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FCLLI AV1
In this class, we are going to discuss the reasons why while Christianity was long established as the religion of the Britons at the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasion, Christian Britons made little progress in converting the newcomers from their native paganism. Pope Gregory, The Great, sent Augustine, a monk, from Rome to evangelize the Angles. This event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks the beginning of its formal history. With the help of Christians already residing in Kent, Augustine established his church in Canterbury, the capital of the Kingdom of Kent, and became the first in the series of Archbishops of Canterbury in 598. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organization of Christianity in England.
After studying about Christianity in England we are going to analyze Christian and Pagan elements in the epic poem “Beowulf”. It describes the most heroic man of the Anglo-Saxon times. The hero, Beowulf, is a seemingly invincible person with all the extraordinary traits required of a hero. He is able to use his super-human physical strength and courage to put his people before himself. He encounters hideous monsters and the most ferocious of beasts but he never fears the threat of death. His leadership skills are superb and he is even able to boast about all his achievements. Beowulf is the ultimate epic hero who risks his life countless times for immortal glory and for the good of others.
Let´s take a look at the video Christianity A History “Dark Ages”.
Then, be prepared to answer the following questions: (00:00-04:43)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&feature=endscreen&v=WmVnuQgKhhg 
1- Mark the right statements. One is wrong:
A- The video is a story about
( ) the immigration of new people who created new politics
( ) the difficulty to create a Christian community
( ) the pagan kings who came to Britain
( ) Christianity creating a new vision of nation for England
2- When the Roman Empire collapsed, Christianity was
( ) solid
( ) vulnerable
3- True or False?
Christianity first arrived in Britain from Mediterranean during the Roman Empire. ( )
When and how did Christianity first reach Britain? 
That is not an easy task to determine how or when Christianity first reached Britain, but it was certainly well before Christianity was accepted by the Roman Emperor Constantine in the early fourth century AD. Christianity became firmly established across Britain in the last hundred years of Roman government, both in Roman controlled areas and beyond.
Let´s take a look at the video and see how they describe the beginnings of Christianity (00:00-01:69)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g8fkNVqkOaw 
How were the Celts influenced by Christianity?
The Celts were driven into the west and north of Britain by the Anglo-Saxon. In the Celtic areas Christianity continued to spread, bringing paganism to an end.
How Christianity was re-established in England?
Pope Gregory the Great sent a monk, Augustine, to re-establish Christianity in England in 597. Augustine went to Canterbury, the capital of the king of Kent. He did so because the king ´s wife came from Europe and was already Christian.
Who was Augustine?
In 601, Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was very successful because several ruling families in England accepted Christianity. Nevertheless, Augustine and his group of monks were not successful with ordinary people. That can be explained partly because Augustine was interested in establishing Christian authority, and that meant bringing rulers to the new faith.
Look at this video to know about Augustine.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=29292e9HQJU 00:00- 06:00
How did the Celtic Church contribute to the spread of Christianity?
The Celtic Church brought Christianity to the ordinary people of Britain. The Celtic bishops went out from their monasteries of Wales, Ireland and Scotland, walking from village to village teaching Christianity. Although there were differences between Anglo-Saxons and Celts, these bishops seem to have been readily accepted in Anglo-Saxon areas.
What were the differences between the Roman and the Celtic Churches?
The bishops from the Roman Church lived at the courts of the kings, which they made centers of Church power across England. The Celtic Church was interested in the hearts of ordinary people while the Roman Church was interested in authority and organization. The two churches reached a crisis when they disagreed over the date of Easter. In 603 at the Synod (meeting) of Whitby the king of Northumbria decided to support the Roman Church. The Celtic Church retreated as Rome extended its authority over all Christians, even in Celtic parts of the island.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vxmgc69zfU
In this video we are going to hear about the conflicts between the Roman and the Celtic churches
How did the Church grow ?
England had a fast process to become Christian. By 660 only Sussex and the Isle of Wight resisted the new faith. Twenty years later, English teachers came back to the lands from which the Anglo-Saxons originated, bringing Christianity to much of Germany. Saxon Kings helped the Church to grow, but the Church increased the power of kings as well. Bishops gave kings their support, which made it harder for royal power to be questioned. Kings were blessed because they had “God´s approval”. The value of Church approval was all the greater because uncertainty surrounded the royal succession.
What were the economical reasons for the Anglo-Saxon kings prefer the Roman Church?
Monasteries were built and villages and towns grew around them and increased local trade. Many bishops and monks in England came from the Frankish lands (France and Germany) and elsewhere. They were invited by English rulers who wished to benefit from closer Church and economic contact with Europe. Most of these bishops and monks seem to have come from churches or monasteries along Europe´s vital trade routes. Close contact with many parts of Europe was encouraged. Besides they all used Latin, the written language of Rome, and this led English to trade with the continent. Trade has grown with the help of increased literacy. Anglo-Saxon England became well known in Europe for its exports of woolen goods, cheese, hunting dogs, pottery and metal goods. It imported wine, fish, pepper, jewellery and wheel-made pottery.
How did the Vikings settle in Britain?
In 865 the Vikings invaded Britain once it was clear that the quarrelling Anglo-Saxon kingdoms could not keep them out. This time they came to conquer and to settle. The Vikings quickly accepted Christianity and did not disturb the local population.
What was the role of King Alfred?
Ten years later, king Alfred from Wessex managed to unite the Saxons against the Vikings. After some serious defeats Alfred won a decisive battle in 878, and eight years later he captured London. He made a treaty with the Vikings: Viking rule was recognized in the east and north of England, in the rest of the country he was recognized as the king of England. During his struggle against the Danes, he had built walled settlements to keep them out. These were called burghs. They become prosperous market towns, and the word, now usually spelt borough, is one of the commonest ending to place names, as well as the name of the unit of municipal or town administration today.
What´s Beowulf, the poem?
Beowulf, is the greatest piece of literature to come down to us from the Anglo-Saxons. Much that we would like to know about it is lost in the distant past and will probably never be discovered: Who wrote it? When? Where? Scholars have found enough evidence in the poem itself that it was composed by a single gifted poet some time during the seventh or eighth century. The existing manuscript of a alter date is no doubt a copy of an earlier one. The author was perhaps a Christianized West Saxon who drew his story from old pagan legends brought over fromthe continent; or perhaps monks substituted Christian references for pagan ones when they copied the manuscript. The character of Beowulf seems to be a blending of a historical figure with various mythical heroes of an earlier day.
Why is Beowulf considered a hero?
Beowulf is the hero of the story. Strong, fearless, an advocate of freedom and justice, he typifies the Anglo-Saxon ideals of personal conduct. The villains are the firedrake, or dragon from the dark caves, and the cannibal-ogre Grendel and his mother who live in the miasma of swamps in the land of mists and cold nights. The tone of the poem is dark, melancholic, and austere. In simple, direct , majestic verse, a literary legacy from the earliest writers of English poetry, an exciting story is told of adventure and heroism.
Which cultural elements can be found in Beowulf?
In the story of Beowulf, there is a noticeable struggle between Christianity and Paganism, and the characters personal battle between the two.   Throughout the story the characters display actions that lead towards Paganism and Christianity.   Contrary to Pagan belief Beowulf is seen as the epitome of good and beneficent to all of mankind.   In Beowulf, the people showed their faith and love in God, however due to horrific events, paranoia caused them to look for a quick fix and turns to Paganism.
The pagan elements in the epic poem Beowulf are evident in the characters superhuman 
personifications. Beowulf is depicted as a superhero. Beowulf takes it upon himself to save the Danes from Grendel. In his battle with Grendel, Beowulf chooses not to use weapons; he relies on his super strength. During the fight, Beowulf's strength takes over, and Beowulf wrestles with Grendel until he is able to rip one of the monster's arms out of its socket. 
The grisly monster got his death wound:
A huge split opened under his shoulder;
Crunched the socket, cracked the sinews,
Glory great was given to Beowulf.
But Grendel escaped with his gaping wound,
O´er the dreary moor his dark den sought, 
Crawled to his lair. ´Twas clear to him then,
The count of his hours to end had come,
Done were his days. The Danes were glad,
The hard fight was over, they had 
Cleared was the hall, ´twas cleansed by the hero
With keen heart and courage, who came from afar.
In this class, we are going to discuss the central idea of Feudalism that all land belonged to the king. Feudalism was a set of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries, which, broadly defined, was a system for structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labor. Organization of social classes will also be studied. 
The student should understand the importance of the Magna Letter to alter the social hierarchy. In 1215, the lords marched against John, Richard Lionheart´s brother, sons of Henry II, to show their dissatisfaction in relation to John´s attitudes of greed. They tried to force him to sign a document, the Magna Carta in which the king recognized his obligations as a feudal lord. The document changed the concept of hierarchy in society.
	Afterwards, we will analyze the foundation of the Parliament and describe the figure of the Knight. The learner should use the knowledge presented before to understand the system of social classes described by Chaucer in “The Canterbury Tales”.
What did Feudalism mean?
The word “feudalism” comes from the French word feu, which the Normans used to refer to land held in return for duty or service to a lord. The holding of the land was the basis of feudal society and its main purpose was economic. The central idea was that all land was owned by the king but it was held by others, called “vassals”, in return for services and goods. Large estates were given by the king to his main nobles in return for a promise to serve him in war for up to forty days.. Part of the produce of the land had to be given to the king. The greater nobles gave part of their lands to lesser nobles, knights, and other ´freeman´. Some freeman paid for the land by doing military service, while others paid rent. The noble kept “serfs” to work on his own land. These were not free to leave the estate, and were often little better than slaves.
What were the two basic principles to feudalism?
	The first one was that every man had a lord and the second was that every lord had land. The king was connected through this “chain” of people to the lowest man in the country. At each level a man had to promise loyalty and service to his lord. This promise was generally made with the lord sitting on his chair and his vassal kneeling before him, his hands placed between those of his lord. This was called “homage”, and has remained part of the coronation ceremony of British kings and queens until now. On the other hand, each lord had responsibilities to his vassals. He had to give them land and protection.
	Feudalism:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEJuq2F5VGY 8:11
What replaced the idea of Nationalism in the early Middle Ages?
William controlled two large areas: Normandy, which was given to him by his father and England, which was won in war. Both were personal possessions, and it did not matter to the rulers that that the ordinary people of one place were English while those of another were French. To William the important difference between them was that as duke of Normandy he had to recognize the king of France as his lord, whereas in England he was king with no lord above him.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZoniyxdgY4I&feature=related
What happened when William died in 1087?
He left the Durchy of Normandy to his elder son, Robert. He gave England to his second son, William , known as “Rufus” (Latin for red) because he had red hair and face. When Robert went to fight the Muslims in the Holy Land, he left William II in charge of Normandy. After all, the management of Normandy and England was a family business.
What was the Magna Carta?
The Magna Carta, the Great Charter was an important symbol of political freedom. The king promised all “freeman” protection from his officers, and the right to a fair and legal trial. At that time most people were not free, and were serfs or little better. Hundreds of years later , Magna Carta was used by Parliament to protect itself from a powerful king .In fact Magna Carta gave no real freedom to the majority of people in England. The nobles who obliged John to sign it did not defend people´s freedom: they wanted to prevent John from going beyond his rights as feudal lord.
Was Magna Carta a clear stage in the collapse of English Feudalism? 
We have some reasons to believe so. First, feudal society was based on links between lord and vassal and at Runnymede the nobles were not acting as vassals but as a class. Secondly, they established a committee of twenty-four lords to make sure John would keep his promises. That was not a “feudal” thing to do. Last, the nobles were acting in co-operation with the merchant class of towns. There were other signs that feudalism was changing. When the king went to war, the nobles refused to fight more than forty days. The king had to pay soldiers to fight for him. At the same time lords preferred their vassals to pay them in money rather in services. Vassals were gradually beginning to change into tenants. Feudalism, the use of the land in return for service, was beginning to weaken and it took three hundred years to disappear.
Watch the video about King John and the Magna Carta
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wUVnpe8uffs&feature=related 8 m
How was the foundation of the English Parliament?
King John signed Magna Carta under pressure and it quickly became clear that he was not going to keep the agreement. The nobles rebelled and pushed John out of the southeast. But John died and Civil War was avoided. Henry II was nine and he was controlled during sixteen years by the powerful nobles, and tied by the Magna Carta. At the age of twenty-five, he could rule by himself.Henry´s heavy spending to support wars in favor of the pope in Sicily and France and his foreigners advisers upset the nobles. Once again they acted as a class and under the leadership of Simon de Montfort, took over the government and elected a council of nobles. De Montfort called it a parliament, or parlement, a French word meaning a “discussion meeting”. The nobles were supported by towns, which wished to be free of Henry´s heavy taxes.
In 1265 Henry and some nobles defeated and killed Simon de Montfort. When he died Edward I brought together the first real parliament. Several kings had made arrangements for taxation but Edward I was the first to create a “representative institution” which could provide the money he needed. This institution became the House of Commons. Different from the House of Lords, it contained a mixture of “gentry” (knights and other wealth “freeman” from the shires) and merchants from the towns. These were the two broad classes of people who produced and controlled England´s wealh. In 1275 the “commoners” became unwilling representatives of their local community. They did not want to give their money to the king. This , rather than Magna Carta, was the beginning of the idea that there should not be “no taxation without representation”, later claimed by the American colonists of the eighteenth century. 
How was the system of classes in England?
England was special because the House of Commons contained a mixture of gentry belonging to the feudal ruling class and merchants and freemen who did not. The co-operation of these groups, through the House of Commons, became important to Britais´s later political and social development.. After the death of Edward, for 150 years, the agreement of the Commons became necessary for the making of all statutes, and all special taxation additional to regular taxes.
How can we describe the figure of the knight?
The knight, together with the King, was the most representative figure in Medieval Times. His image evokes qualities such as fearless, honor and idealization of someone who is able to abandon his desires to favor his principles. The ideals of a knight were his ability wit arms, physical strength, courage, honor and loyalty towards his lord. In the 12th century, these elements mixed with christen principles to form a code of knights. The knights, did not only learn how to combat, but also the rules to behave like a real knight, there was a knight´s ethics. He knew how to sing the sufferings and pleasure of the “amour courtois”
In medieval literature, the figure of a knight is outstanding. He is the hero, the example, always connected to extreme actions, as in Sir Gawain and the Green knight.
travel to religious shrines to seek miraculous cures, to gain remission of their sins, or to satisfy the wanderlust in their hearts. In England the pilgrimage to Canterbury Cathedral, site of this splendid shrine, was the most popular. Chaucer´s characters represent a cross section of medieval society and include three important groups: feudal, ecclesiastical, and urban. The characters who are members of the feudal system are related to the land; these are the knight, the Squire, the Yeoman, the Franklin, the Reeve and the Plowman. Those in the ecclesiastical order represent individuals belonging to the medieval church: the Parson, the Summoner, the Monk, the Prioress, the Friar, the Pardoner, and the Clerk. The other pilgrims are professional and mercantile laymen, who reside in the ever-increasing English towns of Chaucer´s day: 
the Physician, the Lawyer, the Manciple, the Merchant, the Shipman, the Tradesmen, the Cook, the Clothmaker (the wife of Bath), and the Innkeeper., Although Chaucer does not attempt to individualize all the characters in the Prologue to The Canterbury Tales, his pilgrims become real human beings seemingly on a real pilgrimage:
Excerpts from THE PROLOGUE
Byfel that, in that sesoun on a day,
In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay
Redy to wenden on my pilgrimage
To Caunterbury with ful devout corage,
At night was come into the hostelrie
Wel nyne and twenty in a compaiye,
Of sundry folk, by aventure i-falle
In felaweschipe, and pilgrims were thei alle,
That toward Caunterbury wolden ryde,
Tradução do PRÓLOGO
Naquele tempo, um dia aconteceu
Que em Southwrk, no Tabardo, achando-me eu
Pronto a seguir em peregrinação
A Cantuária, todo devoção
Vieram essa noite à hospedaria
Bem vinte e nove numa companhia
De pessoas diversa, que os destinos
Reuniram, por serem peregrinos
Buscando o mesmo fim de igual maneira
Through his pilgrims Chaucer gives far more than an unforgettable group of character sketches and a collection of stories. He uses the pilgrims to comment subtly but powerfully on the social problems of his time. His native tolerance and sense of humor helped him to understand men and the forces that motivated them. He realized that the disorders and confusions of the age in which he lived marked the decline of the Age of Chivalry, and the beginning of a new era- an era in which the lot of the common man was improving, the merchant class was prospering, and a Parliament was functioning. Chaucer looked upon this new order and found it good. This optimism colors the mood of Chaucer´s pilgrims as they set forth to Canterbury.
In this class, we are going to discuss that King Arthur is the figure at the heart of the Arthurian legends.  Arthur is a near mythic figure in Celtic stories such as Culhwch and Olwen. In early Latin chronicles he is presented as a military leader, the dux bellorum. In later romance he is presented as a king and emperor. One of the questions that has occupied those interested in King Arthur is whether or not he is a historical figure. The debate has raged since the Renaissance when Arthur's historicity was vigorously defended, partly because the Tudor monarchs traced their lineage to Arthur and used that connection as a justification for their reign. Modern scholarship has generally assumed that there was some actual person at the heart of the legends, though not of course a king with a band of knights in shining armor--though O.J. Padel in "The
Activity
Mark the right options in relation to the ´Morte D’Arthur`:
	We know many facts about Malory´s life.
Yes
No
‘Morte D’ Arthur is an example of an excellent Romance of Chivalry: 
Yes
No
Malory uses 13th century French versions of Arthurian legends.
Yes
No
Nature of Arthur" argues that "historical attributes of just the kind that we find attached to Arthur can be associated with a figure who was not historical to start with." We will also study the characteristics of the Chivalry Romance and analyze cultural traits in Morte DÁrthur.
Why are the stories about King Arthur so fascinating?
There was a story that an abbot, in 1200, in a monastery was talking about God in a meeting. He noticed that the monks and nuns were sleepy and that some of them even snored. All of a sudden the abbot announced: ”Listen, my brothers, once upon a time there was a king called Arthur..” Everyone who was already sleeping, woke up to listen to Arthur´ s stories. The abbot, then, concluded that his audience needed higher spiritual teachings because they were much more attentive to Arthur´ s stories than to his preaching about God.
What are Arthur´s historical roots?
Arthur was born as a symbol of hope to the British people. After the Roman legions left Britain to defend Rome against vast groups of invaders in the beginning of century V, the Bretons had to fight their own invaders, the German, called the ‘Saxons’.
Over a century , the British soldiers fought against the Saxons, having victories and defeats, up to 577 A.C when the Germanic conquest was achieved in the Battle of Deorham. With the Germanic conquest, the major part of Bretons mixed with the invaders; some others, however, went to Wales, and another part crossed the channel to the province of Britain.
Let´s watch a video about the legend of King Arthur
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QLATxHGRqFg&feature=relatedWhat are the cultural roots of Arthur´s legends?
Many characters and elements surround the stories of King Arthur have their roots in legends, beliefs and habits of the peoples who invaded Britain. Let´s tale a look at some of them.
Arthur- ‘Arthur’ is the welsh form of the roman name Arthorius and that suggests that he has appeared when Britain was under the influence of the Roman Empire. Another story links the origin of the name ‘Arthur” from the legend, to a chivalry officer from the century II called Lucius Artorius Castus, who was a leader for the Bretons against the invaders in a number of battles.
Avalon- In the year 1998, archeologists found in Cadbury Hill British military chiefs buried in coffins in the shape of boats. The ancient people believed that the soul traveled from one world to another which was found I lakes and seas. The coffins were pointing the hill of Glastonbury Tor, a religious place. During the flooding times, Glastonbury was isolated as an island. People wonder if that ritual is behind the legend that Arthur was taken to the magic island of Avalon to heal his wounds.
Excalibur- It was common during the Middle Ages to give names to swords. According to recent researches, the famous scene of the sword withdrawn from the rock comes from the fact that the Bretons forged their swords in rock moulds. It is important to make clear that the sword withdrawn from the rock was not Excalibur. King Arthur´s famous sword , called in the first reports ‘Caladfwich’ ( it comes from the welsh word caladbolg- duro corte) and after, in century XII of Caliburn, was given by him to the Dame of the Lake and it was forged by fairies. The fact that the sword came from water and returned to it after Arthur’s death comes from the habit of the first Celtic communities to throw in the water swords, shields and objects from the dead warriors. As time went by the two swords became into a single one.
Video: Excalibur http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OwqOn8b2IVo 
The Graal- The origin of the Holy Grail comes probably from the word gradalis which means grail or dish. Indeed, a theme always mentioned in the Celtic legends is the search for a magical pot. From the century XVIII on it started to be associated with the Arthurian cycle, but only as a supernatural symbol without Christian connections. Around the century XV, it turned into the Holy Grail, the grail employed by Jesus.
Merlin-Merlin is the mixing of a welsh legend about a British noble in the ending of century VI. He was famous for becoming crazy in a battle and for raiding for the south of Scotland telling prophecies under the name of Myrddin, as the character Ambrosius Merlinus by Geoffrey de Monmouth.
The Round Table- A famous round table created by Merlin with the purpose of getting together 150 knights to celebrate king Arthur´s deeds. The shape of the table has its origins in the Celtic belief that the circle is a symbol of coherence and totality.
How was the code of chivalry?
According to code of chivalry, the perfect knight fought for his good name if insulted, served God and the King, and defended any lady in need. These ideas were expressed in the legend of the Round Table, around which King Arthur and his knights sat as equals in holy brotherhood.
Why was Chivalry useful?
Chivalry was a useful way of persuading men to fight by creating the idea that war was a noble and glorious thing. War could also, of course, be profitable. But in fact cruelty, death, destruction and theft were the reality of war, as they are today. The Black Prince, who was the living example of chivalry in England, was feared in France for his cruelty.
What are the characteristics of a Romance of Chivalry? 
The world depicted in these romances is unreal, a world in which daily life is irrelevant, where action dominates reflection and exaggeration rules (the hero is the best, the greatest, the lady the most beautiful, the enemy the cruelest etc.).   We have to suspend our disbelief as we enter the black and white world of heroes and villains, virtuous women and immoral women, giants and dwarves and so on.
Chivalric romance looks constantly to the future, as the knight moves from adventure to adventure.  This active life contrasts significantly with, for example, with that of pastoral literature which is typically static, with the shepherd seated on a river bank comparing his past joy-through-love with his loveless present.  For the shepherd there is no future; the knight-errant, on the other hand, constantly propels himself forward (unless he is enchanted, in which case he awaits release).
Romances of chivalry have a universal, timeless quality. The adventures are variations on the eternal struggle between good and evil, order and disorder, requited and unrequited love, and happen in some vague time in the past (but after the birth of Christ) and in exotic and distant places. The world of romance is still with us, but transformed. We have only to look, for example, at Western (cowboy) movies and novels,  the highly popular James Bond novels and films (set in present time but exotic locales), the television series Xena: Princess Warrior (female “knight” and “squire”) and the Star Wars movies (which take us into a distant future). 
What is Morte D´Arthur about?
Malory´s Morte D´Arthur is a gathering of the main body of legends about King Arthur into one narrative, it is the best-known work of fifteenth-century English literature. His simple, forthright telling of Arthurian lore is still enjoyed by modern readers, and the work has long inspired other writings, such as Tennyson´s Idylls of the king.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjjsoCeGUVw –Morte D´Arthur
Extract from MORTE D’ARTHUR
Book XXI, Chapter IV
Therefore for God´s sake, my lord, leave off by this. For blessed by God ye have won the field, for here we be three on live, and Sir Mordred is none on live. And if ye leave off now this wicked day of destiny is past. Tide me death, betide me life, saith the king, now I see him yonder alone he shall never escape mine hands, for at a better avail shall I never have him. God speed you well, said Sir Bedivere. Then the king gat his spear in both hands, and ran toward Sir Mordred , crying: Traitor, now is thy death day come. And when Sir Mordred heard Sir Arthur, he ran until him with his sword 
drawn in his hand. And there King Arthur smote Sir Mordred under the shield, with a foin of his spear, throughout the body, more than a fathom. And when Sir Mordred felt that he had his death wound he thurst himself with the might that he had up to the bur of king Arthur´s, with his swod holden in both his hands, on the side of the head, that the sword pierced the helmet and the brain-pan, and therewithal Sir Mordred fell stark dead to the earth. And the noble Arthur fell in a swoon to the earth, and he swooned oft-times.
Portanto, pelo amor de Deus , meu senhor, deixá-lo estar. Pois , graças a Deus, fostes o vitorioso no campo, visto que aqui ainda vivemos três, e com Sir Mordred não há mais ninguém com vida. E, se agora deixardes as coisas como estão, terá passado este dia cruel do destino. Traga-me a morte, leve-me a vida, brada o rei, agora que o vejo sozinho acolá não há de escapar-me das mãos, pois oportunidade melhor nunca terei. Deus vos proteja, ajuntou Sir Bedivere. Então o soberano agarrou a lança com ambas as mãos e correu para Sir Mordred, gritando.Traidor, chegou o dia de tua morte. E quando Sir Mordred ouviu Sir Arthur, correu para ele com a espada desembaiada na mão. E ali o 
Rei Artur feriu Sir Mordred por baixo do escudo, com um golpe de lança, perfurando-lhe o corpo de lado a lado. E quando Sir Mordred sentiu que fora ferido de morte , arremessou-se sobre o Rei Artur, com o que ainda lhe restava de forças, até o punho da lança. E assim, segurando a espada com ambas as mãos, feriu seu pai Artur em um dos lados da cabeça, de modo que a lâmina atravessou o elmo e o crânio; e com isso Sir Mordred tombou morto ao solo. E o nobre Artur veioao chão num desmaio, e lá desfaleceu seguidas vezes
The selection above occurs near the end of the Morte D’ Arthur, when the unity of the Round Table has been disrupted by the ambitions of Arthur´s nephew , Mordred. Rallying a band of knights around him, the traitor attempts to seize Arthur´s crown. Ultimately the two factions meet in a battle which brings about the death of all the knights of the kingdom except the loyal Sir Bedivere. Mordred is killed by Arthur, who is himself mortally wounded. It is left to Bedivere to carry out his king´s last wishes.
In this class, we are going to discuss that the Elizabethan Period was the age of the Renaissance, of new ideas and new thinking. The introduction of the printing press during the Renaissance, one of the greatest tools in increasing knowledge and learning, was responsible for the interest in the different sciences and inventions- and the supernatural! The new ideas, information and increased knowledge about science, technology and astrology led to a renewed interest in the supernatural including witches ,witchcraft and ghosts which led to the belief in superstitions and the supernatural. We will also study the progress of the Reformation in England was closely bound up with Henry's personal affairs. His increasing desperation to secure release from his marriage to Catherine of Aragon forced him to contemplate radical steps that went very much against the grain of his own 
instinctive theological conservatism. In this respect the Reformation in England would follow a model much closer to that of Scandinavia than Germany or Switzerland. Although England, like Bohemia, had its own indigenous mediaeval heresy in Lollardy, Luther's attack on the church had initially produced little resonance in England. Luther's works were imported into England at an early stage, but this may very often have been for the convenience of conservative theologians who bought them to refute them, such as Bishop John Fisher and Sir Thomas More. The origins and development of the Elizabethan Theater will also be studied as well as the importance of the historical facts mentions above in Shakespeare´ s play “ Henry VIII”
Was the Elizabethan Age a period of changes?
The Elizabethan Age or Golden Age or Tudors Era might very well be called the Age of the Sea. England as a whole was embarked upon a great voyage in time. Behind lay the Middle Ages. Ahead lay the modern world we know today. And the time in between, the sixteenth century, was a surging tumult of old and new. The medieval baron, the knight, the serf, and the Catholic prelate were no longer the dominant types in English society. The agent of the national government, the wealthy urban merchant, the Protestant reformer and the worldly scholar became more important. This mingling of the old with the new also characterized the Elizabethan outlook on life.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uijNA8Qit8I Elizabeth I 
Who were the Englishmen in the sixteenth century?
Englishmen in the 16th century were as devoutly religious as their medieval ancestors, but also threw themselves passionately into the worldliest of projects and pastimes. They were still superstitious enough to believe in witches but rejected as total nonsense such questions as how many angels could fit on the head of a pin. They were great respecters of authority yet violently critical of their medieval ancestors for accepting it. And while they were conscious of being born into certain stations in life, they proclaimed the right of men of natural talent to rise to the top of the social ladder.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aJ1BZMcUBxo&feature=related Elizabethan age
Why does the period bear the name of Queen Elizabeth?
She was the greatest of the Tudor monarchs and ruled longer than any of the other Tudors. There were tremendous political, religious, economic and intellectual changes during her reign. In her reign, there was the finest flowering of arts. Both the Queen and the age were madly in love with life in all its aspects. The activity in the court involved royal agents, foreign ambassadors, churchmen, scholars, poets, actors, musicians, cooks, porters, and chambermaids. All these people mixed in London. Elizabeth attended public hangings, witch burnings together with exquisite jewels, silks, brocades, stately dances and elevated discussions of Christian theology, Greek philosophy and Italian poetry.
Why did Henry dislike the power of the Church?
Henry disliked the power of the Church in England because, since it was an international organization, he could not completely control it. If Henry had been powerful enough in Europe to influence the pope it might have been different. But there were two far more powerful states, France, and Spain, with the Holy Roman Empire, lying between him and Rome. The power of the Catholic Church in England could therefore work against his own authority, and the taxes paid to the Church reduced his own income. Henry wanted to centralize state authority as many other European kings. But Henry had another reason.
Henry and his wives:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3EGzHsye71c&feature=related 
How did England become Protestant?
Henry´ s break with Rome was purely political .He did not approve of the new ideas of Reformation Protestantism introduced by Martin Luther in Germany and John Calvin in Geneva .He still believed in the Catholic faith. Like his father, Henry VIII governed England through his close advisers, men who were completely dependent on him for their position. When he broke with Rome, he used Parliament to make the break legal. Through several Acts of Parliament between 1532 and 1536, England became politically a Protestant country, even though the popular religion was still Catholic
How did Reformation advance with Henry VIII?
Thomas Cromwell became the king´ s chief minister. Between 1536 and 1539 they closed 560 monasteries and other religious houses. Henry did this in order to make money, but he also wanted to be popular with the rising classes of landowners and merchants. He sold or gave much of the monasteries´ lands to them. Meanwhile the monks and nuns were thrown out. Some were given small sums of money, but many were unable to find work and became wandering beggars. The dissolution of the monasteries was probably the greatest act of official destruction in the history of Britain. He remained loyal to Catholic religious teaching, and executed Protestants who refused to accept it.
How did the Renaissance affect English attitudes toward learning and the arts?
The Renaissance ( or rebirth of learning), which began in Italy in the 14th century, affected English attitudes toward learning and the arts from approximately 1485, the year of the accession of the Tudor monarchs, to 1660, when Charles II was restored to the throne. Before Caxton printed his first book in English, no more than two percent of the English people could read. Afterwards, learning increased rapidly, from the Crown to the commoner: Henry VIII wrote poetry and composed songs; Elizabeth I spoke five foreign languages and encouraged drama and the arts. New schools were founded throughout Britain, in rural villages as well as cities.
English Renaissance: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4SL50pc7C3o 
What were the key Renaissance characteristics?
Emphasis on classical studies in the expanding universities
Increasing literacy among the laity
Growth of a critical, skeptical type of scholarship, leading to scientific inquiry
Increasing trade leads to individual wealth, general prosperity, nationalism and materialism
Gradual movement from unquestioned religious beliefs toward a more human-centered philosophy.
What is Renaissance drama?
The figure of Shakespeare towers above all other English authors, of both the Renaissance and all other periods. Drama at this time has moved completely into the secular world. Blank verse becomes the standard form for drama, except for scenes of ´low´ comedy, which are in prose. Many early plays were based onthis Latin comedies of Plautus and Terence and the tragedies of Seneca. The revenge tragedy is a popular form, reaching its apotheosis in Shakespeare ´s Hamlet. The fact that female roles are played by young boys makes somewhat more plausible the standard plot of the girl disguised as a boy in romantic comedies. 
How were the characters in the Elizabethan theater?
The characters were complex because they combined personality traits. The transition away from personified abstractions to characters drawn from real life men and women was given impetus by the Renaissance idea that individual human beings were fascinating objects of study. The crowning of this new kind of theater was William Shakespeare who created a roster of characters who often seem more real than our own friends and acquaintances.
Henry ´s VIII- The plot
Cardinal Wolsey, a close advisor to Henry VIII’s father, Henry VII, has framed the Duke of Buckingham for treason, who is executed. The Queen, Katherine, hates Wolsey and he is also hated by the people because of the plot against Buckingham and the harsh, unfair taxes he is  imposing in the King’s name. The King goes to a party hosted by Wolsey and falls in love with Anne Boleyn, a lady-in-waiting to the Queen.
Henry, married to Katherine for twenty years, decides that the marriage is not legal because she is the widow of his brother, and it is therefore incest. He asks Wolsey for his advice. Because of that Wolsey becomes even more hated, both by Katherine and the people so he can’t agree to Henry’s solution of a divorce, but he agrees to put it the Pope, who will send someone to investigate and make a 
ruling. Katherine regards the marriage as sacred but she has to submit to the proceedings.
Wolsey’s enemies are active and, the situation compounded by some bad luck, he begins to lose the confidence of Henry. Also, Henry sees him as a stumbling block to the divorce. Wolsey knows that Henry is determined to marry Anne Boleyn so he advises the Pope to postpone a decision. With Wolsey in disgrace Henry goes ahead with the divorce and the remarriage with out any regard to the Pope’s opinion. Wolsey then dies, followed soon after by Katherine.
The new Archbishop of Canterbury has a plot hatched against him by Wolsey ’s secretary, Gardiner, who is tried and executed for treason. Henry has a daughter, Elizabeth, by Anne Boleyn. Crammer christens her and makes a speech foretelling a noble rule for Elizabeth and a glorious period of history during her reign.
 In this class, we are going to discuss the causes which led to the American Revolution. In their immediate occasion they were largely economic. The colonists objected to the navigation laws which interfered with their trade, they denied the power of Parliament to impose taxes which they were obliged to pay, and they therefore resisted the royal governors and the royal forces which were sent to secure obedience to these laws. But the conviction is inescapable that a new civilization had come, a new spirit had arisen on that side of the Atlantic more advanced and more developed in its regard for the rights of the individual than that which characterized the Old World. Life in a new and open country had aspirations which could not be realized in any
any subordinate position. A separate establishment was ultimately inevitable. It had been decreed by the very laws of human nature. Man everywhere has an unconquerable desire to be the master of his own destiny. We are obliged to conclude that the Declaration of Independence represented the movement of a people. It was not, of course, a movement from the top. Revolutions do not come from that direction. Besides that, we are going to study the fights between the south and the north.
When were the concepts of freedom first mentioned?
The colonists- inheritors of the traditions of the Englishman ´s long struggle for political liberty- incorporated concepts of freedom into Virginia ´s first charter. This provided that English colonists were to exercise all liberties, franchises, and immunities “as if they had been abiding and born within this Realm of England”. They were, then, to enjoy the benefits of the Magna Carta and the 
common law.
The History of the United States:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ICqJEt072WE&feature=fvwrel 
How did England loose control over the colonies?
In the early days, the colonies were able to hold fast to their heritage of rights because of the king ‘s arbitrary assumption that they were not subject to parliamentary control. In addition, for years afterward, the kings of England were too preoccupied with a great struggle in England itself- a struggle which culminated in the Puritan Revolution- to enforce their will. Before Parliament could bring its attention to the task of molding the American colonies to an imperial policy, they had grown strong and prosperous in their own right.
The thirteen colonies:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0mlkgrrG7TU 
How did legislation become American?
From the first year after the colonists had set foot upon the new continent, they had functioned according to the English law and constitution- with legislative assemblies, a representative system of government, and a recognition of the common- law guarantees of personal liberty. But increasingly legislation became American in point of view, and less and less attention was paid to English practices and precedents. Nevertheless, colonial freedom from effective English control was not achieved without conflict, and colonial history abounds in struggles between the assemblies elected by the people and the governors appointed by the king.
How did power move from England to the colonies?
The recurring clashes between governor and assembly worked increasingly to awaken the colonists to the divergence between American and English interests. Gradually, the assemblies took over the functions of the governors and their councils, which were made up of colonists selected for their docile support of royal power, and the center of colonial administration shifted from London to the provincial capitals. Early in the 1771s, following the final expulsion of the French from the North American continent, an attempt was made to bring about a drastic change in the relationship between the colonies and the mother country.
How did colonists behave towards the war between England and France?
The colonies offered little support for the war as a whole, all schemes failing to bring them ‘to a sense of their duty to the King.” The colonists could see the war only as a struggle for empire on the part of England and France. They felt no compunction when British government was obliged to send large numbers of regular troops to wage colonial battles. Nor did they regret that the French , the ‘redcoats’, rather than provincial troops, won the war. Nor did they see any reason for cutting commerce that, in effect, constituted ‘trade with the enemy.’ In spite of colonial support and of several early military defeats, England won the war.
Colonists:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8_ltTMQ6Gsg : 2.05 to 12.02
Was England able to control colonists’ demands for freedom?
Clear as was the British need for a new imperial design, the situation in America was anything but favorable to a change. Long accustomed to a large measure of independence, the colonies were demanding more, not less, freedom, particularly now that the French menace had been eliminated. To put a new system into effect, to tighten control, the statesmen of England had to contend with colonists trained to self-government and impatient of interference.
To what extent did the financial policy of the British government affect their relationship with the colonists?
England needed more money to support the growing empire. Unless the taxpayer in England was to supply it all, the colonies would have to contribute. Colonists were very dissatisfied with the taxing. Here are some examples of the taxes and laws created by England and their consequences: Outraged colonies:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sbwOop46DagWhich movements were developed to help the colonies reach independence?
*1774
- Representatives of the Colonies met in Philadelphia “to consult upon the present unhappy state of the Colonies.” (1st Continental Congress)
- No obedience to the “Coercive Acts”
- Formation of an “ Association to make resistance against British acts”.
* April 1775
- 1st bloodshed for independence: 8 patriots dead and many losses in the British troops
* May 1775
- 2nd Continental Congress: John Hancock (president), Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin
-War was the issue to be discussed
- Colonel George Washington was appointed commander in chief of the American forces.
* 1776
- Thomas Paine publishes “Common Sense”, valuing the honest working man, and ridiculing monarchy- Brought many to the cause of Independence.
* July 4, 1776
- Declaration of Independence ( Thomas Jefferson- Virginia- and others)
* Revolutionary War
- Lasted more than 6 years
 - French helped: Revenge for 1763; enthusiasm for the American cause
 - Later, King Louis XVI sent a fleet to help and British surround
 * 1783
 - Independence was acknowledged
How can we link The Declaration of Independence to a philosophy of human freedom?
The Declaration of Independence- adopted July 4, 1776- not only announced the birth of a new nation, it also set forth a philosophy of human freedom meant to be a dynamic force in the entire western world. It rested, not upon particular grievances, but upon a broad base of individual liberty that could command general support throughout America. Its political philosophy is explicit:
“ We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness.”
Which parallels can we draw between the American and French Revolution?
The effects of the American Revolution, as a revolution, were imponderable but very great. It inspired the sense of a new era. It added a new content to the conception of progress. It gave a whole new dimension to ideas of liberty and equality made familiar by the Enlightenment. It got people into the habit of thinking more concretely about political questions, and made them more readily critical of their own governments and society. It dethroned England, and set up America, as a model for those seeking a better world. It brought written constitutions, declarations of rights, and 
Constituent conventions into the realm of the possible. The apparition on the other side of the atlantic of certain ideas already familiar in europe made such ideas seem more truly universal, and confirmed the habit of thinking in terms of humanity at large. Whether fantastically idealized or seen in a factual way, whether as mirage or as reality, america made europe seem unsatisfactory to many people of the middle and lower classes, and to those of the upper classes who wished them well. It made a good many europeans feel sorry for themselves, and induced a kind of spiritual flight from the old regime. 
What were the differences between the South and the North?
Historians continue to debate why the country's tradition of compromise broke down in 1861. Several factors contributed to the outbreak of civil war. One was a growing divergence between the North and South-economically, socially, and ideologically. At the new nation's founding, the two regions were superficially quite similar. Slavery could be found in each of the thirteen states and each region had a predominantly agricultural economy. But except in parts of Rhode Island, New Jersey, and New York's Hudson River Valley, slavery was a marginal institution in the North, and following the Revolution, each Northern state either abolished slavery or adopted a gradual emancipation plan.
Personal thoughts about the Declaration follow the excerpts below.
The individual freedoms which we take for granted are still remarkable in much of the world more than 200 years after our Revolutionary War.  There is much in this "status quo" which merits vigilant conservative protection against the latest liberal ideas about how to mandate changes in our lives through federal government power.
In our system, it is up to us, the individual voters, to always remain vigilant against nascent tyranny or any other abuses of public trust or power by the elected officials of any party from any state.  This is not a government of allegiance sworn to those who wield power today.  We the people are still in charge here.
Review
Mark the right answers about Beowulf.
1- Beowulf is a
a- soldier
b- a priest 
c- a hero
2- Beowulf typifies the Anglo-Saxon ideals of personal conduct. These ideals include:
a - to be handsome
b- to be a good singer
c- to be an advocate of freedom and justice, 
3- Who are the villains in the story?
a- the people
b- the firedrake, Grendel and his mother
c -the ugly women
A video: Introduction about beowulfhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cPLii5Vbyec&feature=related
Which cultural elements can be found in Beowulf?
In the story of Beowulf, there is a noticeable struggle between Christianity and Paganism, and the characters personal battle between the two.   Throughout the story the characters display actions that lead towards Paganism and Christianity.   Contrary to Pagan belief Beowulf is seen as the epitome of good and beneficent to all of mankind.   In Beowulf, the people showed their faith and love in God, however due to horrific events, paranoia caused them to look for a quick fix and turns to Paganism.
The pagan elements in the epic poem Beowulf are evident in the characters superhuman 
personifications. Beowulf is depicted as a superhero. Beowulf takes it upon himself to save the Danes from Grendel. In his battle with Grendel, Beowulf chooses not to use weapons; he relies on his super strength. During the fight, Beowulf's strength takes over, and Beowulf wrestles with Grendel until he is able to rip one of the monster's arms out of its socket.
How did legislation become American?
From the first year after the colonists had set foot upon the new continent, they had functioned according to the English law and constitution- with legislative assemblies, a representative system of government, and a recognition of the common- law guarantees of personal liberty. But increasingly legislation became American in point of view, and less and less attention was paid to English practices and precedents. Nevertheless, colonial freedom from effective English control was not achieved without conflict, and colonial history abounds in struggles between the assemblies elected by the people and the governors appointed by the king.
Mark the right options in relation to the Canterbury Tales by Chaucer.
1- Chaucer came from a poor family.
Yes
No
2- In “the Canterbury Tales” Chaucer describes characters from different social classes
Yes
No
3-“The Canterbury Tales” serves as a portrait of the English society in Medieval Times.
Yes
No
Choose the option which best suits the statements below:
1- Feudalism refers 
to land given to everyone freely
to land given only to the “serfs”
to land held in return for duty or service to a lord
to land the king did not want anymore
to land nobody wanted
2- Magna Carta was
important for the pope
a symbol of financial power
meant for the vassels
a symbol of political freedom
not important at all
3- The Parliament in England
had a mixture of different social classes
had only a House of Lords
kept the gentry separate from the commoners
was controlledby the gentry
was a place for fighting
4- The knights 
were not loyal
did not know how to fight
were honored and brave
were weak
had pagan principles
Vídeo: The Summoner´s Tale:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VFtXgjrHsPY&feature=related 
Through his pilgrims Chaucer gives far more than an unforgettable group of character sketches and a collection of stories. He uses the pilgrims to comment subtly but powerfully on the social problems of his time. His native tolerance and sense of humor helped him to understand men and the forces that motivated them. He realized that the disorders and confusions of the age in which he lived marked the decline of the Age of Chivalry, and the beginning of a new era- an era in which the lot of the common man was improving, the merchant class was prospering, and a Parliament was functioning. 
Chaucer looked upon this new order and found it good. This optimism colors the mood of Chaucer´s pilgrims as they set forth to Canterbury. Chaucer looked upon this new order and found it good. This optimism colors the mood of Chaucer´s pilgrims as they set forth to Canterbury. 
1- Choose the option which best suits the statements below:
Edward III and his eldest son, the Black Prince were greatly admired by
their courage and courtly manners
their clothes and shoes
their success and fighting lessons
their ability with women and their personal subjects
their alliance with Germans and Scots
The Black Prince who was an example of chivalry in England, was
adored in France for his manners.
forgotten in France.
feared in France for his cruelty
expected in France,
left in France to learn the language.
3- According to the code of chivalry, a knight should not
fight for his name if insulted
serve God
serve the king
laugh at women
defend any lady in need
4 -Sir Thomas Malory
wrote about monsters
captured in his writings the medieval ideal of knighthood
printed his pictures
wrote about women
 wrote poems about the Church
Watch the video and answer the folloing questions about Knights and chivalry: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JEBoGU8djMo&feature=mr_meh&list=PLCD2BD17F0112BAD2&playnext=0 
1- What was chivalry?
2- How were the missions knights were sent to?
3-What was the knight social position?
4-When did yhe tournaments came to England?
5-Did knighhood become a worthy profession?
6- Did people have to be rich to become knights?
7- Did tournaments help war tactics?
Answers to the previous questions:
1- It was a social class, an order and a code of values.
2- Moral, religious and political meanings.
3- Knights joined the warrior class but also had a feudal bond between the lord and man.
4- In the early 12th century. They were banned later.
5-  Yes, it did
6- Yes, they did
7- Tournaments helped to develop war tactics between mounted soldiers
Let´s watch a video about Lancelot, one of King Arthur´s Knights
Rei Arthur: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a4NhBlGwijQ&feature=related 
What is Morte D´Arthur about?
Malory´s Morte D´Arthur is a gathering of the main body of legends about King Arthur into one narrative, it is the best-known work of fifteenth-century English literature. His simple, forthright telling of Arthurian lore is still enjoyed by modern readers, and the work has long inspired other writings, such as Tennyson´s Idylls of the king.
Mark the right options in relation to the play Henry VIII by Shakespeare:
In the play Henry VIII Shakespeare describes historical facts from the 16th century:
Yes
No
Henry VIII is a story about Henry’s obsession with producing a male heir
Yes
No
Women were presented as independent characters in the play
Yes
No
What did England mean to the Elizabethans?
If the Elizabethans loved one thing more than anything else it was England. Elizabeth told to her troops on the eve of meeting the Spanish Armada: “…I know I have the body of a week feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a King- and a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain or any Prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm.” They reveal the same intense patriotism as John of Gaunt´ s famous speech in Shakespeare´ s Richard II:
This happy breed of men, this little world,
This precious stone set in the silver sea,
 Which serves it in the office of a wall
Or as a moat defensive to a house,
Against the envy of less happier lands,
This blessed plot, this earth, this real, this England
What are the subjects of the Miracle Plays?
They are various: the disobedience of Adam and Eve; Noah and the great flood; Abraham and Isaac; events in the life of Christ; and so on. They were acted by people of the town on a kind of stage on wheels called a pageant. This was moved to different parts of the town, so that a play shown in one place could then be shown in another. Often several Miracle Plays were being performed at the same time in different places. Here is a short bit of Noah ´s Flood in the Chester plays:
God: Seven days are yet co
For you to gather and bring
Those after my liking
When mankind I anno
Forty days and forty nights
Rain shall fall for their unrights
And those I have made through my migh
Now think I to destroy
Noah: Lord, at your bidding I am true
Since grace is only in you,
As you ask I will
For gracious I you find
Although the Miracles were serious and religious in intention, English comedy was born in them. There was a natural tendency for the characters in the play to become recognizably human in their behavior. However serious the main story might be, neither actors nor audience could resist the temptation to enjoy the possibilities of a situation such as that un which Noah ´s wife needs a great deal of persuasion to make her go on board to ark.
What about the Morality Plays?
In the Morality Plays, the characters were not people (such as Adam and Eve or Noah); they were virtues (such as Truth) or bad qualities (such as Greed or Revenge) which walked and talked. For this reason we find these plays duller today, but this does not mean that the original audiences found them dull. The plays presented moral truths in a new and effective way.
Was England able to control colonists’ demands for freedom?
Clear as was the British need for a new imperial design, the situation in America was anything but favorable to a change. Long accustomed to a large measure of independence, the colonies were demanding more, not less, freedom, particularly now that the French menace had been eliminated. To put a new system into effect, to tighten control, the statesmen of England had to contend with colonists trained to self-government and impatient of interference.
What was the main purpose of the Declaration of Independence?
It served a purpose far beyond that of public notice of separation. Its ideas inspired mass fervor for the American cause, for it instilled among ordinary folk a sense of their own importance, inspiring them to struggle for personal freedom, self-government, and a dignified place in society.