First, foreign and second language - Lesson 1

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<p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas A Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas Professora Érika Cocheiro Descrição Aquisição de primeira e segunda língua, terminologias de distinção entre língua materna e língua adicional e desenvolvimento de competências linguísticas em primeira (L1) e segunda língua (L2). Propósito A aprendizagem de línguas é um processo complexo. As descobertas nos diversos campos do domínio da revelaram muitos traços importantes e distintivos da aquisição de L1 e L2. À medida que você avança nesta Unidade, você se familiarizará mais com as noções de L1 e L2. Além disso, você compreenderá como o aprendizado de uma língua materna pode, às vezes, ser diferente ou se assemelhar ao desenvolvimento de habilidades linguísticas em L2. Preparação -se de ter um dicionário de inglês em mãos. Se preferir a tela na página, você pode contar com opções online gratuitas, como os dicionários Cambridge e Merriam-Webster Se quiser enriquecer seu vocabulário e aprender novas expressões, experimente o Thesaurus , um dicionário que lista necessariamente e sinônimos para cada palavra. Linguee é uma ferramenta que também pode ser útil, pois fornece traduções e versões contextualizadas das expressões que você pesquisa. 1/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas Metas Seção 1 Primeiro idioma Analisar o conceito de primeira língua e o processo de aquisição. Seção 2 Línguas Estrangeiras e Segundas Comparar teorias/abordagens de aquisição de uma segunda língua e a lógica por trás delas. Aquecimento Antes de investigarmos os mecanismos de aquisição da primeira e da segunda língua, é crucial discutir a natureza da própria linguagem. Como sugere o famoso linguista Noam Chomsky (2013, p.646), "nenhum biólogo proporia um relato do desenvolvimento do olho sem nos dizer algo bastante definido sobre o que é um olho, e os mesmos truísmos se aplicam às investigações sobre a linguagem" Ao longo dos séculos, muitos teóricos e pesquisadores tentaram fornecer uma definição direta de linguagem, mas as controvérsias ainda são abundantes até hoje. Para o filósofo grego Aristóteles, a linguagem pode ser definida diretamente como "som com significado". Para o linguista suíço Ferdinand de Saussure, a linguagem pode ser melhor descrita 2/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas como um repositório de "imagens de palavras" criadas arbitrariamente por membros de uma determinada comunidade linguística. Segundo o linguista americano Leonard Bloomfield, a linguagem corresponde a um conjunto de hábitos estabelecidos por uma comunidade de fala que é ativada quando é necessário responder a uma situação com sons de fala adequados e convencionalizados. Para o seu antecessor, o linguista americano William Dwight Whitney, a linguagem é "o corpo de sinais pronunciados e audíveis" que a sociedade humana empregou para transmitir ideias. antropólogo Edward Sapir também destacou esse papel social da linguagem, ressaltando sua função como "método não instintivo" que comunica ideias e emoções com a ajuda de símbolos produzidos voluntariamente (CHOMSKY, 2013, p. 648). Independentemente da abordagem linguística que apoia, deve ter em mente que todos eles reconheceram que a linguagem é fundamentalmente humana, uma capacidade que permitiu à humanidade comunicar e gravar conhecimentos, bem como experiências passadas, na nossa história e património cultural. Na primeira secção, exploraremos as características de uma primeira língua (L1) e da aquisição da primeira língua e lançaremos luz sobre algumas das teorias que abordam os complexos mecanismos através dos quais os humanos aprendem as suas línguas maternas. Na segunda secção, o foco reside nos desafios da aprendizagem de uma segunda língua e nos seus processos distintivos. Por fim, discutiremos as principais diferenças entre os conceitos de aprendizagem e aquisição de línguas. 3/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas B 1 - Primeira Língua Ao final desta seção, você poderá analisar 0 conceito de primeira língua e 0 processo de aquisição. Competência linguística: a necessidade de interação social A maioria das crianças da classe média ocidental são criadas em contextos monolingues, ou seja, em ambientes onde apenas uma língua é falada. o processo de aquisição da língua materna tem sido alvo de diversos estudos ao longo dos anos, mais investigados do que a Aquisição de Segunda Língua, por exemplo. Para esses indivíduos monolíngues, "a maior parte da linguagem é adquirida entre dezoito meses e três a quatro anos de idade" (ORTEGA, 2013, p. 3). Mas a aquisição da primeira língua (ou L1) começa muito mais cedo do que isso, com a fase crítica para o desenvolvimento 4/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas linguístico começando no útero e continuando até as crianças atingirem os quatro anos de idade. Como você aprenderá ao longo desta seção, as crianças não nascem linguisticamente competentes. Isto quer dizer que a língua não será aprendida a menos que estejam inseridos numa comunidade de fala, na qual as normas linguísticas e as expectativas sociais relativas à comunicação são uma parte essencial da vida quotidiana. Mas o que acontece com as crianças na ausência de tais condições? Até que ponto a pertença social é uma condição sine qua non para a aquisição de competências linguísticas? Vejamos alguns exemplos. Exemplo Alguns casos intrigantes de crianças encontradas em isolamento social absoluto datam do século XIX. Alguns viviam na companhia de animais selvagens, enquanto outros ficavam sozinhos no deserto, privados de contato com outros seres humanos. Na década de 1920, duas meninas, conhecidas como Amala e Kamala, foram encontradas na Índia, onde teriam sido adotadas por uma família de Há também o notório caso de Victor, o menino selvagem de Aveyron, encontrado vivendo sozinho nas florestas da França. Os bebés que cresceram em condições tão extremas, completamente privados de estímulos linguísticos e de interação social, tornaram-se conhecidos como crianças "selvagens" ou "selvagens" e muitos investigadores têm tentado analisar registos do seu progresso (e limitações) em termos de aquisição da linguagem após eles foram trazidos para a civilização (CURTISS et al, 1974). A aquisição da linguagem depende de interações sociais dentro de uma determinada comunidade de fala, na qual as crianças podem aprender os diversos significados transmitidos por sons, palavras e estruturas. Como partes integrantes de tais comunidades, as crianças aprendem como interpretar o discurso e como construí-lo, o que é considerado apropriado e o que não é, "como se fazer entender e como compreender os outros" (CLARK, 2009, p.1) 5/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas Embora a aquisição da primeira língua envolva a assimilação de conhecimentos complexos, é tipicamente um processo não assistido e espontâneo decorrente de experiências sociais não estruturadas e, em sua maioria, descontroladas (CLARK, 2009; DONOGHUE, 1968). No entanto, desenvolver o conhecimento da nossa língua materna não é uma tarefa simples, mas depende de um conjunto de competências complexas que tendemos a ignorar. As etapas da aquisição L1 Bebês de um ano parecem estar começando a adquirir a primeira língua quando suas primeiras palavras começam a sair. No entanto, como afirmado anteriormente, a aquisição da linguagem já estava bem avançada antes mesmo de eles nascerem. From the womb and during the very first months, babies typically become familiarized with prosodic and phonologic linguistic patterns, learning, for instance, the dynamics of turn-taking. Babies normally go from babbling between the seventh or tenth month to articulating one- word utterances around the first year of life. The second year is characterized by the expansion of vocabulary and the enunciation of two-word utterances. As children reach the age of three, they enhance their knowledge in the fields of syntax and morphology, and fluent conversation on some topics is achieved. Gradually, they master the mechanics of turn-taking and start engaging more actively in discursive interactions, using their linguistic skills to explain, persuade, give instructions, and share stories. More subtle and complex linguistic knowledge is acquired around the sixth year, when children are often taught how to read and write. By the time children are ten, they have picked up a wide array of complex 6/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas linguistic structures and learned to handle extensive vocabulary and many discursive abilities. Teenagers' experiences with language and literacies may vary so widely that it is impossible to set general landmarks at this stage. For this reason, it is generally accepted that the basics of L1 acquisition are accomplished somewhere between the ages of four and six (ORTEGA, 2013; CLARK, 2009). Learn more Studies in the field of first language acquisition suggest that children normally acquire intonation before speech. Even though the evidence is not conclusive, some researchers have put forward the hypothesis that babbling is a stage at which babies learn intonation while playing with different pitch contours (CURTISS et al., 1974). Language acquisition is one dimension of intense cognitive development underway during babies' first year. By the time they turn only one year old, they can already detect similarities, recognize faces, notice where objects are usually kept, and how they must be handled. Around their first year, they have also developed some level of spatial awareness, distinguishing "up" from "down", "back" (or "invisible") from "front" (or "visible"), as well as "inside" from "outside", for example. As we explore the field of L1 acquisition, it is essential to highlight that linguistic development is not a homogeneous process. Consider, for example, the mismatch between: X Comprehension Production 7/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas As a norm, children understand far more words than they can articulate - a discrepancy that persists throughout their lives but tends to go unnoticed after production becomes more proficient. The same unbalance is evident in second language learning, with adult learners comprehending a lot better than they can express themselves. However, such discrepancies are precisely what pushes children's linguistic development forward with infants targeting what they comprehend to improve their production. Heterogeneity in L1 acquisition also holds true across different languages: because they are not identical, one should not expect the entire learning process to look the same. After all, language acquisition is influenced by the level of difficulty of its elements, and, depending on its distinctive properties, certain patterns may be easier or harder to assimilate (CLARK, 2009). Children's strategies towards L1 acquisition In addition, language acquisition is influenced by learners' profiles. Some are more conservative and avoid taking risks until they can rely on enough evidence from the adult speech to shape their production. These children often accumulate a lot of input from adult conversation before making generalizations to alter their speech. Others are even more conservative and prefer even more limited generalizations, basically moving items as they acquire their mother tongue. On the other hand, there are also fearless learners, eager to generalize the rules as they are assimilated. Such attitude toward L1 acquisition results in overgeneralizations that typically regularize irregular forms. Example Consider, for example, the past inflection of regular verbs. You must remember that most verbs in English - such as "love", "hate", "work" and "walk" - are classified as "regular". In these cases, all we need to do is to predictably add an "ed" to get the past forms "loved", "hated", "worked", and After identifying this pattern, bold learners usually stretch this rule to account for the past forms of irregular verbs, coming up with mistakes such as "teached" (instead of "taught"), "goed" (instead of "went") and "drinked" (instead of "drank"). https://stecine.azureedge.net/repositorio/00212hu/04583/index.html?brand=estacio 8/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas The same line of thought leads to the regularization of irregular plurals. When children realize that plural forms are constructed by adding the desinence "s" to the end of nouns, some overgeneralize this pattern, producing "foots" (in the place of "feet"), "mouses" (in the place of "mice"), "childs" (in the place of "children") and so forth (CLARK, 2009). But the construction of rules for language use is far from being the only tool available for young learners. Children may also learn by rote, for example, whenever they acquire new knowledge based on the memorization of repeated information. That is the case, for example, of learners who memorize the plural forms of each word at a time, rather than overregularizing the use of the desinence "s". This method prevents errors like "womans" (in the place of "women") and "eated" (in the place of "ate"), but it is widely known that children do make such mistakes. After all, they do not necessarily elect one single learning strategy for the entire language acquisition process. Some children use rote learning to memorize the plural form of a few words so that, later, they can apply the identified patterns to decide on the plural of similar The use of the "s" as a plural desinence for "dogs" can be successfully applied to "cats" by analogy, but the same procedure would be misleading for the plural of "sheep" (CLARK, 2009). As you may have perceived, either learning by rule or by analogy consists of replicating a familiar pattern to a different word. In opposition, when learning by schema, the point of departure is a schema, or a template - in other words, a settled mental model used to approach new words. If the regular past form is your template, you basically add "ed" to new verbs. 9/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas But schema can also cause mistakes. When handling words in the singular ending with the [s] sound, for instance, learners may imply that they are already in the plural form and fail to add the plural desinence appropriately. That could easily happen to words such as "horse", which ends with the [s] sound. Identifying children's most recurrent strategies for L1 acquisition depends substantially on the analysis of "what they get right and what they get wrong" (CLARK, 2009). To have a clearer picture of the strategies employed during first language acquisition, examine the cards below: Rote New linguistic knowledge is acquired thanks to item by item memorization. Analogy Children identify linguistic patterns and apply them to similar words. Rule Because of extensive exposition to certain words, children identify a pattern, a rule that they tend to generalize, or even overgeneralize. Schema Children start out with a schema and make the necessary adjustments to conform to it. Innate abilities or socially learned competencies? Accumulating vocabulary - whether learned by rote, rule, analogy, or schema - is always a monumental task, especially if we consider that an adult's repertoire ranges between 50,000 and 100,000 words. Acquiring knowledge of the mechanics of syntax is also demanding and researchers diverge widely on how children learn syntactic constructions. 10/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas After all, do they possess any sort of innate or built-in apparatus that enables them to go through first language acquisition? For those in favor of the innateness hypothesis, children must count on an inborn mechanism for the learning of their mother tongues, or they would not manage to acquire more complex structures that tend to lack in adult conversation. Since young learners succeed at acquiring their first language anyway, some researchers rule out the possibility that children start from zero, as the idea of John Locke's tabula rasa suggests. But if they do make a fresh start, unassisted by innate knowledge and pre-wired language acquisition mechanisms, how active is their role in this process? Do children merely absorb linguistic patterns they are exposed to? Or can they perform a more active role, identifying linguistic patterns, tracing parallels by analogy, and generalizing the rules they have assimilated? ? Alternatively, could it be the case that, upon birth, children have already got what it takes just to get their first language acquisition in motion? And if children are indeed given such inborn mechanisms, should these pre-wired apparatus be understood as serving exclusively language- specific goals or general achievements (CLARK, 2009)? There is no definite answer to these questions and the line separating possible innate abilities from socially learned competencies is often blurred. Moreover, a vast array of theories on first language acquisition is distributed along the line between these two extremes. Consider, as an example, the handling of verbs and nouns. According to Clark (2009): Some scholars Others scholars 11/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas insist that these two defend children tend categories are an to realize the difference X intrinsic part of between the two as they children's innate observe adults handle linguistic knowledge. them in everyday speech while paying attention to the linguistic context in which they appear. Step by step, children come to understand that nouns can be used as labels for things, places, and people, whereas verbs can designate actions. Some researchers have advocated in favor of a paradigm known as "parameter setting". Based on this approach to first language acquisition, children are born with "default settings", innate mechanisms that enable them to grasp all the different dimensions that tell languages apart. Throughout their acquisition process, children gradually detect the parameter settings for their mother tongue as they reach either the right age or the adequate stage of development. From that moment on, children start using the parameter learned in ways that resemble adults. Before parameters for plurality are set, for example, children's typical point of departure is to turn to "more" or to a familiar numeral (like "two") to convey the notion of plurality. At this point, children do understand that singular forms are different from plural forms; the notion of number is there, but learners still lack formal linguistic knowledge to express it appropriately. Eventually, this stage is followed by the acquisition of the plural "s" ending (CLARK, 2009). Interestingly enough According to Clark (2009), small children initially attempt to get the beginning of words right to help their hearers understand what they are talking about. After this stage, they often start working on the pronunciation of word-endings and that tends to be the moment in which the production of the plural desinence is brought about. Differences across languages 12/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas So far, you have analyzed language acquisition as if it were a uniform process. Still, you should bear in mind that differences across languages impact the learning process, making certain points harder to learn than others. Although children's cognitive development occurs at about the same pace around the globe, the acquisition of certain linguistic features may take longer than others according to their levels of difficulty: The more uniform and predictable, the easier to learn. Consider as an example the acquisition of the plural in English. Except for a few irregular words, the rule remains pretty much the same, with the "s" ending remaining almost invariant as a plural desinence for most words. Such simple logic cannot be extended to other languages because some may call for the use of different plural markers in accordance with the gender or the ending of the noun. Depending on the language, phonological traits may differ widely, with some making room for the combination of vowels under the form of diphthongs and others privileging the use of pure vowels in syllables. In the realm of syntax, languages like Latin, German and Finnish establish the syntactic role of each word in a clause with the help of case endings. The nominative case ending, for example, is placed at the end of a word to signal it functions as a subject. Yet, languages (like English) rely on word order to determine "who is doing what to whom" (CLARK, 2009). Languages may also vary in terms of how words are ordered within a clause. Let's see some examples: SOV Japanese, for example, tends to form clauses with the SOV (subject - object - verb) SVO English, for example, privileges the SVO (subject - verb - object) order. Such predictable patterns are crucial for the language acquisition process, for they help children acquire rules they can generalize when shaping their productions. Most SVO languages - such as Portuguese, for instance - place adjectives after the nouns they refer to. Nevertheless, this generalization fails when it comes to English: despite being an SVO language, it typically locates adjectives before the nouns they qualify (CLARK, 2009). 13/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas As you can see, the identification of linguistic patterns can be misleading at times, but a certain level of predictability is what makes a language learnable. In her book entitled First Language Acquisition, Eve Clark (2009) underscores the relevance of such consistency for children as they go through the acquisition process: The internal consistencies in a language help speakers keep track of what they are listening to and what they are planning to say themselves. They allow predictions about linguistic units and offer predictable frames for the presentation of information. So, children need to learn general structural regularities in the language they are acquiring - whether it is an SOV or SVO language, whether relative clauses and adjectives follow or precede the nominals they modify, whether locative phrases are signaled by preposition or postpositions, and so on. These properties are important because, once speakers have identified them, they can rely on certain assumptions about the kind of information that can come next in an utterance. (CLARK, 2009, p.4) In a nutshell, linguistic knowledge, both on the structure and the functions of utterances, is the catalyst of language acquisition, providing children with some general assumptions on how to build meaning from their interactions and how to express themselves. But the building up of linguistic competence does not rely solely on how extensive your semantic and syntactic repertoire is. 14/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas To be successful, first language learning must also encompass the ability to engage discursively in accordance with the context, raising awareness on how each situation may demand word choices or linguistic structures to convey the intended meaning. In Clark's words: There is no one-to-one mapping of linguistic constructions and words to each situation. Did Justin chase the dog? Or did the dog run away from Justin? Did Sophie come into the house or go into the house? Did Kate teach the children to tie knots, or did the children learn to tie knots from Kate? In each case, the choice of construction and words conveys a particular perspective on the event. At the same time, the perspectives speakers can take may be limited by what is available in their language. (CLARK, 2009, p.4) The social component of language acquisition According to a popular proverb, "it takes a village to raise a child". Traditionally, the old dictum has been taken as a reminder that child development is not entirely up to him or her, but also significantly dependent on the support of the community in which he or she is inserted. When it comes to first language acquisition, the famous proverb still holds its value. 15/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas After all, human interaction is indeed the main medium through which linguistic knowledge is built and discursive skills, enhanced. According to Clark (2009), conversation with adults is of paramount importance, since it offers children not only a wealth of vocabulary, but also clues on how, when and what they should speak. Thanks to engagement in such conversations, young learners manage to take in linguistic knowledge, assimilating implicit grammatical rules in addition to social expectations regarding turn-taking and discursive interaction. In Clark's own words: 66 They learn to think - and plan - for speaking in that language (...). Conversation provides a forum for language use. It displays language embedded in larger systems for communication and so presents children with critical material for making sense of language as they try to understand and make themselves understood. Conversational exchanges between children and adults are also a forum for learning to become a member of the society and the culture. (CLARK, 2009, p.6) In other words, conversation is key not exclusively to first language acquisition itself, but also to broader processes in which children's relationships with the community and the established social practices are built. Attention! Learning a mother tongue should not be taken for granted as a mechanical process in which individuals merely memorize vocabulary 16/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas and absorb syntactic patterns. Chart 1 hints at the complexities and subtleties of meaning construction as a social and cultural process. "Can you open this door?" Does "can" indicate "request" or "ability"? Interpretation depends on the context Chart 1 Meaning construction as a social and cultural process. Based on Chart 1, we can understand that meaning making does not rely solely on the simple assimilation of grammatical structures. It takes more than that. In this case, it is the context of use that ultimately determines the meaning of "can". The modal "can" may convey the idea of ability if the speaker is questioning whether the hearer has the strength or the skill to open a certain door that he or she has not managed to open yet. On the other hand, it may also imply the notion of "request", if the speaker is simply asking the hearer to open the door. Comment As Paulo Freire (1985, p. 20) once affirmed, language acquisition should not "separate reading the word and reading the world, reading the text and reading the Hence, effective linguistic knowledge is not limited to the contents of grammar books, since it also comprises discursive skills and social conventions for language usage unequivocally molded by speech communities and their cultural repertoire. But if the L1 acquisition does not end with the assimilation of vocabulary and grammar, studies on the learning of first languages should also encompass the ways children take in conventions for language use. For Clark (2009), conversation plays again a pivotal role in the process. Imagine that, during a given discursive interaction, an adult decides to address the same question for a second time. Such repetition could send the child the message that the initial answer was not clear enough and an alternative response is needed. However, the repetition of a question can be interpreted differently in a classroom setting, where the teacher may ask a question twice to ensure 17/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas the student is indeed confident and has not provided a random answer. In the latter scenario, the child is not expected to reformulate the original statement, but to repeat it. Language use is, therefore, crafted by a vast number of social and contextual clues. Take into consideration, for example, situations in which speech is molded by a high level of politeness and formality. Such contexts call for the use of more formal terms of address (such as Mr. and Mrs. or Ms.) and for the selection of specific syntactic constructions (like "would you pass me the salt?" in the place of "pass me the salt"). For Clark (2009), language should not be seen as an independent communication system, since it is not used in isolation: all in all, linguistic exchanges are wrapped up in social interactions in which gaze, gestures, facial expression, voice quality, and other non-verbal factors are intrinsic parts of the communication process. Therefore, first language acquisition involves, to a certain extent, the assimilation of non-verbal constituents of communication. Before children manage to construct meaning out of the utterances voiced by the speaker, they can make sense out of non-verbal clues, such as gaze, gestures, or intonation. Based on what adults are looking at, for example, they can attempt to infer the referents of unfamiliar words. 18/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas Because social belonging entails language acquisition, one could say that the definite objective of learning a mother tongue is to promote one's participation in a speech community. As we have discussed, first language acquisition encompasses tacit knowledge of its structure and its components: to engage effectively in discursive interactions, children must learn all the speech sounds available in their mother tongue; in other words, they must hold implicit knowledge on phonology to identify sounds that can be combined in words or syllables, stress patterns that may shape the pronunciation of various utterances, and intonation contours that can allow us to tell a question from a statement. Secondly, children must take hold of morphology - that is, they have to grasp how words are structured. In English, words comprise one, two, or more syllables. Some of them are built craftily with the help of blocks like suffixes and prefixes. That is the case of more complex words in which prefixes and/ or suffixes are added to a stem, for example: 1 unhappiness 2 teacher 3 disagreement In addition to handling morphological building blocks to create new words or to reproduce existing ones, a first language learner must be able to organize them within sentences according to their mother tongue's syntax. From a syntactic perspective, meaning is not conveyed properly when loose words are juxtaposed at random. Example In English, for example, some sequences are possible, while others are not: adjectives are placed before the nouns they qualify (as in "intelligent child"), but relative clauses (whether restrictive or non-restrictive) typically follow their referents. Nevertheless, subordinate clauses 19/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas beginning with linking words - such as "when", "because" or "if" - can appear either before or after the main clause. At last, language also embraces the linguistic realm focused on meaning; namely, semantics. Furthermore, communication in any speech community relies on tacit agreements regarding the meanings conveyed by different words, as Clark affirms: Language is used to convey meaning. Words, suffixes, and prefixes all carry meanings that are conventional (Lewis 1969). The speech community relies on all its members agreeing that ball means "ball", throw means "throw" and sand means "sand". These conventions are what make languages work. Without agreements about meanings one couldn't rely on the fact that the next time someone uses sand, say, people hearing the word will still interpret it in the same way. (CLARK, 2009, p. 13) At last, as stated previously, successful first language acquisition depends on the construction of situated knowledge about the conventions for language use - something that may change substantially from one speech community to another, even when both of them share the same mother tongue. Now, you should examine Chart 2 where you can find a summary of the five main areas targeted by first language acquisition. 20/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas Phonology The sound system. Morphology The "building blocks" used to form words. Syntax The sequences considered accurate in a given language. Semantics The meanings a speech community has assigned to words. Conventions for use Situated knowledge on how to use language. Chart 2 - The five targets of first language acquisition. What is L1 acquisition, anyway? What does language acquisition entail? What are children's strategies toward L1 acquisition? This interview will address these questions and many others! Para assistir a um vídeo sobre o assunto, acesse a versão online deste conteúdo. 21/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas Você está muito perto de alcançar seus objetivos. Vamos praticar! Question 1 Even though first language acquisition seems, at first, quite simple as we know that children do learn how to speak; it is, in fact, a complex process that encompasses many stages. It is correct to affirm that first language acquisition comprises: 22/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas apenas a memorização do vocabulário e a A construção do conhecimento gramatical. exclusivamente a assimilação de convenções para o uso da linguagem tal como foram estruturadas por comunidades de fala específicas. a fase crítica para o desenvolvimento linguístico que C começa no útero e continua até as crianças atingirem a idade de quatro anos. apenas a aquisição de morfologia, fonologia, sintaxe D e semântica. unicamente o aprendizado de como lidar com os blocos de construção que formam as palavras e o E conhecimento sintático necessário para organizá- los dentro das frases. Parabéns! A alternativa É correta. First language acquisition typically comprises the critical period in which linguistic development is carried out, starting in the womb and moving on until the child turns four years old. It encompasses more than knowledge of morphology, phonology, semantics, and syntax, as it also includes the acquisition of social conventions for language use within a given speech community. Question 2 Children may make use of different strategies during language acquisition. They may learn by rule, analogy, schema, and rote, for instance. Choose the correct alternative regarding the strategies young learners use to promote first language acquisition: A 23/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas As crianças aprendem por regras quando novos conhecimentos linguísticos são adquiridos com As crianças aprendem por regras quando, após extensa exposição a certas palavras, conseguem detectar um padrão que muitas vezes generalizam e generalizam excessivamente. As crianças aprendem por analogia quando C adquirem novos conhecimentos através da memorização. As crianças aprendem por esquema quando D identificam padrões linguísticos e os aplicam a palavras semelhantes. As crianças aprendem por regras sempre que E começam com um modelo ou esquema e fazem os ajustes necessários para se adaptarem a ele. Parabéns! A alternativa B está correta. Learning by rule consists of identifying a rule that can be generalized (and is often overgeneralized). Children identify a pattern, a rule, such as the adding of -ed at the end of verbs to form the simple past, which they tend to generalize, or even overgeneralize. 24/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas P 2 - Línguas Estrangeiras e Segundas Ao final desta seção, você será capaz de comparar teorias/abordagens de aquisição de um segundo idioma e a lógica por trás delas. Defining L2 L2? Additional Language? Foreign language? Do you know what these terms mean? In this section, we will navigate through these terms. We will draw distinctions and similarities and we will briefly tackle more contemporary approaches to language acquisition. We classify as "L2", "Second Language" or "Additional Language" any language learned after first language acquisition. Although this classification may sound quite simple, such clear-cut definitions have rather limited reach in real-life situations. Comment All in all, several small children are raised in bilingual or multilingual contexts, making it virtually impossible to set an unequivocal distinction between the first and second languages due to the simultaneity of their acquisition processes. In a multilingual context, proposing accurate classifications is rather more complex, once the terms L2 or Second Language may refer to a third, a fourth, or a fifth language, for instance. Thus, as Ortega (2013) suggests, these definitions should not be interpreted, as straightforward categories, but carefully employed as abstractions employed for analytical purposes. 25/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas Over the course of the last few years, you may have perceived that the expression "Additional Language" has become increasingly used, often replacing the more conventional term "Second Language" or "Foreign Language". In the field of English Language Teaching, particularly, the expression owes its rising popularity to critical approaches to second language acquisition, that typically call for increased awareness of learners' linguistic achievements instead of focusing on the skills that remain under construction in the target language. Furthermore, the word "additional" also underscores that English is just an alternative medium of communication for these learners' communication - an implicit reminder of their already accomplished discursive competence in their mother tongues (CREESE, 2005). Most young learners around the world are used to learning two or more languages at the same time. Monolingual children are less numerous than bilingual or multilingual infants. Do you know what bilingual or multilingual acquisition is? Bilingual or multilingual acquisition The notion of bilingual or multilingual acquisition refers to these situations in which two or more languages are learned simultaneously before children reach the age of four. Likewise, the field of research that investigates the simultaneous acquisition of different languages is known as bilingualism or multilingualism, which sheds light on how the human brain can accommodate diverse linguistic systems at the same time and how these bilingual or multilingual individuals develop the ability to switch from one code to another according to the social interaction or their communicative needs and desires. SLA versus Bilingualism As a field of Linguistics, Second Language Acquisition (hereinafter, "SLA") differs from bilingual or multilingual acquisition since it has traditionally aimed at understanding how individuals in late childhood, teenage or adulthood learn other languages once proficiency in their 26/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas mother tongue(s) - in the case of multilingual learners - is already achieved. In other words, the goal of SLA is to comprehend how languages other than L1 are learned after the age of four when the bulk of language has already been acquired (ORTEGA, 2013). Did you know that there are over 6,500 different documented languages? Despite this huge linguistic variety, the linguist Noam Chomsky has famously argued that it is possible to detect a universal grammar across languages - that is, a universal core of fundamental properties that remain common to all these different linguistic systems (ORTEGA, 2013). Initially, research in SLA started coming forth in the 1960s, often appropriating interdisciplinary contributions, learning from the realms of psychology, language teaching, and first language acquisition. In the 1980s and 1990s, studies on SLA gained momentum and, in the first years of the 21st century, SLA had already guaranteed its status as an autonomous field (ORTEGA, 2013). But the difference between bilingualism and SLA is not always in black and white and drawing a line to separate the two remains a challenge. Firstly, the traditional scope of SLA is late acquirers, while the typical focus of bilingualism is early starters. 27/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas Secondly, research on bilingualism tends to concentrate on bilingual individuals' mature linguistic products. In the meantime, the goal of investigations in the field of SLA is to understand the process learners need to go through to develop linguistic competence in their target language. As Ortega (2013, p.4) summarizes, SLA aims at understanding "the incipient stages rather than mature competence". Thirdly, SLA and bilingual studies differ in the sense that the latter is interested in all the languages acquired by the individual, whereas the former remains broadly focused on the second language to the point that SLA research pays no attention to the mother tongue. Below, you can find the differences between SLA and bilingualism: SLA Bilingualism Focuses on Focuses on understanding the understanding process. mature linguistic products. Concentrates on late acquirers. Concentrates on X early starters. Removes the first language from the Focuses on all the research picture different languages and focuses on the acquired by the second language. individual. 28/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas Second language acquisition: a hybrid experience Research on SLA has been dedicated to both naturalistic and instructed contexts for language acquisition. Second language acquisition may take place in naturalistic contexts when learners do not receive formal instruction but develop their linguistic competence while engaging in spontaneous social interactions at multilingual schools, neighborhoods, and workplaces. But SLA may also occur in instructed contexts - that is, formal settings where learners acquire the additional language while attending lessons at school or university, for example. These two categories are illustrated in Chart 3: Naturalistic contexts Second Language Acquisition Instructed contexts Chart 3 - Contexts for Second Language Acquisition. However, as Ortega (2013) herself indicates, these two contexts for SLA should not be seen as hard and fast categories. The intensification of globalization has brought multiple opportunities for language learners in naturalistic and instructed settings, to the point that formal instruction may coexist with learning through migration, international travel, multilingual marriages, and social interactions in the target language. Therefore, the acquisition of a second language has become increasingly a hybrid experience, in which formal and spontaneous opportunities for learning are mingled rather than separate. Did you know? Traditionally, second-language acquisition was conceived as a process that differed from foreign-language learning. Aside from the apparent opposition of the terms - acquisition and learning, 29/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas which will be later discussed - , the context in which the learner was exposed to the target language was crucial to determine whether second-language acquisition or foreign-language learning was taking place. In a second-language acquisition situation, L2 is spoken in the immediate environment of the learner. Imagine English is the L2 in question and the learner lives in Canada, where English is one of the official languages. In this case, the learner has more opportunities to engage in natural communicational interactions. In a foreign-language learning situation, however, the language, English, for instance, is not spoken in the learner's immediate surroundings. Natural communication in the target language is, therefore, restricted or limited. Grounded upon commonsensical assumptions, language teachers tend to assume that foreign and second language acquisition are distinct learning processes. Nevertheless, if analyzed from a theoretical standpoint, the difference between these two concepts seems blurred, to the point that both expressions can be used interchangeably (ORTEGA, 2013). An optimal age for language acquisition? Is it ever too early or too late for SLA? Is there an optimal age to acquire a second language? By the time SLA was emerging as an autonomous field, around the 1960s, influential research on the topic attempted to answer these two intriguing questions (Lenneberg, 1967; Penfield; Roberts, 1959; In ORTEGA, 2013). Based on data generated in the realm of neurolinguistics, these studies reached conclusions contradicting the widespread belief that children's brains are naturally fit for language acquisition, considerably more disposed than adults'. 30/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas At the time, researchers tended to blame the disparity between children's and adults' outcomes on the loss of plasticity of the human brain - a phenomenon expected to occur at some point around the age of nine and commonly associated with the start of puberty and to a neurological process called lateralization, that is, the specialization of the left hemisphere, part of the brain in charge of handling language acquisition. Although the belief in children's aptitude for language acquisition is still pervasive, new clues have revealed that young learners do not always pick up linguistic knowledge faster and more efficiently than adults. Surprising evidence has suggested that adults and teenagers take in more either from formal language instruction or from naturalistic experiences with an additional language- a result that likely owes to their previous development of metalinguistic abilities and cognitive materials. However, this advantage of older over younger tends to narrow over the course of months, until the situation inverts with children learning at a faster pace than older children and adults. Therefore, the advantage of younger over older ones becomes apparent in the long run. Comment According to collected data, adult's and older children's advantage typically disappears after a little more than a year, with younger learners performing better than more mature individuals in the long term. Language learning or language acquisition? For Stephen Krashen (2003), the development of linguistic skills may follow two distinct paths: acquisition and learning. Acquisition is usually defined as a subconscious process. In Krashen's words: 31/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas 66 (...) while it is happening, we are not aware that it is happening. Also, once we have acquired something, we are not usually aware that we possess any new knowledge; the knowledge is stored in our brains subconsciously. The research strongly supports the view that both children and adults can subconsciously acquire language. (...) In non-technical language, acquisition is sometimes referred to as "picking up" a language. When someone says, "I was in France for a while and picked up some French", it means he or she acquired some French. (KRASHEN, 2003, p.1) The alternative pathway is language learning, that Krashen (2003) has defined as a conscious process in which we are aware of our linguistic development; after all, learned knowledge is consciously represented in our brains. Whenever a language learner talks about language in terms of "grammar" or "rules", we may conclude that "learning", as opposed to "acquisition", is happening. Such a conscious approach to language learning makes room for both - error correction as well as self- correction. Error correction takes place whenever someone else corrects learners' errors, inviting them to modify their conscious version of a grammatical rule. Example Imagine, for example, that a second language learner speaks "she work remotely every day" in a language classroom. In this case, the teacher is likely to draw the student's attention to the lack of the third person singular inflection, helping the learner realize that "s" is added to verbs in the Simple Present tense whenever "he", "she" or "it" functions as the 32/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas subject of a given clause. In this particular case, "works" should replace the non-inflected verb form "work". Alternatively, language learners may correct their production, using what Krashen (2003, p.2) has named "conscious monitor" for the purpose of self-correction. When learners can self-correct, they edit their language use aided by their own "feel for correctness". As useful as they seem, correction and self-correction - as well as conscious learning in general - are rather limited in terms of the contribution they offer to fluency and accuracy, for spontaneous conversations do not offer the time for speakers to monitor their discursive productions and it is hard to keep track of form and meaning simultaneously (KRASHEN, 2003). Although Stephen Krashen (2003) has famously drawn this conceptual line to maintain apart the notions of language acquisition and language learning, the differences between these two terms are not a consensus in the field of SLA. Comment For Lourdes Ortega (2013), for example, these two concepts can be used interchangeably and no distinction between these concepts should be upheld in contemporary SLA terminology. A translingual approach to language learning Traditionally, when analyzing both first and second language learning, linguists often privilege a monolingual approach to acquisition, generally based on the assumption that texts should be written or spoken in only one language at a time. However, in the book Translingual Practice: Global English and Cosmopolitan Relations, Canagarajah (2013) reminds us that such expectations on language usage are molded by broader ideas we hold on what effective communication should be like. The already well-established monolingual approach to communication and language acquisition typically suggests that successful speakers or writers should shape their linguistic practices using a single common language, molding their choices based on shared and widely accepted grammatical norms. Such monolingual orientation towards communication obviously privileges native speakers of any given 33/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas language, inviting us to marginalize and elbow aside the discursive practices of bilingual and multilingual individuals. In addition, this traditional take on language as a "pure" system reproaches the mixing of one language with others - a linguistic practice proved increasingly widespread, especially in a globalized world where languages, as well as individuals, are always in transit - whether in the real or the virtual world, with the help of faster means of transportation and communication. According to Canagarajah (2013), translingualism is a term that invites language studies to make a substantial and innovative paradigm shift to surpass the fictitious boundaries dividing individual languages towards a different and more hybrid approach to actual language usage in a globalized world. It is essentially based on the five core assumptions described in Chart 4. Languages are always in contact and mutually influence each other. The separation of languages with different labels needs to be problematized. Users treat all available codes as a repertoire in their everyday communication, and not separated according to their labels. Users don't have separate competences for separately labeled languages, but an integrated proficiency that is different from traditional understandings of multilingual competence. Languages are not necessarily at war with each other; they complement each other in communication. Texts and conversations don't feature one language at a time. They are meshed and mediated by diverse codes, which may not always be evident on the surface. Chart 4 Core assumptions of a translingual approach. As the five approaches from Chart 4 suggest, translingualism has emerged as a fresh and original viewpoint on both SLA and multilingualism. Based on Canagarajah's arguments (2013), we may infer that "novice" learners do not start from "zero", since they bring their previously acquired ideas, values, and linguistic knowledge into the target language. Instead of merely "absorbing" new input from "authoritative" so-called "native speakers", multilingual learners play an 34/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas active role in the construction of alternative norms and varieties blending new and old knowledge as they expand their linguistic repertoire. L2 acquisition or learning? You are in for lively discussion on second language learning and acquisition. Stay tuned! Para assistir a um vídeo sobre o assunto, acesse a versão online deste conteúdo. https://stecine.azureedge.net/repositorio/00212hu/04583/index.html?brand=estacio 35/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas Você está muito perto de alcançar seus objetivos. Vamos praticar! Question 1 Second language acquisition is a field that has drawn on psychology, language teaching, and first language acquisition. Choose the option that best defines the traditional scope of SLA: Ele se concentra na compreensão de produtos A linguísticos maduros. B Ele se concentra nos primeiros iniciantes. Centra-se em todas as diferentes línguas adquiridas C pelo indivíduo. It privileges the understanding that languages D should not be seen as separate systems. E 36/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas It focuses on understanding the process through which second languages are acquired. A esta While bilingualism focuses on understanding mature linguistic products of those who had an early start at language acquisition, SLA is devoted to the understanding of the process through which a second language is acquired by late starters, often removing the first language from the research picture. It, therefore, focuses on understanding the process through which second languages are acquired. Question 2 Translingualism refers to a paradigm shift in language studies and to the understanding of language use. Mark the alternative that best defines the concept of translingualism: It is a field of study focused on the process through A which a second language is acquired. It proposes a paradigm shift focused on surpassing B monolingual orientations and blurring the fictitious boundaries that keep languages separate. It is the field of research that attempts to understand C how multilingual individuals acquire a second language. It is the field of research that focuses on the D process, rather than on the product, of SLA. It is the paradigm based on the traditional E assumption that texts must be written or spoken in only one language at a time. Parabéns! A alternativa B está correta. 37/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas Canagarajah (2013) stated that translingualism is a concept that requires language studies to make a substantial and innovative paradigm shift to overcome the invented boundaries dividing individual languages towards a different and more hybrid approach to actual language usage in a globalized world. Final issues In this Unit, you have learned about first and second language acquisition. We have defined first language acquisition as the critical process in language development, the period in which young children learn their mother tongue - a process starting in the womb and stretching until children reach the age of four. In addition, you have come to understand that second language acquisition is a field devoted to the construction of theoretical knowledge on the learning of a language other than a mother tongue. You have also become familiar with the differences that set apart bilingualism and second language acquisition. At last, you were introduced to the concept of "translingualism", a branch from the field of applied linguistics that aims at looking into languages in ways that overcome the rigid boundaries which have typically attempted to divide them. Podcast Let's recap! Para ouvir 0 áudio, acesse a versão online deste conteúdo. 38/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras segundas Go Further Different insights on Second Language Acquisition have helped examine linguistic development from various angles. In case you are interested in learning more about the biological approach to language, you should visit Noam Chomsky's website. Considered the father of modern Linguistics, he has put forward ground-breaking theories in the field, framing concepts known as "the Chomsky hierarchy", "generative grammar" and "universal grammar". The underlying premise of Chomsky's works is that human language (despite their specificities) is based on the innate (and universal) structures of the mind. His theories have had a massive effect on a vast array of fields, including neurolinguistics, child education, language acquisition, and cognitive science, to name a few. References CANAGARAJAH, S. Translingual Practice: Global English and Cosmopolitan Relations. Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2013. CHOMSKY, N. Lecture I: What is language? The Journal of Philosophy, 110(12), 645-662,2013. CHOMSKY, N. Minimal Computation and the Architecture of Language. Chinese Semiotic Studies, V. 12, n. 1, 2016, pp. 13-24. CLARK, E. First Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. CREESE, A. Teacher Collaboration and Talk in Multilingual Classrooms. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 2005. CURTISS, S. et al. The Linguistic Development of Genie. Language, 50(3), 528-554, 1974. DONOGHUE, M. R. How Second-Language Learning Differs from First- Language Learning. Hispania, 51(3), 480-481, 1968. 39/40</p><p>04/06/2024, 08:14 Primeiras, línguas estrangeiras e segundas FREIRE, P. Reading the World and Reading the Word: An Interview with Paulo Freire. Language Arts, 62 (1), 15-21,1985. KRASHEN, S. Explorações na aquisição e uso da linguagem . New Hampshire: Livros Educacionais Heinemann, 2003. ORTEGA, L. Compreendendo a aquisição de uma segunda língua Routledge: Nova York, 2013. Material para download Clique no botão abaixo para fazer o download do conteúdo completo em formato PDF. Baixar material 0 que você achou do conteúdo? ! Relatar problema 40/40</p>