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Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy
ISSN: 1740-8989 (Print) 1742-5786 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cpes20
Applying the bioecological theory to the study of
fundamental motor skills
Francisco Salviano Sales Nobre, Nadia Cristina Valentini & Mary Elizabeth
Rusidill
To cite this article: Francisco Salviano Sales Nobre, Nadia Cristina Valentini & Mary Elizabeth
Rusidill (2019): Applying the bioecological theory to the study of fundamental motor skills, Physical
Education and Sport Pedagogy, DOI: 10.1080/17408989.2019.1688772
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2019.1688772
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Applying the bioecological theory to the study of fundamental
motor skills*
Francisco Salviano Sales Nobrea, Nadia Cristina Valentinib and Mary Elizabeth Rusidill c
aSchool of Physical Education, Instituto Federal de Educação Ciências e Tecnologia do Ceará, Juazeiro do Norte,
Brazil; bSchool of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Dance, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto
Alegre, Brazil; cSchool of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
ABSTRACT
Background: This study applied the Person-Process-Context-Time model
based on Bioecological theory to investigate the sociocultural influences
on motor skill development.
Purpose: The objectives of the present study were: (a) to assess the
personal resources associated with the development of motor skills of
children from three different geographic regions located in Northeastern
Brazil; and, (b) to identify the factors in the microsystems (i.e. schools
and in the state-funded sports programs) and mesosystems (i.e.
interrelations between contexts) that contribute to the development of
motor skills in children, and how more distal systems, the exosystems
(i.e. department of education and sports) and macrosystem (i.e. school
funding; public educational policy; legislation; regional culture) influence
this process in each geographic region.
Research design: The Test of Gross Motor Development-2 was used to
assess the motor performance of 274 economically underprivileged
children from three different geographic regions, semiarid (n = 66),
mountainous (n = 104), and coastal (n = 104) regions of Brazil. The
principal investigator of this study conducted non-participant
observations, the interviews with the physical education (n = 15) and
classroom (n = 17) teachers, and the children’s assessments. The
Collective Subject Speech method was used to analyze the teachers’
interviews.
Data collection and analysis: Teachers and children were interviewed
and assessed, respectively, at the schools. Researcher ecological
insertion was adopted to understand contextual factors further.
Qualitative data was obtained through observation and interviews. Data
reduction for the interviews was obtained using the Key Expression,
Central Ideas, and Anchorages. Children’s motor scores were analyzed
using a three-way ANOVA (sex (boys and girls) x geographic regions
(semiarid, mountainous, and coastal) × microsystem) for locomotor and
object control skills. To follow up the significant interactions, post hoc
tests using simple effects (One-Way ANOVA and Tukey post hoc)
followed by appropriate cell-to-cell comparisons (Independent T-Test)
were conducted.
Results: The results indicate a prevalence of delays in the total sample
(percentile < 5 at the TGMD-2). Higher motor scores were observed for
children enrolled in sports compared to physical education programs.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 12 December 2017
Accepted 31 October 2019
KEYWORDS
Bioecological model; motor
skills; cultural characteristics;
fundamental motor skills
© 2019 Association for Physical Education
CONTACT Nadia Cristina Valentini nadiacv@esef.ufrgs.br School of Physical Education, Instituto Federal de Educação
Ciências e Tecnologia do Ceará, Juazeiro do Norte, Ceará, Brazil
*In memory of Ruy Jornada Krebs for his contributions related to the Bioecological Theory of Human Development that inspired this
paper.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT PEDAGOGY
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http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1499-6745
mailto:nadiacv@esef.ufrgs.br
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Girls had limited opportunities to learn sports skills and consequently,
demonstrated poorer motor scores within the microsystems from the
three regions. The interviews revealed that teachers did not feel
adequately trained, had limited resources and facilities, and scarcely met
the children’s developmental needs.
Conclusions: These findings suggest that the educational policies and the
teachers’ lack of training were the primary restrictions related to
promoting opportunities for children to learn motor skills within the
investigated regions.
The socioeconomic condition in which a child lives acts as one of the primary factors influencing
development (Tudge et al. 1999; Cohen et al. 2014; Valentini, Clark, and Whitall 2015). Specifically,
socioeconomic factors, such as opportunities in the home and neighborhoods, access to healthcare
and quality education, and other services available to the child and families influence the child devel-
opment trajectory (Papalia, Olds, and Feldman 2006). Though essential to development, these fac-
tors lack investigation with children living in socially vulnerable circumstances.
Predominance of poor motor skills have been reported in boys and girls from different ages and
cultures (Cohen et al. 2014; Spessato et al. 2013; Valentini et al. 2016). Although some of these studies
report motor delays in children from high socioeconomic status (Booth et al. 1999; Brauner and Valen-
tini 2009), delays are more prevalent in children with social vulnerabilities (Cohen et al. 2014; Costa
et al. 2014; Nobre, Bandeira, and Valentini 2016; Valentini et al. 2016), even when given federal assist-
ance (Goodway, Robinson, and Crowe 2010). Furthermore, lower motor scores have been found in one
of the poorest regions of Brazil, the northeast (Nobre, Bandeira, and Valentini 2016; Nobre, Coutinho,
and Valentini 2014), compared to regions with higher indexes of economic development in the South
of Brazil. Even though in southern Brazil, children living in situations of social vulnerability also
demonstrate motor difficulties (Valentini et al. 2016; Valentini et al. 2016).
The gap between expected age-specific motor competencies and actual motor competence (Spes-
sato et al. 2013; Valentini et al. 2016; Valentini, Clark, and Whitall 2015) suggest the need for inves-
tigating the influence of sociocultural factors associated with the developmental process (Uehara
et al. 2014). A sociocultural approach could explain why children from different regions and econ-
omic status exhibit motor delays and respond differently to intervention programs (Booth et al. 1999;
Goodway, Robinson, and Crowe 2010; Saccani and Valentini 2013). Furthermore, there is a need forresearchers to investigate beyond the child’ immediate context to examining the influence of remote
contexts that determine the opportunities offered for the child’ growth and develop (Gabbard and
Krebs 2012; Krebs, Gabbard, and Caçola 2010).
Understanding the value that a culture places on specific activities (Geertz 2017), and the oppor-
tunities to attain these valued behaviors (Huston et al. 1999) are also essential to the investigation of
children’s motor outcomes. Specifically, the expected behaviors for boys and girls within a culture
have the potential to encourage or discourage the acquisition of particular abilities (Bronfenbrenner
and Morris 2006). Consequently, developmental processes are not equal for boys and girls (Tudge,
Doucet, and Hayes 2001). The investigation of cultural opportunities may explain why boys outper-
form girls in ball skills (Goodway, Robinson, and Crowe 2010; Spessato et al. 2013) and the devel-
opmental outcomes between a child’s characteristics and the opportunities within the context
(Tudge, Doucet, and Hayes 2001).
Therefore, the present study extends previous research by investigating motor skill development
from a sociocultural perspective using the Person-Process-Context-Time (PPCT) model, based on
the Bioecological theory (Bronfenbrenner 1999, 2005). In this model, the proximal process is the
most influential element representing the progressively more complex interactions between an active
individual with other persons, and the involvement with objects and symbols within the immediate
environment (Bronfenbrenner and Morris 2006). Development is understood as a process mediated
2 F. S. NOBRE ET AL.
by the individual’s characteristics and the opportunities provided in the immediate (e.g. school and
sports programs, resources, neighborhood) and remote (e.g. sports administration, culture, legis-
lation, lifestyles in geographic region, legislation) contexts, guiding choices over the lifespan (Bron-
fenbrenner 2005). Therefore, the bioecological model was used to better understand the multiple
factors associated with child development.
The PPCT model encompasses the influence of immediate contexts where children develop (i.e.
microsystem) the social network formed by the contexts (i.e. mesosystem), the contexts where
decisions are made without child involvement (i.e. exosystems), as well as the broader context
(i.e. macrosystem). Consequently, factors such as a more experienced person (e.g. teachers, parents,
peers), chronological time and historical events (e.g. governmental incentive to sport competitions),
and cultural expectations (e.g. sex roles) mediate child development.
The child’s characteristics (e.g. child’s sex, readiness) influence the strength of the proximal pro-
cesses affecting consequently the opportunities to acquire resources (e.g. motor proficiency, social
skills). Further, within the microsystem, the child resources affect the provisions (e.g. engage or not
in activities that require motor competence, personal interaction with others) and how the child is per-
ceived and accepted by others (e.g. peers, teachers, team opponents) (Bronfenbrenner 1999; Bronfen-
brenner and Morris 2006). Therefore, activities, roles, and interpersonal relations experienced by a
child within a microsystem produce forces that move the socialization between systems (mesosystem).
Furthermore, across childhood, social interactions are established and supported by children’s personal
resources and how relevant the interactions are for peers and adults (Bronfenbrenner 1992).
Likewise, living in the semiarid region of Brazil, a geographic region that lacks water and has poor
conditions for human development (Brasil 2005) could have a negative influence on child develop-
ment. On the other hand, living in urban areas, similar to the coastal region would likely provide
better opportunities for child development (e.g. easy access to health, cultural, and sports-related
programs, better schools, and essential sanitary services). Although, this may not be true for the indi-
genous people and native fisherman living within this region since they live in the most impover-
ished urban areas (Coriolano 2008). Living in the mountains of the northeast region of Brazilian,
where survival conditions are associated with rainfall conditions, does not necessarily guarantee bet-
ter conditions for child development. In this specific region, the opportunities and services are lim-
ited, and it receives less health and sanitary services support by the government (Brasil 2005). It is
also essential to note that there is a high prevalence of boys and girls involved in child labor in all
regions of Brazil (Cecílio 2002).
In summary, although there are differences regarding geopolitics, climate, public services, and work
among these regions of the country, the concentration of children living in poverty is very similar in all
regions (Brazil 2005; Coriolano 2008). Consequently, it is crucial to identify the opportunities that pro-
mote development within the microsystems as a consequence of the decisions made in the exosystem
andmacrosystem to better serve the needs of the children. Therefore, the objectives of the present study
were: (a) to assess the personal resources of motor skills of boys and girls from three geographic regions
of Brazil, and (b) to identify the factors in the microsystems (i.e. schools and in the state-funded sports
programs) and mesosystems (i.e. interrelations between systems) that contribute to the development of
motor skills in children and how more distal systems, the exosystems (i.e. Department of Education
and Sports) and macrosystem (i.e. school funding, public educational policy, legislation, and regional
culture) influence this process in each geographic region. These objectives address the Bioecological
theory hypothesis that although geographic regions may be different from each other, they are particu-
larly similar in the content and organization of the child’s activities, as well as in the interconnections
between systems that the child develops (Bronfenbrenner 1979).
Methods
A mixed-methods approach to the Person-Process-Context-Time (PPCT) model was adopted to
investigate the objectives of this study. Concerning the qualitative approach, the ecological insertion
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT PEDAGOGY 3
method was used to investigate how the proximal processes promoted motor skill competence in the
microsystems as well as to interpret the interconnections that occurred within the mesosystem, exo-
system, and macrosystems (Cecconello and Koller 2003). The ecological insertion allows the
researcher to learn about the community, its reality, and the factors that affect the children’s lives
(e.g. risk factors, educational practices, teachers’ beliefs, children’s social support). In the present
study, the researcher lived in each region for six months. During these visits, the researcher accessed
documents (e.g. curriculum and lessons plans, sport programs), conducted non-participant obser-
vations and semi-structured individual interviews, and described the characteristics of the geo-
graphic regions. The quantitative approach was conducted using the children’s assessment of
motor skills performance using the TGMD-2 locomotor and object control raw scores.
Geographic regions characteristics and children’s motor learning opportunities
The Research and Economic Strategic Institute (IPECE 2017) was consulted when determining the
location of the cities that were the most representative of each geographic region. During the eco-
logical visits, the researcher conducted non-participant observations and registered findings in a
field diary. Information about the physical facilities, opportunities available to learn motor skills
as well as practice sports and leisure activities within the three locations in northeastern Brazil
was obtained.
In the three cities, two main microsystems were observed. These included the Physical Education
programs(PEP) conducted at schools and the State-sponsored Sports programs (SSP) conducted
within the communities. In the three cities, the household income per capita was less than
USD140.00 per month. This income, which is approximately half of the Brazilian minimum wage
(490 reais), represented 55.10% (semiarid region), 63.80% (mountainous region), and 59.70%
(coastal region) of the population. Extreme poverty (i.e. per capita household income around
USD 26.34 per month) among the economically active residents was observed in the semiarid
(20.83%), mountain (16.60%), and coastal (28.51%) regions (IPECE 2017). Figure 1 identifies the
three geographic regions.
The first town was located in the semiarid region with a Human Development Index (HDI) of
0.659. The city had 80,604 residents with the majority (71.30%) living in urban zones. Due to the
low rainfall precipitation, the local economy was based on farming livestock (self-employment).
The city had 14 elementary public schools. Of those schools, only two provided PEP with lessons
conducted by physical education teacher. The classroom teachers taught the physical education les-
sons for elementary grades in 12 schools. Physical education teachers were responsible for the junior
high and high school grades. Eight social programs, supported by state funding, were conducted in
this city. Six programs focused on academic reinforcement and art activities. Two were sports-
related, but only was one dedicated to children. Figure 2 provided characteristics of school and sports
programs for the semiarid region.
The second town was located in the mountains with a HDI of 0.648 and a population of 31,787
residents of which 51.70% resided in rural zones. The local economy was centered on subsistence
agriculture and small agribusiness. The city had 26 elementary public schools, 20 located in a
rural region and six in an urban region. None of the schools had facilities for sports participation.
Classroom teachers taught the physical education lessons for elementary, junior high, and high
school children. Two of three social programs were conducted in this region for children. One
SSP was conducted in an urban region offering academic reinforcement arts, recreation, and soccer
lessons. The other SSP was conducted in a rural region providing soccer practice for boys and girls.
Trained physical education teachers conducted both SSP. Figure 3 presents the characteristics of
school and sports programs for the mountain region.
The third town was located in the coastal region with a HDI of 0.620, 61,158 residents, and 74% of
the residents living in urban zones. The local economy was primarily associated with artisanal
fishing, small trade, and tourism. The city had 14 elementary public schools. Only one school had
4 F. S. NOBRE ET AL.
adequate facilities for sports participation. Classroom teachers taught the PEP lessons for elemen-
tary, junior high, and high school children. Six SSP were conducted in the city. Only 3 of these pro-
grams offered sports programs; and, only one was designed for children that also included academic
reinforcement, arts, recreation, and games. Children were allowed to choose dance, capoeira, or soc-
cer. Non-trained instructors and classroom teachers delivered the SSP. Figure 4 provide character-
istics of school and sports programs for the coastal region.
Participants’ personal characteristics
Physical education teachers (n = 15; 12 males and 3 females), classroom teachers (n = 17; 1 male and
16 females), and a total of 274 children (boys n = 146,Mage = 8.41, SD = .90; girls n = 128,Mage = 8.51,
Figure 1. Brazilian map and the investigated geographic regions.
Figure 2. Characteristics of the school and sports programs in the semiarid region.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT PEDAGOGY 5
Figure 3. Characteristics of the school and sports programs in the mountain region.
Figure 4. Characteristics of the school and sports programs in the coastal region.
6 F. S. NOBRE ET AL.
SD = .90), from the semiarid (boys n = 37, Mage = 8.40, SD = .90; girls n = 29, Mage = 8.50, SD = .80),
mountainous (boys n = 53, Mage = 8.60, SD = .90; girls n = 51, Mage = 8.70, SD = .90), and coastal
(boys n = 56, Mage = 8.20, SD = 1.00; girls n = 48, Mage = 8.30, SD = .90) regions participated in this
investigation. Children (boys and girls) in both groups (PEP and SSP) from each geographic region
(semiarid, mountainous, coastal) were similar in age (p = .60). The children’s parents or legal guar-
dians and teachers signed informed consent. The verbal assent was obtained for each child. The
ethics committee of the university of origin approved the research.
The children were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2; Ulrich
2000) validated for Brazilian children (Valentini 2012). The TGMD-2 is a process-oriented assess-
ment, describing the qualitative characteristics of locomotor (LOC) (i.e. run, gallop, jump, hop, leap
and slide) and object control (OC) skills (i.e. bounce, strike, catch, kick, overhand throw, and under-
hand roll). Descriptive statistics and group comparisons were conducted using raw scores for the
subtests LOC and OC. The primary investigator and the physical education teaching assistant
from each school conducted the TGMD-2 assessments. Two independent raters scored the
TGMD-2 performance. The raters had more than three years of experience administering and cod-
ing the TGMD-2 and were trained by an experienced researcher. The inter-rater reliabilities for the
raters for the LOC and OC skills were strong (ICC values: LOC = .89 and OC = .93).
Proximal processes
The children’s physical education teachers and classroom teachers from the two microsystems were
interviewed. The teachers provided information about how the proximal process was organized and
about the children’s social interactions in the microsystems to foster the children’s motor skills
acquisition. The interviews were qualitatively analyzed using the Collective Subject Speech (CSS)
method (Lefevre and Lefevre 2014). The CSS method allows for the organization and tabulation
of verbal qualitative data, using the following procedures: (a) Key-Expression (KE) obtained from
literal transcriptions that are considered parts or elements of the speech that reveal the essence of
the statement supporting the central questions of the research; (b) Central Ideas (CI) that consist
of linguistic expressions that describe in a synthetic manner the meaning of each one of the answers
analyzed and of each set and KE that they possess; and (c) Anchorages (AC) that are related to the
explicit linguistic manifestation of a given theory or teachers’ beliefs. The CI and/or AC were attained
from the sum of the selected KE. Consequently, the Collective Subject Speech (CSS) was formed in
the present study by single-sentence synthesis speech made in the first person singular with KE that
has similar or complementary CIs or ACs. The interviews were conducted individually in each geo-
graphic region focusing on the proximal processes, teachers’ beliefs, opportunities, and patterns of
social interchange. A digital voice recorder was used (DVR – 2926.S Powerpack®).
Chronological time and interference of socio-historic events
In the PPCT model, chronological time takes into consideration chronological age as it related to the
external social events. Cross-sectional studies are used to identify the impact of different events and
experiences in development, as well as to compare development outcomes across groups that lived
unique experiences (Bronfenbrenner 2005). In the present study, a cross-sectional approach was
adopted, controlling for potentially confounding factors (i.e. similar age band and socioeconomic
status across regions). Figure 5 presents the ecological systems investigated in the research design.
Data analysis
The qualitative data obtained through the semi-structured individual interviews were registered and
organized using a content analysis summary (Flick 2009). TheCSSs were tabulated using the KE, CI,
and AC (Lefevre and Lefevre 2014). The IC and AC were used to identify answers aligned or
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT PEDAGOGY 7
divergent of the same question, and if the opportunities for motor development were specific for each
context or general for all the regions. The quantitative data, regarding the resources of motor com-
petence (LOC and OC) were analyzed using TGMD-2 raw score means and standard deviations.
Motor changes across age groups were analyzed using one-way ANOVA. A mixed-design three-
way analysis of variance sex (i.e. boys and girls) × geographic regions (i.e. semiarid, mountainous,
and coastal) × microsystems (PEP and SSP) for LOC and OC motor skills were conducted. To follow
up the significant highest interaction (three-way) post hoc tests were conducted (One-Way ANOVA
and Tukey post hoc tests) followed by appropriate cell-to-cell comparisons (Independent t-test).
Results
Geographic regions characteristics
The non-participant observations revealed that the three cities lacked adequate physical sports facili-
ties. Facilities available for community use in the three regions were unsafe for children to use (i.e.
old and condemned buildings, unfinished courts, havens of crime and violence). However, the three
cities had other sports facilities located in social centers that could be used by the schools for sports
participation, but the lack of communication among the facilities’ staff and school administrators
resulted in poor administration of the sports facilities. Frequently the facilities were unused and tea-
chers and school administrators were unaware or lacked the initiative to have an agreement with the
city government to use the facilities.
It seems that the community feared the risk of their children being involved in drug trafficking,
which is the primary factor, associated with violence observed in the cities. This was a primary
barrier for children’s involvement in playing outside. In the semiarid region, the only times that
the families allowed children to go outside without adult supervision were when traveling to school
Figure 5. Research design: ecological systems.
8 F. S. NOBRE ET AL.
and the social sports program. It was observed in the mountainous region that children worked on
farms after school. In the coastal region, the majority of the fathers were fishermen and spent many
days at sea fishing, while girls and boys stayed home to help mothers with household tasks. Chil-
dren’s traditional games (e.g. jump rope, hopscotch) were not observed in the three geographic
regions. However, playing video games was an everyday activity among all children.
Personal characteristics: children’s motor competence and chronological time
The raw scores for boys and girls ranged from 22 to 27 for LOC skills and from 18 to 27 for OC skills
(TGMD-2 maximum scores for each subtest is 48). No significant differences were observed across
age groups for boys and girls. Table 1 presents the raw scores for locomotor and object control skills.
Locomotor skills comparisons
For LOC skills significant interactions were found for sex (boys, girls) × microsystems (PEP and
SSP) × geographic regions (semiarid, mountainous, coastal), F(2, 262) = 4.39, p = .0001, η2 = . 16,
for sex x microsystems (F(1, 262) = 5.76, p = .017, η2 = .021), and microsystems x geographic regions
(F(2, 262) = 9.72, p = .0001, η2 = .069). The sex x geographic regions interaction was not significant
(p≥ .05). Simple effects (One-Way ANOVAs and Tukey post hoc) and cell-to-cell comparisons
(independent t-tests) were conducted following the significant three-way interaction.
The one-way ANOVA showed that across geographic regions there were no significant differ-
ences for LOC skills for boys (F(2,68) = .81, p = .447) and girls (F(2,68) = 2.21, p = .118) attending
the SSP. However, for children attending PEP significant differences were found for LOC skills
for boys (F(2,72) = 9.58, p = .0001) and girls (F(2,54) = 5.09, p = .009). Tukey follow up tests showed
that: (a) boys from the mountainous region showed higher LOC scores compared to boys from the
semiarid (p = .0001) and coastal regions (p = .017); and, (b) girls from the mountainous region
showed higher LOC scores compared to girls from the semiarid region (p = .008) and similar per-
formance compared to the girls from the coastal region (p = .229).
With regard to sex comparisons within each geographic region, the independent t-tests,
showed similar performance for LOC skills for children attending the SSP (semiarid: t(38)
= .10, p = .922; mountainous: t(51) = 1.85, p = .070; coastal: t(47) = .33, p = .746) and PEP (semi-
arid: t(24) = .99, p = .340; coastal: t(53) = .92, p = .363). The only exception was for the boys
Table 1. TGMD-2 raw scores means and standard deviation by groups & age comparisons.
Region & age
Boys M(SD) Girls M(SD)
LOC Raw OC Raw LOC Raw OC Raw
Semiarid
7–8 22.1(4.5) 25.8(5.7) 27.0(4.4) 24.0(2.6)
8–9 22.6(6.5) 27.4(2.7) 23.7(5.0) 27.0(5.3)
9–10 24.7(3.7) 27.4(2.5) 24.5(2.8) 23.2(3.3)
10–11 24.7(2.1) 28.3(6.2) 18.5(4.8) 21.5(6.0)
p .470 .981 .194 .579
Mountain
7–8 23.4(0.9) 25.0(3.9) 21.9(1.9) 22.0(5.8)
8–9 25.6(3.4) 30.7(5.0) 25.8(3.4) 21.4(3.9)
9–10 25.5(3.5) 30.1(4.5) 25.9(3.3) 23.7(4.0)
10–11 27.3(4.6) 30.2(5.9) 26.1(3.3) 28.8(5.7)
p .820 .359 .422 .516
Coast
7–8 23.1(5.9) 27.2(6.2) 20.1(4.8) 17.2(5.7)
8–9 23.7(5.8) 26.0(6.0) 23.6(5.7) 23.9(4.3)
9–10 25.6(5.0) 27.2(5.6) 25.1(4.1) 23.3(6.2)
10–11 22.5(5.1) 25.0(9.3) 22.3(4.6) 25.8(3.3)
p .338 .253 .161 .060
Note: LOC: Locomotor Skills; OC: Object Control Skills; M: Mean; SD: Standard deviation.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT PEDAGOGY 9
attending PEP in the mountains showed higher LOC scores compared to girls from the same
region (t(49) = 3.57, p = .001).
In reference to the microsystems, the motor outcomes of participating in the programs within
each geographic region the showed that: (a) boys and girls attending to SSP in the semiarid region
showed higher LOC scores compared to the boys and girls attending to PEP (Boys: t(35) = 3.75, p
= .001; Girls: t(27) = 4.90, p = .0001); (b) boys from the mountainous region in the PEP showed
higher LOC scores compared to those in the SSP (t(51) = 2.80, p = .007), whereas girls in the SSP
showed higher scores compared to the girls in the PEP (t(49) = 2.26, p = .028); and (c) boys and
girls from the coastal region attending the SSP and PEP showed similar LOC scores (Boys: t(54)
= .56, p = .557; Girls: t(46) = 1.86, p = .286).
Object control skills comparisons
For OC skills a significant interaction was found for sex (boys, girls) × microsystems (PEP, SSP) ×
geographic regions (semiarid, mountainous, coastal), F(2, 262) = 9.42, p = .0001, η2 = . 28. Significant
interactions were also found for sex x microsystems (F(1, 262) = 32.70, p = .0001, η2 = .19) and
microsystems x geographic regions (F(2, 262) = 3.95, p = .004, η2 = .056). The interaction between
sex x geographic regions was not significant (p≥ .05). Simple effects (One-Way ANOVAs and
Tukey post hoc tests) and cell-to-cell comparisons (Independent t-tests) were conducted following
the significant three-way interactions.
The one-way ANOVA showed that across geographic regions there was a significant difference
for OC skills only for boys (F(2,68) = 6.52, p = .003), while no differences were observed for the
girls (F(2,68) = 1.57, p = .214) attending the SSP. Tukey follow up tests showed that boys from the
mountainous region attending SSP showed higher OC scores compared to boys from semiarid (p
= .044) and the coastal region (p = .003). However, for children attending the PEP, no significant
differences were found for OC skills for boys (F(2,72) = 1.07, p = .348) and for girls (F(2,54) = .29,
p = .747).
With regard to sex comparisons within each geographic region, the independent t-test, showed
superior performance for boys compared to the girls for OC skills attending the SSP in the semiarid
(t(38) = 2.25, p = .029) and mountainous(t(51) = 3.58, p = .001) regions. No differences were
observed for sex in the SSP for the coastal regions (t(47) = 1.83, p = .073). Regarding children attend-
ing the PEP in the three regions (semiarid: t(24) = 2.03, p = .050; mountainous: t(49) = 7.31, p
= .0001; coastal: t(53) = 3.70, p = .001), boys demonstrated superior performance compared to
girls in the OC skills.
The results related to the microsystems within each geographic region exhibited that: (a) boys and
girls attending SSP in the semiarid region showed similar OC scores compared to the boys and girls
attending the PEP (Boys: t(35) = 1.77, p = .086; Girls: t(27) = 1.89, p = .070); (b) boys and girls from
the mountainous region in the SSP demonstrated higher OC scores compared to the boys and girls in
the PEP (Boys: t(51) = 2.88, p = .006; Girls t(49) = 4.01, p = .0001); and (c) boys and girls from the
coastal region attending SSP and PEP showed similar OC scores (Boys: t(54) = .14, p = .887; Girls:
t(46) = 1.86, p = .069). Table 2 provides the raw score means and standard deviations for the
group comparisons.
Proximal processes in the PEP microsystem and the interference of socio-historic events
In alignment with educational policies, classroom teachers were responsible for providing physical
education lessons for children in the elementary grades, except for two schools in the semiarid
region. Although PEP was included as part of the annual pedagogical plan, the primary focus was
with teaching games for children. For several schools, the time dedicated to physical education les-
sons were used to develop other content. Additionally poor designed lessons and weak instruction
was observed in several schools. On occasion, children were enrolled in reading and math enrich-
ment activities instead of physical education. When physical education was provided, the content
10 F. S. NOBRE ET AL.
focused mainly on recreational activities (i.e. free play, tag and dodge games, soccer for the
boys). The children were also allowed to spend time talking with peers during physical education
regardless if the physical education or classroom teachers supervised the lessons. Lessons were pro-
vided weekly but with no regularity with regard to length of time of the lesson or number of days per
week.
The interviews in the PEP microsystem were conducted with the physical education teachers and
classroom teachers. Table 3 demonstrates the data reduction from the interviews using the Collective
Subject Speech (CSS) approach.
The following results were derived from the interviews with the classroom and physical education
teachers in the PEP microsystem.
Question 1. In several states and counties, physical education lessons start in kindergarten and
elementary grades for children 5–10-year-old. Here at your school do children have physical edu-
cation lessons?
CSS physical education teachers from the semiarid region
CI: The teachers do not feel prepared to teach physical education and it has consequences in the fol-
lowing grades.
Our school provides physical education for children sixth grade and up. In our county, physical education for
children from 5 to 10 years is only provided in private schools. The teachers provide some activities for children,
but they say that they do not have the necessary support to help the development of children. When the chil-
dren go to middle school, they have immense difficulties to jump, roll, catch.
Table 2. Children motor scores: contexts and opportunities for development by sex.
Context and opportunities of development by sex: M(SD) of TGMD-2 raw scores
Geographic
regions
State Sport Program – SSP Physical Education Program – PEP SSP X PEP
Boys Girls
Sex comparisons
p Boys Girls
Sex comparisons
p Boys Girls
Semiarid
N 19 21 18 8
LOC 25.95(3.10) 25.86(2.63) .922 21.17(4.55) 19.25(4.56) .340 .001 .0001
OC 28.05(2.91) 25.62(3.81) .029 26.06(3.91) 22.00(6.37) .050 .086 .070
Mountains
N 27 26 26 25
LOC 24.37(3.44) 26.31(4.14) .070 26.96(3.28) 24.24(1.98) .001 .007 .028
OC 31.78(5.31) 26.35(5.68) .001 28.12(3.78) 21.28(2.79) .0001 .006 .0001
Coast
N 25 24 31 24
LOC 24.48(6.04) 23.96(5.09) .746 23.65(5.10) 22.38(5.07) .363 .577 .286
OC 26.88(6.04) 23.75(5.91) .073 26.65(6.16) 20.58(5.86) .001 .887 .069
Note: M: Mean; SD: Standard Deviation.
Table 3. Procedures to obtain the Collective Subject Speech.
Key Expression Collective Subject Speech
Teacher 1 –We are two teachers, one is teaching 7 to 10 year-old
children, and the other with children from 10 to 14 years.
Today we have a deficit in our physical education staff, and
therefore we only teach one lesson per week. We need more
teachers and physical space to teach physical education.
Teacher 2 – From second through fifth grade children have lesson
with physical education teachers. I hope the changes continues
so that younger children have more opportunities to develop.
Teacher 3 – From first to fifth grades they have lessons. The
children have recreation. The city hall provided monitors to work
with these children; it is a form of internship.
From second through fifth grade children have lesson with
physical education teachers. The children have recreation. The
city hall provided monitors to work with these children; it is a
form of internship. Today we have a deficit in our physical
education staff, and therefore we only teach one lesson per
week. We need more teachers and physical space to teach
physical education
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT PEDAGOGY 11
CSS classroom teachers from the semiarid region
CI: The absence of physical education lessons in elementary school is a reflection of the exosystem
and macrosystem.
Here, physical education lessons are only for children in the sixth grade and beyond. In local schools, teachers,
principals, the education board and central administration groups close their eyes. Classroom teachers have no
training to teach physical education lessons. I find it stressful to be responsible for something that I do not have
specific knowledge.
CSS physical education teachers from the mountainous region
CI: The local government does not comply with state law and does not commit to school physical
education.
When I read the law, I understood that basic education goes from elementary to high school. There is a lack of
physical education teachers here in the city. We do not have enough undergraduate teachers with a degree to
meet the schools’ demands. Here we are the only two teachers, and it is impossible to cover all schools. In the
last eight years, there were only three positions open for physical education teachers. That is it. Administrators
are not worried about the lack of teachers.
CSS classroom teachers from the mountainous region
CI: The classroom teachers know about the law requirements, but we do not feel prepared to teach
physical education lessons.
Look, I know that the law exists, that we have to teach physical education. When it came up, we were terrified
… how are we going to do that if we have not received any training for it? Another thing, I can’t do it every week
because of the lack of physical space. Also our main focus is the child’ literacy. We are more worried if the child
leaves the first grades without knowing how to read and write; contents that we were hired to do.
CSS physical education teachers from the coastal region
CI: The lack of physical education lessons in the first grades constrains children’s play options other
than soccer.
Children have physical education lessons only when they go to the sixth grade… Then, what happens is that
when I begin to teach these children. I realize that they have a huge difficulty in their basic movements. The
children are unbalanced and uncoordinated. Many of them feel ashamed for not knowing how to play. This
situation affects my work a little bit because I always try to teach another sports, volleyball, handball, basketball
and all they want to practice is what they already know… , that is, soccer.
CSS classroom teachers from the coastal regionAC: The physical education teachers should teach physical education lessons.
Before, we were very demanding about it. But, there was a huge rejection. It was dire. I do not like it because I’m
not ready to teach physical education lessons. I think it is essential that you have a physical education teacher
because we’re not prepared to teach the content of physical education lessons.
Question 2. Can you tell us how physical education lessons are taught and what kind of pedago-
gical’ support, physical space, and equipment are provided to conduct their lessons?
CSS physical education teachers from the semiarid region
CI: When physical education lessons are provided only once per week, sports or recreation is the
focus and the resources to teach are scarce.
I can say that I do not have any equipment. Often teachers buy from their salary some equipment. So, I work
practically with recreation. I also can say that one lesson per week is not enough for children to have an
12 F. S. NOBRE ET AL.
experience that generates psychomotor development. The teachers want to teach sports, but we do not have
equipment or facilities. I believe they want to end physical education at schools.
CSS classroom teachers from the semiarid region
AC: The physical education curriculum is restricted to games and recreation. Skill practice is not fre-
quently implemented and equipment resources, in general, are scarce.
It’s just recreation and board games implemented only inside the classroom. Besides, one class per week is not
enough for children to have the experience to promote psychomotor development. As for material resources,
there are very few. Often teachers buy materials with their salary so they can perform their activities.
CSS physical education teachers from the mountainous region
CI: There is no curriculum or planning that ensures the continuity of learning.
I am sure there is no curriculum to follow. The curricular proposal must be random. We will receive students in
middle school and welcome students who have never had any physical education practice before. We have a
huge gap to cover.
CSS classroom teachers from the mountainous semiarid region
CI: The content is free-play, scarce equipment, and no training to plan lessons.
It’s even hard to talk about lesson content since I have no training. We let children play freely. We received
some balls at the beginning of the year, but now there’s practically nothing to use. Some schools received equip-
ment from the More Education Project,1 but we haven’t any idea how to use this equipment. We need theory
and practice.
CSS physical education teachers form the coastal region
CI: Lessons are conducted only with recreation content and with limited equipment.
In fact, there are no physical education lessons. Classroom teachers provide 30 minutes of games, not necess-
arily guided. Usually, children are free to do whatever they want. I know that the teachers are apprehensive
about these lessons. Maybe this is because they prioritized math and language lessons. Equipment is another
problem, and there is not enough. It is a total disregard of the public power with children. They do not
care. I think they believe free play is enough to help children develop.
CSS classroom teachers from the coastal region
AC: The content is restricted to recreation, games, and board games, and material resources are
scarce.
We do more leisure activity. In fact, we do recreation. We use games, board games, and the actives that we can
do in the classroom. The school provides educational games, such as puzzles and chess, but for sports, we did
not receive anything. To teach, we have to buy or use the equipment from other children in the school.
Proximal processes in the SSP microsystems and the interference of socio-historic events
The primary researcher identified the existence of SSP in the communities with social risks (i.e.
extreme poverty, prostitution, violence, and drug trafficking), in the three geographic regions.
Local, federal, and non-governmental institutions fund these programs. Federal and state funding
was provided for the semiarid and coastal sports programs. The mountainous region receives no fed-
eral support, but state and local sources from the commerce association. The majority of social pro-
jects received some sort of financial resources regarding equipment from the federal government
(Hecktheuer 2012). Neither teacher training nor improvement of the physical facilities occurred
during the research timeline.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT PEDAGOGY 13
Although implemented by different public resources, the SSP revealed similar issues. Physical
education teachers or classroom teachers were hired to conduct the programs and deliver the chil-
dren’s lessons. Training related to specific sports was not required. Also, there was no pedagogical
plan implemented to promote the children’s motor skill learning while enrolled in these recreational
sports programs. Another common characteristic in the SSP was the lack of gender equity. Girls were
less encouraged to be involved in vigorous sports practices. In general, the sports practices were
restricted to soccer and only boys where enrolled. The activities provided for girls were dance chor-
eography and sometimes capoeira. The only exception was in the mountains, where some girls also
participated in soccer games.
Children’s personal resources and opportunities to interact with friends in the SSP context
in three geographic regions
The following results are related to the interviews with physical education teachers, who coach the
sports programs, regarding children’s resources and opportunities to interact with peers in the sports
context.
Question 3. Youth sport seems to promote social interaction. How are games used to encourage
the interaction of local children with children from other regions? How do you perceive this?
CSS physical education teachers from the semiarid region
AC: The social opportunities for children occur through school competitive games.
Until years ago, the local government implemented the school Olympics. The games interconnected the neigh-
borhood municipal schools with each other… but it has not been implemented for a while, and we missed this
event. I had a student who told me that the happiest day of his life was when he went to a competition in the
nearby city.
CSS physical education teachers from the mountainous region
AC: Social opportunities for children occur through school competitive games.
There are municipal school games. Last year was the only year it didn’t take place. It’s like the second stage of
the state games. Organized by the state government, the games have occurred for over 12 years… but here in
the city it has been eight years since these games were offered for children over nine years of age.
CSS physical education teachers from the coastal region
AC: The social opportunities for children occur through school competitive games.
There was the school Olympics. All schools, both private and public, were invited. It included various sports.
But the children from the 1st to the 5th grades did not have this experience, because they had no physical edu-
cation teacher who could take them. Unfortunately, because of the lack of public policies, we do not offer this
event anymore.
Discussion
The PPCT model was adopted to investigate the resources associated with children’s motor skills
development and the factors within the micro, meso, exo, and macro systems that influence this pro-
cess in three geographic regions of Brazil. To pursue these goals, the researcher lived in each context
for six months to observe the opportunities in the community, assess children, and to interview the
mediators of the children’s development within each region.
14 F. S. NOBRE ET AL.
Personal resources and proximal processes: children’s motor skill and chronological time
Related to the boys’ and girls’ motor skill development, the results indicated no differences in raw
scoresas boys and girls aged in the different geographic regions. The results indicate that motor per-
formances were similar across ages 7–11 for boys and girls, providing evidence that the increase in
fundamental motor skills performance require appropriate motor experiences (Valentini et al. 2016).
One would expect that the experiences lived by children as they get older, and the public policies for
education could be influential factors to promote development (Bronfenbrenner 2005). However, it
was not observed in the present study. Similar plateaus in motor development have been observed
across ages in previous studies conducted in Brazil with low-income children (Spessato et al. 2013;
Valentini, Clark, and Whitall 2015).
Regarding group comparisons for the raw scores in the TGMD-2, slightly higher scores were
observed for children attending to SSP. The additional opportunities for development positively
influenced the children’s motor competence, however it was not strong enough to change the preva-
lence of low motor scores and to promote equality of motor scores among boys and girls. Low motor
scores across socially disadvantaged children have been documented in many countries (Cohen et al.
2014; Goodway, Robinson, and Crowe 2010), and also for Brazilian children (Costa et al. 2014; Spes-
sato et al. 2013; Valentini, Clark, and Whitall 2015; Valentini et al. 2016). The lack of teacher train-
ing, appropriate curriculum and lessons plans, limited equipment, and facilities are barriers for
Brazilian children living in vulnerability to achieve motor competence (Nobre, Nobre, and Valentini
2018; Valentini et al. 2016; Valentini et al. 2016), and even more problematic for girls (Spessato et al.
2013; Valentini, Clark, and Whitall 2015; Valentini et al. 2016).
It was evident, regardless of the geographic region, that within the two microsystems (schools and
sports programs) the proximal processes were not adequate to promote motor skills development.
The ecological transition of those children to more complex sports practices was also not observed.
Ecological transition is defined as any change in role, setting, status, or function of a person in his or
her context. An ecological transition only occurs whenever the child’s position in the context is
altered as a result of a change in role or environment (Bronfenbrenner 1979). Based on the obser-
vations in the present study, the ecological transition was restricted in these regions of Brazil.
Although the environment changed (i.e. the opportunity to frequent a state-sponsored program),
the impact was limited. None of the children have the motor skills required to engage in sports com-
petitions promoted by the city administration (e.g. ecological transition). Participation in compe-
tition was restricted to children with high skills performance. Although attending SSP, not one-
child participant in the present study was enrolled in local or state competitions representing
their schools, programs, or cities.
Available opportunities are critical for child development (Bronfenbrenner 1979); however, these
opportunities need to be adequate to generate changes in motor performance (Valentini et al. 2016).
It appears that the PEP and SSP were not effective in producing desired results. Based on these
findings, the only opportunities to improve motor competence were not effective in promoting
the children’s motor resources. The lack of appropriate opportunities for organized practice, inexis-
tent and inadequate physical facilities and equipment, and poor instruction were observed and
detected in the interviews as the cumulative risk factors related to children’s poor motor skills. Chil-
dren’s development is influenced by their opportunities, choices, and actions (Krebs, Carniek, and
Machado 2011) and these factors were not observed in the present study.
Interactions: macro-meso-micro systems and children’s resources
A closer look at proximal processes (i.e. developed activities) revealed opportunities within the
microsystems were not equitable for the boys and girls. The proximal processes in the two micro-
systems showed that all children had limited opportunities. Girls had even fewer opportunities to
learn sports skills than boys. In the semiarid and mountain region soccer practice was only provided
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT PEDAGOGY 15
for boys. Consequently, girls demonstrated worse OC skills compared to boys. Unfortunately, similar
results have been previously reported in Brazil (Brauner and Valentini 2009; Spessato et al. 2013;
Costa et al. 2014) and in the United States (Goodway, Robinson, and Crowe 2010). These findings
have been attributed to cultural believes and the way it nurtures girls’ behaviors (Nobre, Nobre, and
Valentini 2018; Spessato et al. 2013; Valentini, Clark, and Whitall 2015). Findings in the present
study strongly support this notion as well since dance was reinforced for girls and playing soccer
for boys.
Utilizing the PPCT model allowed us to observe the complex interactions of the local culture and
the opportunities that are provided for the girls’ development. It is clear that contrasting values are
placed on activities (Gabbard and Krebs 2012; Geertz 2008; Huston et al. 1999) leading to an
immediate unfavorable outcome for girls in terms of motor skills. It is essential to highlight that
motor skills learned during childhood is a predictor of physical activity in puberty with repercussions
to health (Barnett et al. 2009; Cohen et al. 2014). It appears that the low scores on the TGMD-2 for
girls in the present study suggest a potential risk for being less active in the future.
One would expect that children attending sports programs would show higher motor scores com-
pared to those who only participated in the physical education programs. Nonetheless, the benefit
was only observed in the mountain and partially in the semiarid. These regions had similar sports
and school programs and economic characteristics, yet the mountains region promoted slightly bet-
ter opportunities for motor skill acquisition. A plausible explanation emerges from the teachers’
interviews, reporting a tradition of municipal games for 20 years. Since the games were part of
local culture with temporal persistence, it may serve as a motivation factor for children to practice.
Although none of the children competed in these games. Physical education teachers taught soccer
lessons in the SSP in the mountain region for boys and girls that may have influenced the results.
Hiring a professional to teach children is an indication that the community supports sports-related
activities for children. Understanding that culture enables opportunities for individuals to attain
values (Gabbard and Krebs 2012; Geertz 2008; Huston et al. 1999), it appears that this community
valued sports activities for children since the local commerce association provided financial support
to the sports programs.
The low motor scores and sex differences among children participating in sports programs
confirms that proximal processes were deficient in mediating children’s motor skill acquisition.
Developmental directions are led by the extent to which opportunities are available to children
(Bronfenbrenner 1979; Palma, Pereira, and Valentini 2009; Valentini et al. 2016), and in the present
study contextual barriers were imposed on the children. It is important to note that opportunities for
development can be implemented successfully in the economically poor and wealthy contexts if the
needs of children are properly addressed (Altunsöz and Goodway 2014; Goodway, Robinson, and
Crowe 2010; Valentini et al. 2016). An effective curriculum and instruction, based on the need of
all children is imperative to help children achieve motor competence (Booth et al. 1999; Goodway,
Robinson, and Crowe 2010), and could increase motor achievement for children in these regions.
The absence of a pedagogical plan and teacher training to promote children’s motor competence
related to thelack of opportunities was observed. Teachers training and curriculum organization are
critical to encouraging learning (Hastie, Johnson, and Rudisill 2017) and could create more favorable
conditions for children’s development in these regions of Brazil. Schools should guarantee that the tea-
chers are qualified and trained professionals. This was not observed in the present study as expressed by
the teachers. The results showed that the decisions made in macrosystem (e.g. public polices) the exo-
system (e.g. city hall, board and department of education) affected the microsystems negatively. Yet, the
misalignment between the exosystem and the microsystem could be the consequence of polices applied
by the macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner and Morris 2006). In the present study, the specific policies were
unfavorable to supporting child development since the law required that classroom teachers provide
physical education, but they were not trained to deliver the curricular content.
Furthermore, all physical education teachers affirmed that the emphasis of the elementary curri-
culum should be motor skill instruction, although this was not observed. While some school
16 F. S. NOBRE ET AL.
curriculums specified the frequency and time allocated for the physical education, the interviews
revealed that lessons were not implemented on a weekly base and classroom teachers conducted
the lessons. Classroom teachers have not been trained to promote motor skill instruction and felt
unprepared and helpless regarding this demand. Federal legislation requiring mandatory physical
education is not being implemented effectively in Brazil. Therefore, this macrosystem is playing a
significant role in children’s education outcomes (Freitas, Shelton, and Tudge 2008), with respect
to motor skill learning.
The decision to offer children free play and recreation as the content within physical education
does not ensure the development of motor skill competence. It is essential to notice that it was
emphasized in the convergent discourse from all the teachers. The teachers’ pedagogical practices
were devoted primarily to play. Just play, without instruction, even in contexts enriched with equip-
ment, do not ensure improvements in motor competence (Palma, Pereira, and Valentini 2009). In
the present study, it is even more problematic due to limited resources available for children.
Unfortunately, the activities implemented in the sports programs also lack instruction. It is cri-
tically important that teachers use effective pedagogical strategies that provide opportunities for chil-
dren to learn their motor skills (Cohen et al. 2014). This was not observed in the present study. These
results suggest the need to reevaluate how the proximal processes are taking place in this microsys-
tem. Besides temporal persistence (lessons frequency and duration), children need to engage in orga-
nized activities that provide complexity, hierarchical understanding, and challenge to promote
engagement, autonomy and learning (Booth et al. 1999; Goodway, Robinson, and Crowe 2019;
Valentini et al. 2017). The mutual interaction between children and teachers is also an important
outcome from exposure to task complexity and hierarchy activities (Bronfenbrenner and Morris
2006). It was not observed in the present study. Children from low-income families have limited
opportunities to learn motor skills outside school and sponsored programs. Therefore, these micro-
systems need to promote child exposure to effective instruction, appropriate equipment, and tasks to
nurture development.
One noticeable finding, from the interviews was that none of the children had opportunities for
social exposure in the municipal games. Children use different resources for social interactions that
could be important factors for development (Miyabayashi and Pimentel 2011), such as travel to
nearby cities, play in other schools, attending sports camps, playing matches in a championship.
This was not the case in the present study. Children participated in the games only as observers.
It seems that the children’s poor motor performance restricted them for participating in the sport
competitions. The transition from one context to a more demanding one is a function of the balance
between the skills a person obtained in the original context and the requirements of the new context
(Bronfenbrenner 1979). Children in the present study lacked the necessary basic skills. It is essential
to note that although children and teachers reported the absence of participation in the competitions,
none were certain why this was the case.
Additionally, considering that the values of a society directly influence the system of belief and
goals of a given culture (Freitas, Shelton, and Tudge 2008), it seems from the findings of this
study that there is a lack of clear understanding about the importance of motor skills acquisition
for children’s health and development. When classroom teachers from the three regions reported
that they utilized physical education class time to teach children to read, write, and perform math-
ematical activities, it became clear that the teachers were more inclined to prepare children with the
skills that they judged to be most essential to children (Tudge et al. 1999). Motor competence was
devalued by the teachers, as demonstrated in their practices and was considered nonessential by
local education administrators.
The use of the bioecological model allowed us to observe that similar processes were reproduced
in different regions (Tudge, Doucet, and Hayes 2001) regarding motor practices, facilities and equip-
ment, and teacher training, despite the differences in geographic location and local culture. Conse-
quently, the way the proximal processes were developed and sustained within the microsystems for
all the regions produced similar teachers’ perceptions of their roles and motor outcomes for children.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT PEDAGOGY 17
Schools and sports programs from all geographic regions did not overcome barriers for advancing
motor skills, even though the teachers and parents expect effective educational programs.
Limitations and recommendations
The bi-directional relationship between the child demands (motor competence or the lack of motor
competence) and its impact on families and schools is a limitation of the present study and an impor-
tant concern that needs to be addressed in the PPCT model. The strength of the communication
between microsystems (family, schools, sports programs) needs further investigation. Furthermore,
investigating the developmental trajectory over time is essential to better understanding the effects of
contextual opportunities on the children’s personal resources is a critical issue that needs to be
addressed in future investigations (Tudge et al. 2017). Finally, adopting the PPCT model to under-
stand opportunities for improving child development from other background and socioeconomic
status is critically necessary. This information combined with the findings obtained in the present
study could help to push for curricular improvements in public schools.
Conclusions
The present study provides a unique contribution to the current knowledge of Person-Process-Con-
text-Time model. A mixed methods approach was applied to investigate the inherent contextual pro-
cesses in different systems (micro-meso-exo and macro-systems) that led to poor motor proficiency
in children from low-income families in three geographic regions. Additionally, we investigated how
personal resources guided the children’s motor actions in different microsystems. Our findings indi-
cated that the lack of physical facilities, opportunities, teacher training, pedagogical curriculum, and
educational policies directly and indirectly affected children’s motor proficiency. Adherence and
amendment to public policies are necessary to ensure teacher training and the right of children to
have quality PEP classes throughout the elementary schoolyears and to ensure the equality of par-
ticipation for boys and girls in sports programs.
Note
1. The ‘More Education Program’ was a Federal Government program that aims to provide an after school pro-
gramming focusing on sports and cultural activities.
Acknowledgment
The author would like to thank Dr. Fernando Copetti for his helpful comments in this paper.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This study was financially supported by the CNPq, CAPES and Ministry of Education of Brazil/Sesu-PROEXT.
ORCID
Mary Elizabeth Rusidill http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1499-6745
18 F. S. NOBRE ET AL.
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1499-6745
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	Abstract
	Methods
	Geographic regions characteristics and children's motor learning opportunities
	Participants’ personal characteristics
	Proximal processes
	Chronological time and interference of socio-historic events
	Data analysis
	Results
	Geographic regions characteristics
	Personal characteristics: children's motor competence and chronological time
	Locomotor skills comparisons
	Object control skills comparisons
	Proximal processes in the PEP microsystem and the interference of socio-historic events
	CSS physical education teachers from the semiarid region
	CSS classroom teachers from the semiarid region
	CSS physical education teachers from the mountainous region
	CSS classroom teachers from the mountainous region
	CSS physical education teachers from the coastal region
	CSS classroom teachers from the coastal region
	CSS physical education teachers from the semiarid region
	CSS classroom teachers from the semiarid region
	CSS physical education teachers from the mountainous region
	CSS classroom teachers from the mountainous semiarid region
	CSS physical education teachers form the coastal region
	CSS classroom teachers from the coastal region
	Proximal processes in the SSP microsystems and the interference of socio-historic events
	Children's personal resources and opportunities to interact with friends in the SSP context in three geographic regions
	CSS physical education teachers from the semiarid region
	CSS physical education teachers from the mountainous region
	CSS physical education teachers from the coastal region
	Discussion
	Personal resources and proximal processes: children's motor skill and chronological time
	Interactions: macro-meso-micro systems and children's resources
	Limitations and recommendations
	Conclusions
	Note
	Acknowledgment
	Disclosure statement
	ORCID
	References