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<p>AULA 4</p><p>ESTUDOS AVANÇADOS DE</p><p>LÍNGUA INGLESA –</p><p>COMPREENSÃO AUDITIVA E</p><p>COMUNICAÇÃO ORAL</p><p>Prof. Willian Henrique Corrêa</p><p>2</p><p>INITIAL DISCUSSION</p><p>In our previous lesson, we explored the challenges that make speaking a</p><p>formidable task for students, as well as the skills and strategies employed by</p><p>proficient speakers. Speaking occupies a substantial portion of classroom time,</p><p>even if some of it serves as a conduit for introducing other lesson components or</p><p>practicing grammatical and lexical structures. In this lesson, we will delve more</p><p>deeply into how speaking activities can be effectively employed in the classroom.</p><p>CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND</p><p>During this class, we aim to address the following questions. Before</p><p>proceeding with the rest of the lesson, take a moment to contemplate and record</p><p>some of your thoughts or queries:</p><p>• How has the communicative approach influenced speaking activities within</p><p>the classroom?</p><p>• To what extent does impeccable pronunciation matter in speaking</p><p>activities?</p><p>• What sorts of responses can we anticipate from our students?</p><p>• How can approaches to speaking activities be structured?</p><p>• What fundamental principles should be considered when designing or</p><p>adapting speaking activities?</p><p>THEME 1 – THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH</p><p>According to Richards and Rogers (1986), during the 1970s and 1980s, a</p><p>set of concepts and principles evolved, ultimately coalescing into what we now</p><p>recognize as the Communicative Approach or Communicative Language Teaching</p><p>(CLT). Although a more detailed exploration of CLT will be undertaken in another</p><p>section of this course, in essence, its proponents contend that language acquisition</p><p>occurs through the endeavor to communicate. They posit that this struggle is</p><p>integral to learning, requiring a purpose for communication to motivate the effort.</p><p>Within the classroom, as articulated by Blyth (2010), a communicative speaking</p><p>activity typically exhibits the following attributes:</p><p>• Learner-controlled.</p><p>• Reflects real-life authenticity.</p><p>3</p><p>• Integrates synthetic and holistic elements.</p><p>• Embraces open-endedness (lacking a single correct answer).</p><p>• Emphasizes fluency.</p><p>While it is impossible to encompass all facets of CLT in this overview, it is</p><p>worthwhile to examine the impact this approach has had on contemporary</p><p>speaking activities, given its global dissemination over the past four decades.</p><p>1.1 Information Gap</p><p>Why do individuals communicate in everyday life, outside the confines of a</p><p>classroom? One answer lies in the pursuit of information. The premise is that</p><p>Person A possesses information that Person B requires. Consequently, Person B</p><p>is motivated to communicate with Person A to bridge the information gap. Such</p><p>communication typically takes the form of spoken or written interaction. According</p><p>to this theory, as children, the impetus to acquire language stems from the need to</p><p>close this information gap, and this drive persists even after mastery of the first</p><p>language. This information gap continues to function as a motivator in various</p><p>forms of communication. If this premise holds true, it also plays a pivotal role in</p><p>second language acquisition, whether undertaken during childhood or adulthood.</p><p>This information-driven aspect of communication does not preclude other</p><p>motives for interaction, such as phatic communication, which serves social</p><p>functions like reinforcing relationships. A comprehensive interpretation of CLT</p><p>acknowledges these various motivations and encompasses them through diverse</p><p>communicative competencies. Therefore, as educators aspiring to teach</p><p>communicatively, we must devise strategies to establish an information gap that</p><p>compels students to engage in communicative struggles.</p><p>This information gap can be created in numerous ways, with concrete</p><p>examples to be explored in a subsequent lesson. To offer a few quick examples,</p><p>classroom tasks might involve questionnaires that prompt students to inquire about</p><p>one another's daily routines or jigsaw readings that provide students with two distinct</p><p>texts on the same topic, encouraging them to compare similarities and differences</p><p>through speaking. Another example could entail one student describing a picture</p><p>while another attempts to replicate it without seeing the original image.</p><p>4</p><p>1.2 Collaborative work</p><p>A characteristic of communicative activities, albeit one occasionally met with</p><p>resistance from students, is the prevalence of pair and group work. The rationale</p><p>behind this approach is to provide students with opportunities to employ the</p><p>language that would otherwise be absent if they only communicated with the</p><p>teacher. Furthermore, collaborating in pairs or groups aligns with natural language</p><p>usage, making its introduction in the classroom seem logical. However, resistance</p><p>to excessive pair and group work may stem from students' unfamiliarity with this</p><p>learning method, particularly if they have prior experience with more traditional,</p><p>teacher-centric teaching styles. At other times, resistance may arise from concerns</p><p>that they will adopt their partners' mistakes, prompting a preference for conversing</p><p>with individuals possessing a higher level of English proficiency. While this</p><p>inclination is understandable, constraints related to time and resources render it</p><p>nearly impossible to address fully.</p><p>1.3 Authentic tasks</p><p>A desire to replicate the real-world communication experience also affects</p><p>the choice of tasks employed in the classroom. As previously explored in the</p><p>context of listening skills, using authentic tasks that mirror students' extracurricular</p><p>communication enhances relevance, motivation, and effectiveness.</p><p>1.4 Error correction</p><p>In the realm of language teaching, one subject that invariably sparks debate</p><p>among educators is that of error correction. Questions regarding the frequency,</p><p>timing, and methodology of correction typically yield a variety of responses from</p><p>different teachers. For advocates of CLT, the approach to error correction is often</p><p>as follows: if our primary focus is on fluency, then mistakes are inconsequential as</p><p>long as students effectively convey their intended meaning. As expressed by Botha</p><p>(1987), this type of feedback, namely error correction, has not proven highly</p><p>successful. Consequently, overt error correction is often minimal or nonexistent in</p><p>CLT-focused teaching. However, it is essential to recognize that many students</p><p>expect and value correction as an integral part of the learning process. Therefore,</p><p>the resolution to this issue is for each teacher to develop their own error correction</p><p>theories, considering their beliefs, institutional policies, and students' preferences.</p><p>5</p><p>Engaging students in discussions about how they wish to be corrected and</p><p>establishing a collective policy can also be a productive activity. Common strategies</p><p>for correcting students include:</p><p>• Hot correction: Providing immediate correction when a mistake is made.</p><p>• Cold correction: Allowing students to complete their statement before offering</p><p>correction.</p><p>• Board correction: Recording errors on the board and encouraging students</p><p>to work on correcting them once the activity concludes.</p><p>• Board language: Similar to board correction but also includes examples of</p><p>proper language use.</p><p>• Reformulating: Restating what the student said, but with the correct</p><p>language.</p><p>• Highlighting: Pointing out where mistakes were made and prompting</p><p>students to rectify them.</p><p>1.5 Non-communicative activities</p><p>Despite the success of CLT over the past four decades, instances of</p><p>activities in the classroom that do not align with the criteria for communicative</p><p>activities still exist. Examples of such activities may include drilling, formal debates,</p><p>and certain games. There may be various justifications</p><p>for implementing non-</p><p>communicative exercises, but the most compelling rationale is their effectiveness.</p><p>Irrespective of the activity type, if students find it enjoyable, informative, and</p><p>motivating, it is considered a valuable activity.</p><p>THEME 2 – SPEECH SOUND PRODUCTION</p><p>Much like CLT, this isn't the platform for an exhaustive discussion on</p><p>pronunciation, as there's a separate module dedicated to it in this course.</p><p>Nevertheless, it's essential to highlight that pronunciation plays a vital role in</p><p>effective communication. It doesn't matter how extensive your vocabulary is or how</p><p>impeccable your grammar; if your speech isn't understood, your message is lost.</p><p>In this section, we won't delve into the specifics of teaching pronunciation but</p><p>instead, consider some classroom-related concerns.</p><p>6</p><p>2.1 Accent and its perception</p><p>Many students grapple with accent-related anxieties that can deter them from</p><p>speaking in class. The first reassurance for such students is that everyone has an</p><p>accent, irrespective of their origin. Whether one hails from an English-speaking</p><p>country or not, accents abound. The perceived value of accents varies, and societal</p><p>and cultural factors shape these perceptions. It's important to note that these</p><p>judgments often have more to do with social and cultural attitudes towards accents</p><p>and the people who speak with them, rather than the accents themselves.</p><p>It's also worth shedding light on some statistics about English speakers.</p><p>Graddol (2000, p. 10) categorizes English speakers into three groups: core or inner</p><p>countries, where English is the native language; outer countries, where English</p><p>functions as a second language, often alongside one or more local languages;</p><p>periphery countries, where English is a foreign language. Core countries include the</p><p>UK, USA, and Australia; outer countries encompass places like India, Singapore,</p><p>and the Philippines; periphery countries involve nations like Brazil, China, and Iran.</p><p>Nevertheless, it's important to recognize that even if you come from a core country,</p><p>it doesn't automatically mean English is your first language. Similarly, hailing from a</p><p>periphery country doesn't preclude the ability to speak English proficiently,</p><p>comparable to someone from a core country.</p><p>What students should understand is the sheer number of speakers within</p><p>each category. Graddol estimates that there are 375 million native English</p><p>speakers, 375 million individuals who use English as a second language, and over</p><p>750 million people who employ English as a foreign language. The implication is</p><p>that the majority of English speakers have a non-native accent, so there's no</p><p>reason for embarrassment. Instead, students should strive to ensure their</p><p>communication is comprehensible, regardless of the accent they possess.</p><p>2.2 Age as a factor</p><p>While it may be impractical, or even unattainable, for most of us to achieve a</p><p>native- speaker-like accent, many learners will need to work on their pronunciation</p><p>to enhance mutual understanding. A more detailed discussion of steps students and</p><p>teachers can take to achieve this goal is covered in the phonology and pronunciation</p><p>module. However, it's worth noting here that several factors can influence the ease</p><p>or difficulty of accent modification.</p><p>7</p><p>When asked whether adults or children learn languages more quickly, most</p><p>individuals would likely respond that children have a significant advantage. Adult</p><p>students may attribute their struggles with English to a lack of quality instruction</p><p>during their youth. This assertion may be valid when it comes to acquiring a</p><p>language in the country where it is spoken. However, when we compare children</p><p>who receive instruction in a foreign language with adult learners, there is scant</p><p>research to suggest that children are inherently better language learners.</p><p>The one area where children do seem to outperform adults is in adopting</p><p>accents. As Zhou (2015, p. 406) notes, "although young children acquire accents</p><p>easily, they were not particularly efficient learners of vocabulary or other areas of</p><p>language structure." this suggests that the older individuals become, the more</p><p>challenging it might be to modify their accents, even if they still retain the ability to</p><p>grasp vocabulary and grammar.</p><p>2.2 Accent and identity</p><p>One reason for the difficulty in altering accents is that an individual's accent</p><p>is closely intertwined with their identity. The way we speak conveys a wealth of</p><p>information about our background, place of origin, educational background, and</p><p>social status, among other factors. After the onset of puberty, identities tend to</p><p>solidify, and consequently, accents often become more entrenched. This</p><p>underscores an argument to bolster students' comfort with their English accent—</p><p>it's a part of who they are, something they should take pride in, so long as it doesn't</p><p>hinder effective communication.</p><p>2.3 Perception sound</p><p>Some people possess a natural talent for recognizing and imitating accents.</p><p>Those with an inherent "ear for sounds" can leave other students and even</p><p>teachers feeling perplexed by how effortlessly they adopt new accents.</p><p>2.4 Motivation matters</p><p>Ultimately, motivation can significantly affect an individual's ability to modify</p><p>their accent. If a student believes it's essential or worthwhile to invest effort into</p><p>improving their accent, they are more likely to succeed. Conversely, if a student</p><p>deems it unnecessary, they may be less inclined to put in the necessary work. In</p><p>8</p><p>the latter case, it falls upon the teacher to determine whether the student needs to</p><p>work on their pronunciation and then find ways to inspire and motivate them</p><p>accordingly.</p><p>THEME 3 – VARIETIES OF ORAL EXERCISES</p><p>Regardless of the students' pronunciation, it is essential to work on their</p><p>speaking skills within the classroom setting. To facilitate this, it's crucial to consider</p><p>the types of activities we can employ. This section delves into Brown's (2001)</p><p>attempt to categorize speaking activities based on the expected student actions.</p><p>3.1 Imitative Activities</p><p>This represents the simplest form of speaking practice, where students</p><p>essentially act as human tape recorders, echoing back whatever phonological or</p><p>grammatical point the teacher emphasizes. These activities are often introduced</p><p>with the teacher's directive to 'Listen and repeat!' and are commonly found in drills.</p><p>While some educators view imitative activities skeptically due to their non-</p><p>communicative nature, they serve a purpose for many learners. Students often</p><p>appreciate the chance to hone their pronunciation and word articulation without the</p><p>added pressure of comprehending the meaning. If used judiciously, drills can offer</p><p>variety in class and serve as a stepping stone to more interactive activities.</p><p>3.2 Intensive Practice</p><p>Intensive tasks closely resemble imitative activities as they primarily focus</p><p>on phonological or grammatical aspects. Here, students repetitively attempt to</p><p>reproduce the targeted language to reinforce retention. Additionally, intensive</p><p>practice can be carried out in pairs, with students repeating designated phrases</p><p>to each other.</p><p>3.2 Responsive Interaction</p><p>A significant portion of the spoken output required from students falls into</p><p>the responsive category. In these activities, the teacher poses a question, and the</p><p>student responds. These interactions tend to be brief, and while they can be</p><p>authentic and meaningful, they often don't evolve into extended dialogues. While</p><p>9</p><p>valuable, teachers should strive to find ways to extend these interactions and</p><p>encourage more extended discourse.</p><p>3.3 Transactional Dialogues</p><p>In transactional dialogues, the focus is on conveying or exchanging specific</p><p>information or facts. These activities are commonplace in classrooms, especially</p><p>when there's an information gap,</p><p>and students frequently engage in them,</p><p>particularly at lower proficiency levels. Transactional tasks can involve</p><p>communication between the teacher and students or among students in pairs or</p><p>groups.</p><p>3.3 Interpersonal Conversations</p><p>In contrast to transactional exchanges, interpersonal conversations are</p><p>aimed at fostering or nurturing social relationships. Incorporating this type of</p><p>activity into the classroom can be challenging, as it may feel artificial to practice</p><p>social interactions. Moreover, interpersonal conversations often involve informal</p><p>language, such as slang, sarcasm, and ellipsis. Consequently, many students</p><p>struggle with small talk outside of the classroom environment.</p><p>3.4 Extensive Speaking</p><p>Extensive speaking tasks involve students delivering speeches or</p><p>presentations, typically in the form of monologues. These activities are better</p><p>suited for intermediate and advanced learners, as lower-level students may find it</p><p>challenging to sustain extended speech. While potentially beneficial, extensive</p><p>speaking can present classroom management challenges as only one student</p><p>speaks at a time.</p><p>3.5 Interactive Activities</p><p>Interactive tasks encompass a combination of the aforementioned</p><p>performance types by students. While it's possible to blend extensive and</p><p>transactional activities, it's challenging to incorporate all of them into a single task.</p><p>Therefore, it's often more effective to consider the class as a whole to ensure all</p><p>student reactions are accommodated, creating an interactive classroom</p><p>environment rather than solely focusing on individual activities.</p><p>10</p><p>3.6 Reading aloud</p><p>A frequently used activity involves students reading aloud. The rationale</p><p>behind this task is that it helps improve pronunciation. However, in practice,</p><p>reading aloud contributes minimally to students' pronunciation skills, as their</p><p>primary focus is often on individual words, with minimal attention to meaning,</p><p>connected speech, or intonation. Additionally, the question arises of how other</p><p>students engage while one classmate reads aloud, as they often pay little attention</p><p>to the speaker.</p><p>Reading aloud can be a valid exercise if students require this skill outside</p><p>the classroom. It's a challenging task to execute effectively, demanding ample</p><p>practice and a thorough understanding of a text's meaning before reading aloud.</p><p>If students express an interest in this activity, it can be incorporated; however, it</p><p>doesn't constitute a standard component of speaking instruction.</p><p>THEME 4 – STRATEGITIES FOR TEACHING ORAL COMMUNICATION</p><p>In addition to identifying the expected student actions, it's equally crucial to</p><p>consider how we can structure speaking activities according to the approach we</p><p>intend to adopt. Alternatively, we may need to align our approach with the</p><p>published materials used in class. Thornbury (2012) introduces five predominant</p><p>approaches that guide oral communication instruction.</p><p>4.1 The Situational Approach</p><p>This approach centers on specific real-life contexts in which speaking is</p><p>required, such as placing an order at a restaurant or expressing dissatisfaction.</p><p>These contextual situations determine the language chosen for instruction.</p><p>4.2 The Speech Act Approach</p><p>Here, the emphasis is on teaching specific language functions, such as</p><p>apologizing, making inquiries, or giving advice. Most functions can be conveyed</p><p>through various grammatical structures or vocabulary, allowing teachers or</p><p>materials to select content suitable for students' levels and interests.</p><p>11</p><p>4.3 The skills and strategies approach</p><p>This approach aims to impart speaking skills through discrete strategies and</p><p>sub- skills that proficient speakers employ. These skills or strategies may</p><p>encompass paraphrasing, interrupting, taking turns, or seeking clarification.</p><p>4.4 The Genre Approach</p><p>The genre approach concentrates on the diverse levels of formality, or</p><p>registers, required in different contexts. By exploring the genre of storytelling, for</p><p>instance, instructors can introduce various linguistic structures and vocabulary.</p><p>Other genres might include joke-telling, delivering presentations, or engaging in</p><p>live communication during online video games.</p><p>4.5 The Corpus –Informed Approach</p><p>Thornbury's final approach relies on databases of spoken language to study</p><p>essential features. Such corpora are now accessible online and offer insights to</p><p>teachers and curriculum developers regarding the frequency of spoken language</p><p>aspects, such as ellipsis, vague language, and the prevalence of specific</p><p>grammatical and lexical structures.</p><p>THEME 5 – CRAFTING SPEAKING TASKS</p><p>Now that we've identified the challenges of speaking, the necessary learner</p><p>skills, the expected student actions, and various response types for students, it's</p><p>time to establish some guiding principles for creating speaking activities.</p><p>5.1 Diversity</p><p>In a single class, it can be challenging to incorporate a wide range of activity</p><p>types that target different skills while meeting the students' needs. However, this</p><p>flexibility allows for the inclusion of various activities that address different skills</p><p>within a semester or course. It's essential to keep in mind that even if students</p><p>express a preference for a particular activity type, using it exclusively can lead to</p><p>boredom. The judicious use of diverse activities maintains students' engagement</p><p>and enjoyment.</p><p>12</p><p>5.2 Motivation</p><p>While every good teacher strives to motivate their students, it's even more</p><p>beneficial if the activity itself is intrinsically motivating, compelling students to</p><p>complete it willingly. One way to achieve this is by demonstrating to students what</p><p>they will learn from a specific task. This approach can make even seemingly</p><p>"boring" exercises motivating, as students recognize the value of the learning</p><p>outcome.</p><p>5.3 Authenticity in Tasks and Language</p><p>As demonstrated by the Communicative Approach (CLT), authentic</p><p>activities that are relevant to students are not only more motivating but also</p><p>enhance learning. The same applies to the language we teach and expect students</p><p>to use. Teaching language that students are unlikely to use in real-life situations is</p><p>counterproductive.</p><p>5.4 Feedback</p><p>Feedback typically takes the form of correction. In the classroom, students</p><p>heavily rely on teachers for effective feedback. While there are various error</p><p>correction techniques, two crucial considerations should be added:</p><p>• Don't correct everything: Over-correction can undermine students'</p><p>confidence, which is just as important as developing their language skills.</p><p>• Positive reinforcement: Acknowledge when students use correct or</p><p>interesting language examples, not just when they make mistakes. Students</p><p>need reminders of their language strengths in addition to their areas for</p><p>improvement.</p><p>5.4 Building Confidence</p><p>Activity selection can significantly impact students' confidence. If tasks are</p><p>consistently too challenging, students may lose confidence when they fail.</p><p>Conversely, if tasks are consistently too easy, students may not learn enough or</p><p>become bored. The ideal approach involves selecting tasks that slightly exceed</p><p>students' current abilities while interspersing confidence-building, slightly easier</p><p>tasks.</p><p>13</p><p>5.4 Integration of Skills</p><p>In real-life conversations, speaking is rarely isolated; it usually involves the</p><p>use of other skills. Students often need to listen actively when engaged in dialogue.</p><p>For monologues, they may need to gauge their listener's non-verbal cues, such as</p><p>body language. During meetings, taking notes or sketching diagrams may</p><p>accompany speaking. Therefore, effective classroom activities should integrate</p><p>these other skills, preparing students for real-world communication.</p><p>5.5 TTT vs STT</p><p>TTT (Teacher Talking Time) and STT (Student Talking Time) balance is</p><p>essential. When aiming to improve students' speaking skills, the focus should be on</p><p>maximizing STT and minimizing TTT. However, TTT is not always detrimental.</p><p>Teachers serve as crucial examples of proficient spoken English, providing</p><p>valuable language models. Teacher talk can offer relevant and contextualized</p><p>listening practice. Nevertheless, it is the students who require speaking</p><p>opportunities, not the teacher.</p><p>5.6 Fun and Beyond</p><p>While many educators seek speaking activities that are enjoyable and</p><p>engaging, this is more pertinent for young learners. Adults are often more</p><p>interested in activities that are effective for learning and are willing to tackle less</p><p>exciting tasks if they see their educational value. Additionally, both adults and</p><p>younger learners can be motivated by activities that are not necessarily "fun" but</p><p>are challenging, interesting, or offer broader educational benefits. It's worth noting</p><p>that adult learners may be negatively impacted by overly fun classes, perceiving</p><p>them as infantilizing or lacking depth.</p><p>CONCLUNDING THOUGHTS</p><p>In this lesson, we briefly explored the significance of the Communicative</p><p>Approach (CLT) in shaping contemporary speaking activities and addressed issues</p><p>related to pronunciation and speaking. These topics will receive more in-depth</p><p>coverage in subsequent sections of the course. Regarding the activities</p><p>themselves, we examined how to organize them based on student actions and</p><p>14</p><p>classify them according to the instructional approach they follow. Finally, we</p><p>established a set of principles to consider when designing and adapting speaking</p><p>activities. Now, we're poised to delve into practical speaking activities, which we</p><p>will commence in the next lesson.</p><p>Theoretical approach texts</p><p>COMMUNICATION or practice? Foreign Language Teaching Methods.</p><p>Available at: <https://coerll.utexas.edu/methods/modules/speaking/01/>.</p><p>Retrieved: 4 nov. 2023.</p><p>Practical approach texts</p><p>SERRA, R. Teaching Productive Skills: Speaking. Richmondhare, Jun. 11, 2017.</p><p>Available at: <http://www.richmondshare.com.br/teaching-productive-skills-</p><p>speaking/>. Retrieved: 4 nov. 2023.</p><p>Further knowledge</p><p>GRADDOL, D. The Future of English: A guide to forecasting the popularity of the</p><p>English language in the 21st century. The British Council, 2000. Available at:</p><p><https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/books-the-</p><p>future-of-english.pdf>. Retrieved: 4 nov. 2023.</p><p>http://www.richmondshare.com.br/teaching-productive-skills-</p><p>http://www.richmondshare.com.br/teaching-productive-skills-</p><p>15</p><p>REFERÊNCIAS</p><p>BLYTH, C. Foreign Language Teaching Methods: Speaking. 2010. Available at:</p><p><https://coerll.utexas.edu/methods/modules/speaking/01/>. Retrieved:18 jun.</p><p>2018.</p><p>BOTHA, H. The Role of Error Correction in Communicative Second Language</p><p>Teaching. Per Linguam, v. 3, n. 2, 1987. Available at:</p><p><https://www.perlinguam.journals.ac.za/pub/article/download/472/509>.</p><p>Retrieved: 18 jun. 2018.</p><p>DOUGLAS BROWN, J. Teaching by Principles: An interactive approach to</p><p>language pedagogy. New York: Pearson Education, 2001.</p><p>GRADDOL, D. The Future of English: A guide to forecasting the popularity of the</p><p>English language in the 21st century. The British Council, 2000. Available at:</p><p><https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/books-</p><p>the- future-of-english.pdf>. Retrieved: 18 jun. 2018.</p><p>HARMER, J. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Harlow: Longman</p><p>Group Ltd, 2007.</p><p>RICHARDS, C.; ROGERS, T. Approaches and Methods in Language</p><p>Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.</p><p>SCRIVNER, J. Learning Teaching. Oxford: Macmillan Publishers Ltd: 2005.</p><p>THORNBURY, S. Speaking Instruction in The Cambridge Guide to Pedagogy</p><p>and Practice in Second Language Teaching Cambridge.</p><p>Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2012.</p><p>ZHOU, L. Can Adults Attain a Native-Like Accent in their Second Language? Sino-</p><p>US English Teaching, v. 12, n. 6, p. 403-409, Jun. 2015. Available at:</p><p><http://www.davidpublisher.org/Public/uploads/Contribute/5590f93480efd.pdf>.</p><p>Retrieved: 18 jun. 2018.</p>