Contents_2023_Advancement-in-Oxygenated-Fuels-for-Sustainable-Development

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Contents
List of contributors xv
About the editors xix
1. Climate change and the energy sector 1
Ashok K. Das and Ayushi Sharma
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Human contribution to climate change 2
1.3 Alternatives 4
References 6
2. Comparative investigation of the suitability of fuel properties of
oxygenated biofuels in internal combustion engines 7
M.A. Mujtaba, Md. Abul Kalam, H.H. Masjuki, M. Gul, Waqar Ahmed,
Manzoore Elahi M. Soudagar and Luqman Razzaq
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Effect of diesel engine emissions on the environment and human health 9
2.3 Types of oxygenated additives for diesel engines 9
2.4 The effect of oxygenated additives on diesel engine characteristics 11
2.4.1 Physicochemical properties of different edible and nonedible
oxygenated vegetable oil biodiesels 17
2.5 Kinematic viscosity 17
2.6 Density 17
2.6.1 Calorific value 18
2.6.2 Cetane number 18
2.6.3 Cold flow characteristics 18
2.6.4 Oxidation stability 19
2.6.5 The effect of biodiesel on diesel engine characteristics 19
2.7 Summary 20
References 20
3. Recent advances in technological developments to produce oxygenated
biocrudes via hydrothermal liquefaction followed by their catalytic
upgradation 27
Priyanka Tirumareddy, Venu Babu Borugadda and Ajay K Dalai
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Composition of lignocellulosic feedstock 30
v
3.2.1 Types of pyrolysis and suitable approaches for bio-oil production from
biomass 31
3.2.2 Impact of the hydrothermal liquefaction process parameters to maximize
biocrude yield 32
3.2.3 Physicochemical characterization of the hydrothermal liquefaction
biocrude 35
3.3 Biocrude improvement techniques 36
3.3.1 Solvent addition 36
3.3.2 Emulsification 37
3.3.3 Esterification 38
3.3.4 Hydrotreating 40
3.3.5 Cracking 41
3.3.6 Steam reforming 42
3.3.7 Supercritical fluid treatment 42
3.4 Hydrodeoxygenation: biocrude composition and reaction pathways 43
3.5 Stability of oxygen-containing compounds in biocrude 44
3.6 Mechanism of hydrodeoxygenation reactions 45
3.7 Different catalysts involved in the catalytic hydrodeoxygenation process 46
3.7.1 Metal sulfide/oxide catalysts for hydrodeoxygenation of biocrudes 47
3.7.2 Phosphide catalysts for hydrodeoxygenation of biocrudes 49
3.7.3 Carbide and nitride catalysts for hydrodeoxygenation of biocrudes 50
3.7.4 Noble metal catalysts for hydrodeoxygenation of biocrudes 51
3.7.5 Different catalyst supports for making hydrodeoxygenation catalysts 52
3.7.6 Various promoters used for making hydrodeoxygenation catalysts 53
3.8 Critical discussion 54
3.9 Conclusions 55
References 55
4. Methanol reformation-based strategies for using methanol as an
internal combustion engine fuel: a brief overview 61
Alankrit Srivastava, Parmod Kumar and Atul Dhar
Abbreviations 61
4.1 Introduction 61
4.1.1 Hydrogen energy and its application in internal combustion engines 62
4.1.2 The problem for hydrogen storage 64
4.2 Searching for viable options for onboard hydrogen generation: methanol as a
hydrogen carrier 65
4.3 Thermochemical recuperation: waste heat recovery and onboard
hydrogen generation 66
4.4 Fundamentals of methanol reforming 67
4.4.1 Why methanol over other fuels for reforming reaction? 68
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4.4.2 Methanol-reforming reaction processes 68
4.4.3 Methanol steam reforming and its major reactions 70
4.5 Catalyst selection 71
4.6 Various methanol-reforming concepts adopted in internal combustion engines 71
4.7 Conclusions 77
References 77
5. Comparison of different feedstocks for biodiesel production 81
Shailendra K. Shukla and Shivani Verma
Abbreviation 81
5.1 Introduction 81
5.2 Methodology 82
5.2.1 Assumptions 82
5.2.2 Reaction specifications and parameters 83
5.2.3 Physical properties of raw material and produced biodiesel 83
5.3 Calculations and parameters considered for study 83
5.3.1 Cost of biodiesel using sunflower oil 83
5.3.2 Cost of biodiesel using cottonseed oil 86
5.3.3 Cost of biodiesel using waste cooking oil 88
5.4 Result and discussion 90
5.4.1 Effect of cost of raw material on the economy 90
5.4.2 Effect of process integration 92
5.4.3 Effect of production capacity 93
5.4.4 Effect of reaction conditions 93
5.5 Conclusion 93
References 94
6. The latest advancements in technology to utilize oxygenated biofuels in
diesel engines 97
Akshay Jain, Bhaskor Jyoti Bora, Rakesh Kumar and Sukanta Roy
Nomenclatures and abbreviations 97
6.1 Introduction 98
6.2 Materials and methods: production of additives blend with diesel/biodiesel 100
6.3 Engine performance studies 102
6.4 Combustion studies 107
6.5 Emission studies 108
6.6 Conclusion 112
6.7 Future scope 112
References 113
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7. Sustainable bioconversion of lignocellulosics to biodiesel:
pretreatment, fermentation, and technoeconomic analysis 115
Swapnil Gurrani, Nidhee Chaudhary, Christine Jeyaseelan and Debarati Paul
7.1 Introduction 115
7.2 Lignocellulosic biomass 117
7.2.1 Sources of lignocellulosic biomass as alternatives for carbon 117
7.2.2 Composition of lignocellulosic biomass 117
7.2.3 Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic biomass 119
7.2.4 Factors affecting enzymatic hydrolysis 122
7.2.5 Chemicals and other high-value bioproducts 123
7.2.6 Methods for conversion of lignocellulose into monosaccharides 124
7.3 Biodiesel 125
7.3.1 Performance of biodiesel fuels in a diesel engine 126
7.3.2 In situ or direct transesterification 128
7.3.3 Catalysts used for conversion of microbial lipid into biodiesel 129
7.3.4 Improvised techniques for reducing pollution using biodiesel 131
7.3.5 Types of biodiesel additives 132
7.4 Conclusion 134
References 134
8. Methodologies for modification of characteristics of biodiesel for
wider acceptability as diesel engine fuel 139
Vishal Saxena, Niraj Kumar and Vinod Kumar Saxena
8.1 Introduction 139
8.2 Biodiesel 140
8.3 Inferior oxidative stability 141
8.3.1 Blending of biodiesel 142
8.3.2 Use of antioxidants in biodiesel 142
8.3.3 Effect on diesel engine 143
8.4 Poor cold flow properties 144
8.4.1 Winterization 144
8.4.2 Using additives 145
8.4.3 Blending with conventional diesel 145
8.4.4 Emulsification of biodiesel with ethanol 146
8.4.5 Addition of branched-chain fatty acid alkyl esters 146
8.4.6 Blending of biodiesel 147
8.4.7 Effect on diesel engine 147
8.5 High viscosity 148
8.5.1 Effect on diesel engine 148
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8.6 Lower volatility 149
8.6.1 Effect on diesel engine 150
8.7 Unsaturated fatty acid esters 150
8.7.1 Effect on diesel engine 151
8.8 Water absorbency 152
8.8.1 Effect on diesel engine 153
8.9 Lower heat of combustion 153
8.9.1 Effect on diesel engine 153
8.10 High NOx emission 154
8.10.1 Exhaust gas recirculation 154
8.10.2 Selective catalytic reduction 154
8.10.3 Effect on diesel engine 155
8.11 Conclusion 155
References 156
Further reading 160
9. Biofuel production via phyto and microbial power systems:
adaptation of ecotechnology as a step toward sustainable energy 161
Susmita Shukla, Umme Aiba, Ritambhara Bhutani, Shiv Kant Shukla and
Anagbogu Florence Chinyere
9.1 Introduction 161
9.2 Renewable energy sources 162
9.3 Biofuels and amelioration 164
9.3.1 Enzyme-based biofuel cells 166
9.3.2 Microbial electrochemical system 167
9.4 Maximizing socioeconomic scope in developing countries 175
9.5 Perspectives and conclusion 176
References 177
10. Challenges to the sustainable development of vehicle transport 183
Fariba Goodarzian, Peiman Ghasemi, Jesús Muñuzuri and Ajith Abraham
10.1 Introduction 183
10.2 The goals of sustainable development 184
10.3 The perspective of the essential and long-term sustainable planning 186
10.4 The role of behavior in transportation 187
10.5 External effects and motivations in using personal vehicles 188
10.6 Transportation and sustainable development 189
10.7 Ways to increase the sustainability of the transportation system in cities 190
10.7.1 Urban transportation 190
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10.7.2 Rational management of public transportin the city 193
10.7.3 Increasing sustainability in urban freight transport 194
10.8 Conclusion 195
References 196
11. Production, performance, and emission analysis of new generation
biodiesel in an unmodified engine 199
Akshay Jain, Bhaskor Jyoti Bora and Rakesh Kumar
Abbreviations 199
11.1 Introduction 200
11.1.1 New-generation feedstock for biodiesel production 200
11.1.2 Government policies on usage of biofuel implementation in
India 200
11.2 Biodiesel production: materials and methods 200
11.2.1 Biodiesel production from microalgae (Chorella vulgaris) 200
11.2.2 Biodiesel production from cyanobacteria (Spirulina platensis) 201
11.2.3 Biodiesel production from water hyacinth 201
11.2.4 Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil 202
11.2.5 Biodiesel production from waste plastic oil 202
11.3 Prime mover’s specifications 203
11.4 Engine performance studies 203
11.4.1 Brake thermal efficiency 203
11.4.2 Brake-specific fuel consumption 205
11.4.3 Brake-specific energy consumption 208
11.4.4 Exhaust gas temperature 208
11.5 Combustion studies 209
11.5.1 Heat release rate 209
11.5.2 Ignition delay 211
11.5.3 Peak cylinder pressure and crank angle diagram 212
11.5.4 Peak cylinder pressure 213
11.6 Emission studies 213
11.6.1 Nitrogen oxide emission 213
11.6.2 Unburned hydrocarbon emission 214
11.6.3 Carbon monoxide emission 215
11.6.4 Carbon dioxide emission 217
11.6.5 Smoke, soot, the particulate matter emission 217
11.7 Conclusion 219
11.8 Future scope 219
References 220
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12. Unregulated emissions from oxygenated fuels 221
Paramvir Singh, Saurabh Sharma, Vamsi Krishna Undavalli, Bhupendra Khandelwal and
Sudarshan Kumar
12.1 Introduction 221
12.2 Aldehyde emissions 222
12.3 Aromatic hydrocarbon emissions 230
12.3.1 Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 230
12.3.2 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 231
12.4 1,3-Butadiene emissions 234
12.5 Conclusions 235
References 236
13. Performance and emission analysis of oxygenated fuel additives:
a review 241
Rajesh Kumar Saluja, Vineet Kumar, Radhey Sham, Rajneesh Kaushal and
Freddie Inambao
13.1 Introduction 241
13.2 Oxygenated fuel additives 243
13.3 Various oxygenated fuel additives and their properties 244
13.3.1 Methanol 244
13.3.2 Ethanol 245
13.3.3 N-butanol 246
13.3.4 Dimethyl ether 246
13.3.5 Diethyl ether 247
13.3.6 Methyl tert-butyl ether 248
13.3.7 Ethyl tert-butyl ether 248
13.4 Effect of oxygenated fuel additives on performance characteristics 250
13.5 Effect of oxygenated fuel additives on emission characteristics 251
13.6 Conclusions 255
References 258
14. Combustion, performance, and emissions characteristics of methanol-fueled
engines 263
Saket Sahu, Parmod Kumar and Atul Dhar
14.1 Introduction 263
14.2 Properties of methanol as an internal combustion engine fuel 266
14.2.1 Challenges associated with methanol as an internal combustion engine fuel 267
14.3 Engine characteristics of methanol-fueled engines 268
14.3.1 Combustion characteristics 269
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14.3.2 Performance characteristics 273
14.3.3 Emissions characteristics 277
14.4 Conclusions 280
References 280
15. Utilization of ketone-based oxygenated fuels in internal combustion engines 285
Soo-Young No
15.1 Introduction 285
15.2 Acetone 287
15.2.1 Acetone in spark-ignition engines 287
15.2.2 Acetone in compression-ignition engines 289
15.2.3 Acetone in homogenous-charge compression-ignition engines 291
15.3 Butanone 291
15.3.1 Butanone in spark-ignition engines 291
15.3.2 Butanone in compression-ignition engines 292
15.4 Pentanone 292
15.4.1 Pentanone in spark-ignition engines 293
15.5 Cyclopentanone 293
15.5.1 Cyclopentanone in spark-ignition engines 293
15.5.2 Cyclopentanone in homogenous-charge compression-ignition engines 294
15.6 Cyclohexanone 294
15.6.1 Cyclohexanone in compression-ignition engines 295
15.7 Conclusion 296
References 296
16. Evaluation of challenges for the sustainable oxygenated fuel industry in India 301
Arshia Kaul and Vernika Agarwal
16.1 Introduction 301
16.2 Research methodology: grey DEMATEL 302
16.3 Numerical illustration 304
16.3.1 Data analysis 304
16.3.2 Managerial and technical challenges 305
16.3.3 Results and discussion 310
16.4 Conclusion 311
References 312
Further reading 312
17. Sustainable development in oxygenated fuels 315
Yousef Darvishi, Hamed Karami and Fariba Goodarzian
17.1 The concept of sustainable development 315
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17.2 Sustainable development and the environment 318
17.3 Energy and sustainable development 322
17.3.1 Energy sources and environmental impact 323
17.3.2 Bioenergy 324
17.4 Sustainable development and oxygenated fuels 325
17.4.1 How oxygenated fuel will affect vehicle performance 325
17.4.2 Oxygenated fuels in spark-ignition engines: environmental performance 326
17.5 Sustainable development in the production of oxygenated fuel 327
17.5.1 Sustainable development and impact of oxygenated fuel on the
environment 328
17.5.2 Agriculture and oxygenated fuel 328
17.5.3 Emissions from combustion 329
17.5.4 Effect of oxygenated fuels on engine emissions 329
References 330
18. Performance analysis of domestic energy usage of European cities from the
perspective of externalities with a combined approach based on type 2
neutrosophic fuzzy sets 331
Ömer Faruk Görçün and Hande Küçükönder
18.1 Introduction 331
18.2 Research methodology 334
18.2.1 The proposed combined approach based on T2NN 337
18.3 A Numerical Illustration 340
18.3.1 Phase 1: Preparation process 340
18.3.2 Phase 2: Implementation of the proposed T2NN model to evaluate the
domestic energy usage and externalities performance of EU cities 341
18.3.3 Phase 3: Validation test for the proposed model 350
18.4 Results and discussion 355
18.5 Conclusion and recommendations for future work 356
References 357
19. Formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during combustion of
oxygenated fuels: an overview 363
Pavan Prakash Duvvuri
19.1 Introduction 363
19.2 First aromatic ring formation 364
19.3 Higher aromatics formation 366
19.4 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon formation of oxygenated fuels 367
19.4.1 Structure of the carbon chain 368
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19.4.2 Effect of some oxygenated functional groups 369
19.4.3 Intermediate resonance-stabilized radical precursors 371
19.4.4 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon growth 372
19.5 Summary and future directions 373
References 374
Index 379
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