. The bubble load can be estimated from the bubble sur- face coverage, assuming that the bubble surface area occu- pied by a particle of diameter dp was equal to dp 2 (Szatkowski and Freiberger, 1985; Li et al., 2004), BL ¼ K1prpdp dB (5) where K1 is the fraction of bubble surface coverage with a monolayer of particles, rp is the mineral density, dp is the mean particle diameter and dB is the bubble diameter. Other estimates upon the bubble surface coverage with particles have been derived assuming different particle projection areas or using shape factors (Patwardhan and Honaker, 2000; Gallegos et al., 2006). The bubble loading, BL, and the superficial gas velocity, JG, allow for the calculation of the superficial mass transport Mi (ton h21m22) of floatable mineral (true flotation) across the pulp–froth interfacse, according to the following relationship Mi ¼ BL � JG (6) Then, the froth recovery of the floatable mineral RF can be estimated by Rf ¼ MC Mi (7) where MC is the superficial mass overflow (ton h 21m22) of floatable mineral recovered into the concentrate by true flo- tation. Direct measurement of bubble loading in a range of 30–60 g L21 has been reported (Alexander et al., 2003; Seaman et al., 2004; Hidalgo, 2006). In order to characterize the collection zone recovery, RC, the general equation (2) can be used. To solve equation (2), two functions must be known: the flotation rate constant distribution F(k) and the residence time distribution E(t). The interest of using a rate constant distributed function F(k) is to account for minerals of different characteristics and sizes which float at different rates. The F(k) function depends on par- ticle size and chemical conditioning. Different approaches havebeendescribed to characterize this function, i.e., using tri- angular, sinusoidal, rectangular, normal or gamma functions (Polat and Chander, 2000), or using the sum of two normal dis- tributions (Ferreira and Loveday, 2000), but the most success- ful has been the rectangular distribution model considered by Klimpel (1980). The rectangular distribution has the advantage of keeping the parsimony principle in line with using the minimum number of parameters. RTD of Industrial Mechanical Cells The residence time distribution function E(t) depends on the hydrodynamic regime and is related to cell design and cir- cuit arrangement. A common assumption for process model- ling has been the perfect mixing condition in the collection zone of flotation cells (King, 2001). Equation (8) represents the RTD function E(t) of a perfectly mixed cell, E(t) ¼ e�(t=tF) tF (8) where tF is the fluid mean residence time in the flotation cell (¼V/Q), where V is the cell volume and Q is the volumetric flowrate through it. However, since early times, observations and discussions about the non-perfect mixing behaviour in flotation cells has been reported, i.e., due to back-mixing flow, dead zones and short-circuiting (Harris, 1978; Mehrotra and Saxena, 1983; Mavros, 1992a). Thus, a morerealistic approach to describe the mixing condition in the pulp of industrial cells is the use of the actual RTD function (Niemi, 1995; Polat and Chander, 2000). RTD of single industrial flotation cells Mixing data on single large industrial flotation cells is scarce. Some preliminary testing has been reported by Burgess (1997), who showed that the RTD of a 100 m3 OK100 tank cell, provided with forced air, was close to well- mixed. Also, Lelinski et al. (2002) reported the comparison between the RTD of three single flotation cells, 148 to 160 m3, tested in parallel. Here it was observed that cells operating with forced air plus the rotor located near the bottom, Figure 2(a), showed a RTD close to well-mixed, while the self-aerated cells, Figure 2(b), showed a more significant deviation from perfect mixing. Neither model was reported to correlate this data. New experimental data on RTD of single large cells has been recently reported by Yianatos et al. (2007). Here the model given by equation (9), consisting of one large perfect mixer and one small perfect mixer in series, gave the best fitting to describe the mixing conditions in a 130 m3 Wemco SmartCell. E(t) ¼ e�(t�L)=tS � e�(t�L)=tL (tS � tL) (9) Figure 5. Two-phase model for fluid transport in a flotation device. Trans IChemE, Part A, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 2007, 85(A12): 1591–1603 COLUMNS AND MECHANICALLY AGITATED CELLS 1595 where tL is the residence time of the large mixer, tS is the residence time of the small mixer and L is the lag time. Figure 6 shows the good agreement of equation (9) for mod- elling the RTD of liquid, fine solid (245 microns), medium solid (2150þ 45 microns) and coarse solid (þ150 microns), in a large mechanical flotation cell. The experimental work was developed using liquid (Br-82 in solution) and solid (mineral) radioactive tracers (Tello, 2006). RTD of industrial flotation banks Because of the large short circuit in single continuous cells, the industrial flotation operation considers the arrangement of cells in banks. Thus, banks of 5–10 cells in series are com- monly used. In order to characterize the hydrodynamic performance of an industrial flotation bank, the following equation, describing the continuous operation of ‘N ’ perfectly mixed tanks in series, has shown to be a realistic and efficient model. E(t) ¼ tN�1 � e�(t�N=t) (t=N)N � G(N) (10) where t is the mean residence time of the bank, G(N) is the Gamma function, which allows to account for the non integer solutions of N. Other more complex models can include a large number of parameters, such as dead zones, pure delay or back-mixing (Wilson and Frew, 1986; Ando et al., 1990). Recent trends in flotation circuit designs are towards the use of flotation banks consisting of a low number (4–6) of large cells, where neither open flow nor back-mixing flow is present between adjacent cells (Bourke, 2002). Industrial banks of large cells have been characterized as perfect mixers in series (Yianatos et al., 2000, 2001; Arbiter, 2000). Using the radioactive tracer technique, it was shown that the RTD of flotation banks consisting of 4, 8 and 9 cells (42.5 m3) can be well represented by a tank in series model (Yianatos et al., 2005a). Figure 7 shows the good agreement between experimental data, from banks of 3, 5 and 7 cells of 130 m3 in series, and the classical N tank-in-series model, equation (10), while for the first (single) cell the best fit corresponds to the model described by equation (9), (Tello, 2006). Flotation Columns The fluid mechanical behaviour in a flotation column is complex, since two fluid phases, characterized by very differ- ent masses and with one far more compressible than the other, are in contact with each other. The multiphase flow in Figure 6. RTD in a 130 m3 industrial flotation cell. Trans IChemE, Part A, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 2007, 85(A12): 1591–1603 1596 YIANATOS the column is ‘self-adjusting’, i.e., there are no driven parts, for the attainment of uniform phase distribution. Therefore, in formulating a model for a flotation column, a number of simplifying assumptions need to be posed, as e.g., homo- geneous bubble-flow regime, uniform gas holdup, mineral properties constant during the process, there is no sedimen- tation, so the liquid phase containing the suspended solid can be assumed to be a pseudo continuum. Also, the residence time for each phase must be known. Thus, the flotation pro- cess can be described as a one or multi-component model, and the component balance is typically formulated for the fluid (pulp) phase. A further problem, independent of the exact structure of the model equations consists of the evaluation of the parameters required for these equations. Particularly important are the volume fraction (holdup) of the phases, the collection rate constant and the mass transport across the pulp/froth inter- face. The fluid mechanical quantities depend on a complex manner of the operating conditions, the geometrical dimen- sions, the way the phases are distributed, and the mineral properties. So experimentation is necessary for model parameters setting. Column hydrodynamic Flotation columns typically operate at low gas velocities (1–2 cm s21), low viscosity media, and small bubbles (0.5– 2 mm in diameter) generated with an approximately normal size distribution, which moves upwards in a rather homo- geneous bubbly flow condition. In this flow regime, a size dis- tribution of bubbles occurs. Hence the bubbles rise with different velocities and their residence times in the system are different. If no interaction in the form of bubble coalesc- ence and breakup occurs, bubble flow is segregated. Fluid is entrained upwards, in the wake of bubbles, and because of continuity an equal amount of fluid must therefore flow downwards. Thus a fluid circulation develops. The bubbly flow regime in flotation columns has been characterized using the concept of drift flux in order to relate phase flow rates, holdup and physical properties. The drift flux, JGF, is defined as JGF ¼ JG(1� 1G)+ JF1G ¼ JG � 1G(JG + JF) (11) where 1G is the fractional gas holdup and JG and JF are super- ficial velocities (flowrate per unit area) and are positive upwards. The+ sign indicates counter-current and co-current gas–fluid flow, respectively. Plotting JGF versus 1G reveals at which gas velocity the bubble flow switches over into the churn turbulent region, since at that point the drift flux increases steeply. Bholes and Joshi (2003) derived a criterion for the prediction of criti- cal gas holdup at which the transition in the flow regime occur in the collection zone of a flotation column. From drift flux analysis an estimate of terminal bubble rise velocity, UT, is obtained which can be used to calculate bubble diameter in flotation columns (Dobby et al., 1988). For a two-phase (gas-fluid) system the velocity of gas relative to the fluid, called slip velocity, USl, is given by USl ¼ JG 1G + JF (1� 1G) (12) Shah et al. (1982) suggested that for a gas holdup of less than 30%, the most suitable expression for relating slip vel- ocity to terminal rise velocity is given by USl ¼ UT(1� 1G) m�1 (13) where m is the Richardson–Zaki index and typical values of m ¼ 2.39 (Pal and Masliyah, 1990) and m ¼ 3 (Banisi and Finch, 1993) have been reported for the range of flotation column operation. More recently, Vanderberghe et al. (2005) reported a new correlation for the m parameter, m ¼ 20:26þ 1:89� ReB 4:38þ ReB (14) where ReB is the bubble Reynolds number for the pulp zone defined as ReB ¼ dBUTrF mF (15) Several correlations between the bubble diameter dB and terminal velocity UT have been reported in literature related to flotation processes, i.e., Dobby et al. (1988) and Yianatos et al. (1988). With the help of such hydrodynamic models, relationships have been derived for slip velocity, gas holdup or bubble size. Recently a comprehensive review and discus- sion on column flotationfundamentals has been reported by Finch et al. (2007). Extensive discussions on the transport phenomena at the pulp-froth interface in a flotation column has been presented by Ross (1991) and Van Deventer et al. (2004a, b), who pointed out that a great deal of ignorance still exists with regard to particle detachment at the pulp–froth interface and the factors that play a role in such action. Modelling of industrial flotation columns Mineral recovery in a flotation column depends upon flo- tation rates and the flow regime in the collection zone and the froth zone behaviour. The fundamental description of the internal flow regimes in a flotation column is complex and difficult to link with fundamental relationships for minerals recovery. A review of column flotation models was reported Figure 7. Model fitting for liquid RTD of industrial flotation cells in series (N ¼ 1, 3, 5, 7). Trans IChemE, Part A, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 2007, 85(A12): 1591–1603 COLUMNS AND MECHANICALLY AGITATED CELLS 1597 by Tuteja et al. (1994) where the associated shortcomings were discussed. The first approach to model the column flotation process was developed by Sastry and Fuerstenau (1970), who considered the axial dispersion model ADM in a counter- current process with a first order flotation rate. Later this approach become the most popular for column flotation modelling and scale-up (Dobby and Finch, 1986; Finch and Dobby, 1990; Luttrell et al., 1993). All these models are one-dimensional. In general, two kinds of problems have been addressed using the axial dispersion model. The first one is to predict the mineral recovery, which is a primary objective of model- ling column flotation, and consists of using the ADM model combined with the first order flotation rate equation. Finch and Dobby (1990), adopted this approach to describe the col- lection zone recovery RC related to the collection rate con- stant kC, particle residence time tP and vessel dispersion number Nd, according to the following relationship RC ¼ 1� 4a � e(1=2Nd) (1þ a)2e(a=2Nd) � (1� a)2e�(a=2Nd) (16) where a ¼ (1þ 4 kCtPNd) 1=2 (17) Equation (16) defaults to equation (1) for plug flow transport (Nd ¼ 0) and it corresponds to the perfect mixing operation for Nd ¼ 1. The second type of problem is the transient solution often used to fit the residence time distribution (RTD) data in order to obtain Nd, which describes the intensity of dispersion in a column and the mean residence time, t. In this case a suitable technique for flotation columns is the pulse injection of a liquid or solid tracer at the top of the collection zone, followed by sampling and tracer analysis of the discharge. RTD of Industrial Flotation Columns In modelling the RTD of flotation columns using the axial dispersion approach, the choice of boundary conditions and fitting routines is important and has been thoroughly dis- cussed (Ityokumbul et al., 1988; Xu et al., 1991b; Tokoro and Okano, 2001). The usual assumption in plant work is to consider both boundaries as either open or closed. Also, because the use of wash water prevents most tracers from exiting within the froth product (Dobby and Finch, 1985; Yianatos et al., 1987; Yianatos and Bergh, 1992) and the detection point in the underflow line is a good approximation of a closed boundary compared with inside the column, most of the experimental conditions correspond to the ‘closed– closed’ boundary conditions. Even so, sometimes the ‘open–open’ solution is used because a relatively simple analytical solution exists and for small dispersion numbers (Nd , 0.25) the analytical solution is adequate. For closed–closed boundaries in a flotation column, the analytical solution was described by (Xu et al., 1991b; Mavros, 1992b). According to Xu et al. (1991b), the most suit- able combination is the numerical solution to the closed vessel case with a least squares fitting routine. Also, Mavros (1992b) has shown that the numerical solution, expli- citly developed for a Dirac delta impulse, is applicable for vessel dispersion numbers larger than 0.14 which is normally the case for industrial flotation columns. Experimental observations in pilot columns (50 mm in diameter) with H/D ratio about 100–200 have shown Nd values of 0.03–0.08, which are closer to a plug flow operation (Laplante et al., 1988; Mills et al., 1992). For industrial columns with H/D ratio about 4–12, the Nd values are 0.4–2.7 (Laplante et al., 1988; Mills et al., 1992; Yianatos et al., 2005a). Deckwer and Schumpe (1987) presented an extensive dis- cussion on phenomenological and empirical studies on bubble columns, and they also claimed that some postulates of the ADM model are questionable, i.e., such as the use of only one lumped parameter to account for the macroscopic circulatory flows and the axial and radial mass flows, and the capability to describe the gas phase residence time distri- bution due to the occurrence of different bubble classes. However, despite the ADM model not being a good physical description of the industrial column flotation process, it has been generally considered to provide a good data fitting. Ityokumbul (1992) presented an alternative approach to describe the flotation column operation using the analogy of interface mass transfer. The main assumptions are the rate of particle attachment to air bubbles is proportional to the concentration of floatable solids and uncovered bubble sur- face, while the rate of particle detachment is proportional to the surface concentration of solid particles on the air bubbles (bubble load), the same as suggested by Sastry and Fuerste- nau (1970), and the solid behaviour in the collection zone may be described using the sedimentation convection model. Despite the use of some simplifying conditions (i.e., plug flow and constant parameters), this approach empha- sizes the fact that in some cases column height can be much shorter than usually built. More sophisticated hydrodynamic models to describe the collection zone in flotation columns, i.e., two-dimensional models (axial and radial dispersion) such as proposed by Deng et al. (1996), cell models with back-flow such as the cir- culation cells model of Joshi and Sharma (1979), or the eddy- cell model of Zehner (1986), as suggested by Deckwer and Schumpe (1987) and Mavros (1992a), have not yet been considered in modelling of flotation columns, i.e., in the calcu- lation of recovery and performance by means of solving the material balance equations. Alternatively, other researchers have proposed that it may be more appropriate to use the tanks-in-series model with back-mixing flow (Mavros et al., 1989) or the tank in series model (Mills and O’Connor, 1990; Goodall and O’Connor, 1991) for describing the fluid flow regime (RTD) of laboratory flotation columns. Also, because the operation of industrial columns is much closer to perfect mixing, the RTD of large industrial flotation columns can be described by the tank-in-series model, equation (10), considering a non-integer number, between one and two, of perfect mixers in series. More recently, Yianatos et al. (2005a) presented a better fit using a model consisting of one large perfect mixer (resi- dence time tL) and two small perfect mixers in series (resi- dence time tS). Figure 8 shows the model structure where the column local mixing conditions, described by the two small mixers, can be related to the feed input and the bubble generation zones, while the single large mixing stage was related to the volume of the baffled section of Trans IChemE, Part A, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 2007, 85(A12): 1591–1603 1598 YIANATOS the column, typically extended from below the feed entrance to the bubble generation level. The analytical solution for this model is given by the following equation E(t) ¼ �½(t � L)=(ts � a)� � e�(t�L)=ts þ a � e�(t�L)=tL (tL � tS) (18) where a ¼ tL (tL � tS) (19) Figure 9 shows good agreement between the model and experimentaldata for liquid RTD (Br-82 radioactive liquid tracer) and solid RTD (radioactive mineral tracer), in an industrial flotation column of dimensions 2 � 6 � 13 m. Following the good results of the RTD model, equation (18), a new model for predicting the mineral recovery in the collection zone of industrial flotation columns was derived. The new analytical solution, equation (20), was obtained from equation (2), with E(t) given by equation (18). The model also has the advantage of considering a rectangular rate constant distribution F(k). Equation (20) allows the esti- mation of the maximum flotation rate constant kM and it was satisfactorily tested for industrial flotation column data (Yianatos et al., 2005b). RC R1 ¼ 1� 1 kM(tL � tS) 1 kMtS þ 1 � 1þ a ln kMtL þ 1 kMtS þ 1 � �� � (20) If tS is equal to zero, equation (20) reduces to the solution of a single perfect mixer with rectangular flotation rate distribution as it is shown in equation (21). RC R1 ¼ 1� 1 kMtL � ln (kMtL þ 1) � � (21) Equation (21) represents the lower recovery condition for the column flotation model, which can also be derived from equation (2) considering the RTD of a perfect mixer, given in equation (8). On the other hand, the maximum recovery condition for the column flotation model corresponds to the operation near plug flow observed in a pilot size column, and it is shown in equation (22): RC R1 ¼ 1� 1 kMt � (1� e�kMt) � � (22) Equation (22) was derived from equation (2) considering E(t) ¼ d(t), for the batch flotation operation, and a rectangular rate constant distribution F(k). Effect of baffles on fluid flow in flotation columns Moys et al. (1991) showed that vertical baffles contained entirely within the liquid phase and which divided the column into several parallel and independent flow chambers actually reduced the quality of mixing in the column. This effect was related to pulp circulation due to mal-distribution of gas flux at the bottom of the column. Kawatra and Eisele (1995) studied the use of horizontal baffles at laboratory Figure 8. Conceptual model for mixing in big flotation columns (Yianatos et al., 2005a). Figure 9. Model fitting for liquid and solid in industrial flotation column. Trans IChemE, Part A, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 2007, 85(A12): 1591–1603 COLUMNS AND MECHANICALLY AGITATED CELLS 1599 scale, and they claimed that back mixing and short-circuiting can be reduced in a much shorter column, provided that the flow in the column approaches plug-flow. The use of baffles in large size columns seems not affect the overall mixing but pre- vents the macro-circulation between baffled zones (Yianatos, 2003). Yigang et al. (2001) reported the liquid RTD in a labora- tory packed flotation column which showed a significant mixing, despite the presence of ripple packing. Froth Transport Modelling Early works showing the distributed nature of the fluid transport through the froth have been reported, i.e., Bishop and White (1976) developed empirical studies on hydrophilic particle entrainment into the froth and the rate of recovery as a function of water recovery and pulp density. They con- cluded that the most important factor in the rate of particle recovery is the residence time in the froth. Recently, Johnson (2005) presented a comprehensive review of the entrainment mechanisms and its modelling in industrial flotation processes. Moys (1978) developed a plug flow model to describe the mass transport along the froth, in a steady state batch oper- ation. Moys (1984) developed a theoretical model, based on the Laplace equation, to provide a two-dimensional descrip- tion of the streamlines in the froth as it moves towards the concentrate weir. The froth model was used for estimating mass transport in continuous and steady state batch flotation froths. More recently, a model considering only vertical and horizontal paths was presented by Zheng et al. (2004), from which an analytical relationship was derived to estimate the froth residence time distribution. Other studies have been focused on characterizing the froth structure and transport mechanisms (i.e., Ross and Van Deventer, 1988; Falutsu and Dobby, 1992). An extensive review on froth modelling in steady and non- steady state flotation systems was reported by Mathe et al. (1998, 2000). It was found that despite the significant pro- gress made in froth characterization and understanding of the frothing phenomena, the information obtained from these studies has a very limited use in flotation circuit design, modelling and optimization. The problem is that these studies have been mainly developed in environments with ideal characteristics, such as the equilibrium cell, because of the difficulty of sampling the froth phase. Thus, the froth parameters that can be used to relate froth performance in different flotation systems are still not fully identified. Also, the authors claimed that no research has been performed considering the effect of chemical factors into froth transport models. In recent years, a significant number of fundamental studies on froth modeling have been developed describing the gas, liquid and solid motion in flowing froths (Neethling et al., 2000; Neethling and Cilliers, 2002, 2003; Finch et al., 2007). Stevenson et al. (2003) studied the dispersion in a two-dimensional rising froth, and the numerical solutions of foam drainage in rising systems were also presented at values of background liquid holdup relevant to the flotation process. Zheng et al. (2006) reported the evaluation of differ- ent models of water recovery in flotation froths, where the fundamental approach adopted by Neethling and Cilliers (2003) was useful to predict the water recovery. However, the interactive effects of particle size, particle shape, hydrophobicity and turbulence on froth recovery remains as a challenge to froth phase modelling. In the middle of 1980s, studies on column flotation froths introduced the froth recovery concept. The froth recovery is a practical parameter describing the recovery to the concen- trate launders of floatable minerals entering the froth from the collection zone (Van Deventer et al., 2001). The froth recov- ery has been directly measured using modified pilot flotation columns (Falutsu and Dobby, 1989; Vera, 1995). Also, froth recovery estimates have been indirectly derived by extrapol- ation to zero froth depth (Feteris et al., 1987; Yu and Finch, 1990; Vera et al., 1999) and by fitting grade profiles from industrial column froths (Yianatos et al., 1998). A new alternative approach for froth recovery estimation is based on direct measurement of the bubble load near the pulp–froth interface, in flotation cells and columns (i.e., Alexander et al., 2003; Seaman and Franzidis, 2004; Hidalgo, 2006). Thus, the froth recovery Rf can be directly obtained from equations (6) and (7) provided that superficial gas rate and concentrate mass flowrate of floatable minerals are known. These studies have shown that operating vari- ables affect the pulp and froth zones performance in a differ- ent and often opposite way. Experimentally, it was found that a significant fraction of particles entering the froth return to the collection zone. So far, refined hydrodynamic models have not been taken into account in the actual modeling of flotation equipment, i.e., in the calculation of recovery and performance of the flo- tation equipment by means of solving the material balance equations, because still most of the simplifying assumptions, parameters and boundary conditions need to be validated. CONCLUSIONS Industrial flotation is a complex separation process involving the interaction of physico-chemical and hydrodynamic phenomena. The modeling of such processes was firstly developed by analogy with a chemical reaction, where a single overall rate constant was considered to describe the whole process, assuming perfect mixing for the whole system as a black box. Then, a more realistic approach hasincluded the interaction between two zones, the collection zone and the froth transport zone (separation). From plant experience it has been observed that the flow regime in the collection zone of single self-aerated mechan- ical cells was not perfectly mixed. Thus, the mixing condition in the collection zone of a single cell, with internal recircula- tion, was better characterized by the tank in series approach. The fluid flow in industrial flotation banks, consisting of three to nine mechanical cells, has been well characterized using the N tanks in series model, where N corresponds to the actual number of cells in the bank. The collection zone of industrial pneumatic flotation columns operates in the bubbly flow regime and has been typically characterized by the axial dispersion model. Even considering that this approach was not realistic the model structure allows for a good data fitting. Alternatively, a new approach for indus- trial flotation columns allowed a better fitting considering a simple model, based on large and small tanks in series. The study of fluid transport in the froth zone of flotation equipment has been of great attention, specifically in recent years. Fundamental and empirical correlations on fluid and gas transport in the froth allowed the estimation of the solid Trans IChemE, Part A, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 2007, 85(A12): 1591–1603 1600 YIANATOS mass transport by true flotation, entrainment of liquid and solids, as well as liquid and particles drainage. Theoretical estimation or direct measurement of bubble loading, at the pulp froth interface, are matters of continuing research interest because they allow for froth recovery calcu- lation and then the independent identification of the collection zone performance. A deeper understanding of flotation related processes has been achieved because the flow regime, the mass transport conditions at the pulp/froth interface and the froth transport characteristics, are better known and understood. Key par- ameters are the bubble surface area flux, related to the bubble generation and collection rate processes, bubble loading related to the mass transport across the pulp–froth interface and froth recovery which is mainly related to the gas residence time in the froth. In summary, despite the significant advances in fundamen- tal process knowledge as well as in industrial flotation process modelling, further work has to be done on metallur- gical scale-up laws combining surface chemistry, hydrodyn- amics and flotation rates, for the pulp and froth zones. NOMENCLATURE BL bubble loading, ton /m 23 dB bubble diameter, mm dP particle diameter, mm E(t) residence time distribution function F cell feed flowrate, m3 h21 F(k) rate constant distributed function JF superficial fluid velocity, cm s 21 JG superficial gas velocity, cm s 21 JGF drift flux, cm s 21 k overall kinetic rate constant, min21 K1 fraction of bubble surface coverage with a monolayer of particles kC collection rate constant, min 21 kM maximum flotation rate constant, min 21 L lag time, min m Richardson–Zaki index MC superficial concentrate mass overflow, ton h 21 m22 Mi superficial mass transport at the interface, ton h 21 m22 N number of mixer in series Nd vessel dispersion number Q volumetric flowrate, m3 h21 R overall flotation recovery R1 maximum flotation recovery at infinite time RC collection zone recovery ReB bubble Reynolds number Rf froth zone recovery SB bubble surface area flux, s 21 USl slip velocity, cm s 21 UT terminal bubble rise velocity, cm s 21 V cell volume, m3 Greek symbols G gamma function d Dirac delta function e fractional holdup r density, ton m23 t mean residence time, min m viscosity, g cm21 s21 Subscripts F fluid G gas L large mixer M maximum P particle S small mixer REFERENCES Alexander, D.J., Franzidis, J.P. and Manlapig, E.V., 2003, Froth recovery measurement in plant scale flotation cells, Miner Eng, 16: 1197–1203. Ando, K., Obata, E., Ikeda, K. and Fukuda, T., 1990, Mixing time of liquid in horizontal stirred vessels with multiple impellers, Can J Chem Eng, 68: 278–283. Arbiter, N., 2000, Development and scale-up of large flotation cells, Mining Eng, 52(3): 28–33. Banisi, S. and Finch, J.A., 1993, Reconciliation of bubble size esti- mation methods using drift flux analysis,Miner Eng, 7: 1555–1559. Bholes, M.R. and Joshi, J.B., 2003, Hydrodynamics of column flo- tation: Revisited, in International Symposium on the Role of Chemi- cal Engineering in Processing Minerals and Materials, Indian Chemical Engineering Congress, Mohanti, J.N., Biswal, S.K., Reddy, P.S.R. and Misra, V.N. (eds). 17–28 (Bhubaneswar, India). Bishop, J.P. and White, ME., 1976, Study of particle entrainment in flotation froths, Trans Inst Min Metall, 85: 191–194. Bloom, F. and Heindel, T.J., 2002, On the structure of collision and detachment frequencies in flotation models, Chem Eng Sci, 57: 2467–2473. Bourke, P., 2002, Selecting flotation cells: How many and what size? MEI on-line, www.min-eng.com. Burgess, F.L., 1997, OK-100 tank cell operation at Pasminco-Broken Hill, Miner Eng, 10(7): 723–741. De Aquino, J.A., Oliveira, M.L. and Dias, M., 1998, Flotaçao em coluna, in da Luz, A.B., Valente, M. and de Almeida, S.L. (eds). Tratamento de Minerios, 435–476 (CETEM/CNPq, Rı́o de Janeiro, Brasil). Deckwer, W.D. and Schumpe, A., 1987, Bubble columns—the state of the art and current trends, Int Chem Eng, 27(3): 405–422. Deglon, D.A., 2003, A novel attachment-detachment kinetic model, in Proc of the Strategic Conference, Flotation and Flocculation: From Fundamentals to Applications, Ralston, J., Miller, J. and Rubio, J. (eds). 109–116, (Snap Printing, Australia). Deglon, D.A., Sawyerr, F. and O’Connor, C., 1999, A model to relate the flotation rate constant and the bubble surface area flux in mechanical flotation cells, Miner Eng, 12(6): 599–608. Deng, H., Mehta, R.K. and Warren, G.W., 1996, Numerical modelling of flows in flotation column, Int J of Miner Process, 48(1–2): 61–72. Dobby, G.S., Yianatos, J.B. and Finch, J.A., 1988, Estimation of bubble diameter in flotation columns from drift flux analysis, Can Metall Quart, 27(2): 85–90. Dobby, G.S. and Finch, J.A., 1986, Flotation column scale-up and modeling, CIM Bulletin, 89–96. Dobby, G.S. and Finch, J.A., 1985, Mixing characteristics of industrial flotation columns, Chem Eng Sci, 40(7): 1061–1068. Ek, C., 1992, Flotation kinetics, Mavros, P. and Matis, K.A. (eds). in Innovations in Flotation Technology, Vol. 208, 183–209 (Nato ASI Series, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands). Emmanouil, V., Skaperdas, E., Karapantsios, T.D. and Matis, K.A., 2006, Towards three-phase modeling of a dissolved air flotation tank, in Proceedings of the XXIII International Mineral Processing Congress, Istanbul, Turkey, 3–8 September. Falutsu, M. and Dobby. G.S., 1992, Froth performance in commercial sized flotation columns, Miner Eng, 5(10–12): 1207–1223. Falutsu, M. and Dobby, G.S., 1989, Direct measurement of froth drop-back and collection zone recovery in a laboratory flotation column, Miner Eng, 2(3): 377–386. Ferreira, J.P. and Loveday, B.K., 2000, An improved model for simu- lation of flotation circuits, Miner Eng, 13(14–15): 1441–1453. Feteris, S., Frew, J. and Jowet, A., 1987, Modelling the effect of froth depth in flotation, Int J Miner Process, 20: 131–135. Finch, J.A., Cilliers, J. and Yianatos, J., 2007, Column flotation, in Fuerstenau, M.C., Jameson, G. and Yoon, R.H. (eds). Froth Flotation: A Century of Innovation, 681–737. (Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, USA). Finch, J.A., 1995, Column flotation: a selected review—Part IV: novel flotation devices, Miner Eng, 8(6): 587–602. Finch, J.A., Uribe-Salas, A. and Xu, M., 1995, Column flotation, in Matis, K.A. and Marcel, D. (eds). Flotation Sciences and Engineer- ing, 291–330 (New York, USA). Finch, J.A. and Dobby, G.S., 1990, Column Flotation, 1st edition, (PergamonPress, London, UK). Trans IChemE, Part A, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 2007, 85(A12): 1591–1603 COLUMNS AND MECHANICALLY AGITATED CELLS 1601 Flint, L.R., 1974, A mechanistic approach to flotation kinetics, Trans Inst Min Metall, 83: C90–95. Gallegos, P.M., Pérez, R. and Uribe, A., 2006, Maximum bubble loads: Experimental measurements vs. analytical estimation, Miner Eng, 19: 12–18. Goodall, C.M. and O’Connor, C.T., 1991, Residence time distribution studies in a flotation column. Part 1: the modelling of residence time distribution in a laboratory column flotation cell, Int J Miner Process, 31: 97–113. Harris, C.C., 1978, Multiphase models of flotation machines beha- viour, Int J Miner Process, 5: 107–129. Harris, C.C., Chakravarti, A. and Degaleesan, S.N., 1975, A recycle flow flotation machine model, Int J Miner Process, 2(1): 39–58. Hidalgo, L., 2006, Determinación de recuperación de espuma en celdas de flotación. Chem Eng thesis, Santa Maria University, Chile. Ityokumbul, M.T., 1992, A mass transfer approach to flotation column design, Chem Eng Sci, 47(13–14): 3605–3612. Ityokumbul, M.T., Kosaric, N. and Bulani, W., 1988, Parameter esti- mation with simplified boundary conditions, Chem Eng Sci, 43(9): 2457–2462. Jameson, G.J., 1988, New concept in flotation column design, Miner Metall Process, 5(1): 44–47. Johnson, N.W., 2005, A review of the entrainment mechanism and its modelling in industrial flotation processes, in Centenary of Flotation Symposium, 487–496 (Brisbane, Australia). Joshi, J.B. and Sharma, M.M., 1979, A circulation cell model for bubble columns, Trans Instn Chem Engrs, 57: 244–251. Kawatra, S.K. and Eisele, T.C., 1995, Laboratory baffled-column flotation of mixer lower/middle Kittanning seam bituminous coal, Miner Metall Process, 12(2):103–107. King, R.P., 2001, Modeling and Simulation of Mineral Processing Systems, 1st edition, (Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK). Klimpel, R., 1980, Selection of chemical reagents for flotation, in Mular, A.L. and Bhappu, R. (eds). Mineral Processing Plant Design, 2nd edition 907–934 (SME, Littleton, USA). Koh, P.T.L. and Schwarz, M.P., 2003, CFD modeling of bubble- particle collision rates and efficiencies in a flotation cell, Miner Eng, 16: 1055–1059. Koh, P.T.L., Manickam, M. and Schwarz, M.P., 2000, CFD simulation of bubble-particle collisions in mineral flotation cells, Miner Eng, 13(14–15): 1455–1463. Kostoglou, M., Karapantsios, T.D. and Matis, K.A., 2006, Modeling local flotation frequency in a turbulent flow field, Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 122: 79–91. Kwon, S.B., Park, N.S., Lee, S.J., Ahn, H.W. and Wang, C.K., 2006, Examining the effect of length/width ratio on the hydro-dynamic behaviour in a DAF system using CFD and ADV techniques, Water Science and Technology, 53(7): 141–149. Langberg, D.E. and Jameson, G.J., 1992, The coexistence of the froth and liquid phases in a flotation column, Chem Eng Sci, 47: 4345–4355. Laplante, A.R., Yianatos, J.B. and Finch, J.A., 1988, On the mixing characteristics of the collection zone in flotation columns, in, Sastry, K.V.S. (ed.). Column Flotation’88, 69–80 (SME, Littleton, USA). Laplante, A.R., Toguri, J.M. and Smith, H.W., 1983a, The effect of air flowrate on the kinetics of flotation. (I): The transfer of material from the slurry to the froth, Int J Miner Process, 11: 203–219. Laplante, A.R., Toguri, J.M. and Smith, H.W., 1983b, The effect of air flowrate on the kinetics of flotation. (II) The transfer of material from the froth over the cell lip, Int J Miner Process, 11: 221–234. Lelinski, D., Allen, J., Redden, L. and Weber, A., 2002, Analysis of the residence time distribution in large flotation machines, Miner Eng, 15(7): 499–505. Lelinski, D., Redden, L.D. and Nelson, M.G., 2005, Important con- siderations in the design of mechanical flotation machines, in Centenary of Flotation Symposium, 217–223 (Brisbane, Australia). Li, H., Del Villar, R. and Gomez, C.O., 2004, Reviewing the exper- imental procedure to determine the carrying capacity in flotation columns, Can Met Quart, 43(4): 513–520. Luttrell, G.H., Mankosa, M.J. and Yoon, R.H., 1993, Design and scale-up criteria for column flotation, in XVIII IMPC, 785–791 (Sydney, Australia). Mathe, Z., Harris, M. and O’Connor, C., 2000, A review of methods to model the froth phase in non-steady state flotation systems, Miner Eng, 13(2): 127–140. Mathe, Z., Harris, M., O’Connor, C. and Franzidis, J.P., 1998, Review of froth modelling in steady state flotation systems, Miner Eng, 11(5): 397–421. Mavros, P., 1992a, Mixing and hydrodynamics in flotation cells, in Mavros, P. and Matis, K.A. (eds). Innovation in Flotation Technol- ogy, Vol. E208, 211–234 (NATO Series, Kluwer Academic Publish- ers, The Netherlands). Mavros, P., 1992b, Validity and limitations of the closed-vessel analytical solution to the axial dispersion model, Miner Eng, 5(9): 1053–1060. Mavros, P., Lazaridis, N.K. and Matis, K.A., 1989, A study and modelling of liquid phase mixing in a flotation column, Int J Miner Process, 26(1–2): 1–16. Mehrotra, S.P. and Saxena, A.K., 1983, Effects of process variables on the residence time distribution of a solid in a continuously operated flotation cell, Int J Miner Process, 10: 255–277. Mills, P.J.T. and O’Connor, C.T. 1990, The modeling of liquid and solids mixing in a flotation column, Miner Eng, 3(6): 567–576. Mills, P.J.T., Yianatos, J.B. and O’Connor, C.T., 1992, The effect of particle size on the mixing characteristics of a flotation column, Miner Eng, 3(6): 567–576. Moys, M.H., 1984, Residence time distributions and mass transport in the froth phase of the flotation process, Int J Miner Process, 13: 117–142. Moys, M.H., 1978, A study of a plug-flow model for flotation froth behavior, Int J Miner Process, 5: 21–38. Moys, M.H., Engelbrecht, J. and Terblanche, N., 1991, The design of baffles to reduce axial mixing in flotation columns, in Agar, G.E., Huls, B.J. and Hyma, D.B. (eds). Proc International Conference Column’91, Vol. 1, 275–288 (CIM, Canada). Neethling, S.J. and Cilliers, J.J., 2003, Modelling flotation froths, Int J Miner Process, 72: 267–287. Neethling, S.J. and Cilliers, J.J., 2002, Solids motion in flowing froths, Chem Eng Sci, 57: 607–615. Neethling, S.J., Cilliers, J.J. and Woodburn, E.T., 2000, Prediction of the water distribution in a flowing foam, Chem Eng Sci, 55: 4021–4028. Niemi, A.J., 1995, Role of kinetics in modelling and control of flotation plants, Powder Technol, 82: 69–77. Pal, R. and Masliyah, J., 1990, Flow characteristics of a flotation column, Can J Chem Eng, 29(2): 97–103. Patwardhan, A. and Honaker, R.Q., 2000, Development of a carrying- capacity model for column froth flotation, Int J Miner Process, 59: 275–293. Polat, M. and Chander, S., 2000, First order flotation kinetics models and methods for estimation of the true distribution of flotation rate constant, Int J Miner Process, 58: 145–166. Pyke, B., Duan, J., Fornasiero, D. and Ralston, J., 2003, From turbulence and collision to attachment and detachment: A general flotation model, in Proc of the Strategic Conference Flotation and Flocculation: From Fundamentals to Applications, Ralston, J., Miller, J. and Rubio, J. (eds). 77–89 (Snap Printing, Australia). Ralston, J., Fornasiero, D. and Mishchuk, N., 2001, The hydrophobic force in flotation: a critique, Colloids and Surfaces A: Physico- chemical and Engineering Aspects, 192(1–3): 39–51. Ross, V.E., 1991, The behavior of particles in flotation froths, Int J Miner Process, 4(7–11): 959–974. Ross, V.E. and Van Deventer, J.S.J., 1988, Mass transport in flotation column froths, in Sastry, K.V.S. (ed.). Proc Int Symposium Column’88, 129–139 (SME, Littleton, USA). Rubinstein, J.B., 1995, Column Flotation: Processes, Designs and Practices, 1st edition (Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Basilea, Switzerland). Sastry, K.V.S. and Fuerstenau, D.W., 1970, Theoretical analysis of a counter-current flotation column, Transactions,SME of AIME, 247: 46–52. Savassi, O.N., 2005, A compartment model for the mass transfer inside a conventional cell, Int J Miner Process, 77: 65–79. Seaman, D.R., Franzidis, J.P. and Manlapig, E.V., 2004, Bubble load measurement in the pulp zone of industrial flotation machines-a new device for determining the froth recovery of attached particles, Int J Miner Process, 74: 1–13. Shah, Y.T., Kelkar, B.G., Goldbole, S.P. and Deckwer, W.D., 1982, Design parameters estimation for bubble column reactors, AICHE J, 28(3): 353–379. Trans IChemE, Part A, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 2007, 85(A12): 1591–1603 1602 YIANATOS Stevenson, P., Sullivan, S.P. and Jameson, G.J., 2003, Short-time tracer dispersión in a two-dimensional rising froth, Chem Eng Sci, 56: 5025–5043. Szatkowski, M. and Freiberger, W.L., 1985, Kinetics of flotation with fine bubbles, Trans Instn Min Metal, 94: C61–70. Tello, K., 2006, Caracterización hidrodinámica y metalúrgica de un banco de flotación industrial, Met Eng thesis, Santa Maria Univer- sity, Chile. Tokoro, C. and Okano, Y., 2001, Boundary conditions for column flotation—A study by transfer function representation of an axial diffusion model, Miner Eng, 14(1): 49–64. Tuteja, R.K., Spottiswood, D.J. and Misra, V.N., 1994, Mathematical models of the column flotation process: a review, Miner Eng, 7(12): 1459–1472. Vandenberghe, J., Choung, J., Xu, Z. and Masliyah, J., 2005, Drift flux modelling for a two-phase system in a flotation column, Can J Chem Eng, 83: 169–176. Van Deventer, J.S.J., Feng, D. and Burger, A.J., 2004a, Transport phenomena at the pulp-froth interface in a flotation column: 1. Recovery profiles, Int J Miner Process, 74: 201–215. Van Deventer, J.S.J., Feng, D. and Burger, A.J., 2004b, Transport phenomena at the pulp-froth interface in a flotation column: 2. Detachment, Int J Miner Process, 74: 201–215. Van Deventer, J.S.J., Feng, D. and Burger, A.J., 2001, The use of bubble loads to interpret transport phenomena at the pulp-froth interface in a flotation column, Chem Eng Sci, 56: 6313–6319. Vera, M.A., 1995, The determination of the collection zone rate con- stant and froth zone recovery by column flotation, Master thesis, Queensland University, Australia. Vera, M.A., Franzidis, J.P. and Manlapig, E.V., 1999, Simultaneous determination of collection zone rate constant and froth recovery in a mechanical flotation environment, Miner Eng, 12(10): 1163– 1176. Weber, A., Meadows, D., Villanueva, F., Palomo, R. and Prado, S., 2005, Development of the world’s largest flotation machine, in Centenary of Flotation Symposium, 285–291 (Brisbane, Australia). Wilson, S.G. and Frew, J.A., 1986, Effect of operating variables upon liquid backmixing in a laboratory flotation bank, Int J Miner Process, 16: 281–298. Xu, M., Finch, J.A. and Uribe-Salas, A., 1991a, Maximum gas and bubble surface rates in flotation columns, Int J Miner Process, 32: 233–250. Xu, M., Finch, J.A. and Laplante, A.R., 1991b, Numerical solution to axial dispersion model in flotation column studies, Can Metall Quart, 30(2): 71–77. Yianatos, J.B. and Henrı́quez, F., 2007, Boundary conditions for gas rate and bubble size at the pulp-froth interface in flotation equip- ment, Miner Eng, 20: 625–628. Yianatos, J.B., Bergh, L.G., Tello, K., Dı́az, F. and Villanueva, A., 2007, Residence time distribution in single big industrial flotation cells, Miner Metall Process J, accepted for publication. Yianatos, J.B., Bergh, L., Diaz, F. and Rodriguez, J., 2005a, Mixing characteristics of industrial flotation equipment, Chem Eng Sci, 60: 2273–2282. Yianatos, J.B., Bucarey, R., Larenas, J., Henrı́quez, F. and Torres, L., 2005b, Collection zone kinetic model for industrial flotation columns, Miner Eng, 18: 1373–1377. Yianatos, J.B., 2003, Current status of column flotation, in Ralston, J., Miller, J. and Rubio, J., (eds). Proceedings Strategic Conference, Flotation and Flocculation: From Fundamentals to Applications, 213–220 (Snap Printing, Australia). Yianatos, J.B., Bergh, L.G. and Aguilera, J., 2000, The effect of grind- ing on mill performance at División Salvador, Codelco-Chile, Miner Eng, 13(5): 485–495. Yianatos, J.B., Bergh, L.G., Condori, P. and Aguilera, J., 2001, Hydrodynamic and metallurgical characterization of industrial flotation banks for control purposes,Miner Eng, 14(9): 1033–1046. Yianatos, J.B., Bergh, L.G. and Cortés, G.A., 1998, Froth zone mod- eling of an industrial flotation column, Miner Eng,11(5): 423–435. Yianatos, J.B. and Bergh, L.G., 1992, RTD studies in an industrial flotation column: use of the radioactive tracer technique, Int J Miner Process, 36: 81–91. Yianatos, J.B., Finch, J.A., Dobby, G.S. and Xu, M., 1988, Bubble size estimation in a bubble swarm, J Colloid Inter Sci, 126(1): 37–44. Yianatos, J.B., Finch, J.A. and Laplante, A.R., 1987, The cleaning action in column flotation froths, Trans Inst Min Metall, Section C(96): C199–C205. Yigang, D., Yuanxin, W., Dinghuo, L. and Jiashen, Z., 2001, A study on the mixing characteristics of a packed flotation column, Miner Eng, 14(9): 1101–1105. Yoon, R.-H., 2000, The role of hydrodynamic and surface forces in bubble-particle interaction, Int J Miner Process, 58(1–4): 129–143. Yu, S. and Finch, J.A., 1990, Froth zone recovery in a flotation column, Can Metall Quart, 29(3): 237–238. Zehner, P., 1986, Momentum, mass and heat transfer in bubble columns. Part I. Flow models of the bubble column and liquid velocities, Int Chem Eng, 26: 22–28. Zheng, X., Franzidis, J.P. and Johnson, N.W., 2006, An evaluation of different models of water recovery in flotation, Miner Eng, 19: 871–882. Zhang, X., Franzidis, J.P. and Manlapig, E., 2004, Modelling of froth transportation in industrial flotation cells Part 1. Development of froth transportation models for attached particles, Miner Eng, 17: 981–988. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Funding for process modelling and control research is provided by CONICYT, project Fondecyt 1070106, and Santa Marı́a University, project 270522. The manuscript was received 3 May 2007 and accepted for publication after revision 23 August 2007. Trans IChemE, Part A, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 2007, 85(A12): 1591–1603 COLUMNS AND MECHANICALLY AGITATED CELLS 1603 FLUID FLOW AND KINETIC MODELLING INFLOTATION RELATED PROCESSESColumns and Mechanically AgitatedCells---A Review INTRODUCTION Mechanically Agitated Cells Pneumatic Cells FLOTATION MODELLINGFundamental Collection Models Flotation Rate Models Industrial Flotation: Model Structure RTD of Industrial Mechanical Cells Flotation Columns RTD of Industrial Flotation Columns Froth Transport Modelling CONCLUSIONS NOMENCLATURE REFERENCES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Compartilhar