TEMA 3 Speak, listen and write in another language

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<p>AULA 3</p><p>ESTUDOS AVANÇADOS DE</p><p>LÍNGUA INGLESA –</p><p>COMPREENSÃO AUDITIVA E</p><p>COMUNICAÇÃO ORAL</p><p>Prof. Robson Ribeiro</p><p>2</p><p>INITIAL TALK</p><p>Speaking is, perhaps, one of the most important things that defines us as</p><p>humans, distinct from the rest of the animal kingdom. There is no fixed date for</p><p>when spoken language first emerged, but a general consensus (Jackendoff, 2007)</p><p>seems to be about 100,000 years ago. The first written language, however, does</p><p>not seem to have emerged until about 5,000 years ago in Sumer. This means that</p><p>for about 95,000 years humans only spoke and listened to other humans, a fact that</p><p>makes reading and writing a rather artificial way of communicating.</p><p>For many people, learning a language is all about speaking a language.</p><p>While listening might be important, it is only important to allow people to speak</p><p>better. Many people rarely read or write in their first language, so learning to do this</p><p>in a second language is far from a priority.</p><p>CONTEXTUALIZING</p><p>Given the paramountcy of spoken language, educators dedicate</p><p>considerable classroom time to speaking exercises. Yet, many instructors overlook</p><p>essential questions pertaining to speaking, potentially squandering this valuable</p><p>time. This lesson aims to address some of these critical questions, including:</p><p>• What does effective speaking entail?</p><p>• Why is speaking a challenging skill?</p><p>• Are there specific sub-skills required for effective speaking?</p><p>• What should be the focus when teaching speaking?</p><p>• What are the speaking objectives of our students?</p><p>Before proceeding with the rest of this lesson, take a moment to jot</p><p>down any thoughts you may have regarding these questions.</p><p>THEME 1 – WHAT IS SPEAKING?</p><p>Although it might appear to be a straightforward inquiry, what precisely</p><p>constitutes speaking? What competencies are necessary for effective verbal</p><p>communication? And, aside from the obvious distinction in the medium employed,</p><p>are there fundamental disparities between speaking and writing?</p><p>3</p><p>1.1 Sounds</p><p>At its fundamental level, spoken language revolves around the production</p><p>and manipulation of sounds. Standard British English, or Received Pronunciation,</p><p>comprises 44 phonemes, or distinct sounds, while Standard American English</p><p>incorporates 40 phonemes. To provide context, the Piraha language, spoken</p><p>by a Brazilian tribe, is purported to possess the fewest phonemes, numbering</p><p>only 10. In contrast, the Ubykh language, now extinct since 1996, was reported to</p><p>encompass 86 phonemes. Depending on the precise criteria for defining a</p><p>phoneme, the Taa language could encompass up to 128 phonemes. Among major</p><p>world languages, Castilian Spanish has 24 phonemes, Mandarin 29, Arabic 34,</p><p>French 37, and Russian 39. European Portuguese comprises 33 sounds, while</p><p>Brazilian Portuguese includes 30 sounds. It's crucial to acknowledge that these</p><p>numbers are based on standardized versions of each language and may vary by</p><p>region and dialect. Thus, English falls on the relatively extensive side among major</p><p>languages.</p><p>1.2 Lexis</p><p>However, the ability to produce sounds alone does not suffice to constitute</p><p>a language. These sounds must be assembled into meaningful units</p><p>comprehensible to both the speaker and the listener. The foundational units of</p><p>meaning are individual words, but focusing solely on words is inadequate. During</p><p>speech, we do not construct sentences by selecting words one by one from our</p><p>memory and assembling them into coherent sentences. Instead, we employ pre-</p><p>constructed language chunks. Consequently, in addition to individual words,</p><p>proficiency demands the ability to use collocations, proverbs, fixed and semi-fixed</p><p>phrases—collectively referred to as the language's lexicon.</p><p>1.3 Grammar</p><p>Certainly, the production and manipulation of sounds into words and the</p><p>articulation of these words do not suffice to constitute a language. These words</p><p>must be further structured into coherent patterns comprehensible to the individuals</p><p>engaged in the communication process. This coherence is furnished by the</p><p>language's grammar, which can be subdivided into two distinct components:</p><p>4</p><p>• Syntax: The rules governing the arrangement of words and phrases to form</p><p>clauses and sentences.</p><p>• Morphology: The way individual words transform based on factors such as</p><p>tense, word family, gender, and function.</p><p>Proficient speakers of a language exhibit mastery over phonology, lexis,</p><p>and grammar, swiftly manipulating them to achieve desired outcomes.</p><p>1.4 Not the same as written language</p><p>Most grammatical guides for languages, particularly those designed for</p><p>students, present language as an ordered, nearly mathematical entity. They seek to</p><p>elucidate language use rules as distinct elements for comprehension. While this</p><p>may hold true for standard written forms of language, the same cannot be said for</p><p>spoken language. Generally, the rules governing any written language differ so</p><p>significantly from its spoken counterpart that they could almost be considered</p><p>separate languages. Additionally, spoken language rules vary depending on the</p><p>context, the speakers, the listeners, and the communication objectives."</p><p>THEME 2 – WHY IS SPEAKING CHALLENGING?</p><p>In addition to the inherent complexities associated with mastering the</p><p>grammar, lexis, and phonetics of spoken language, there exist several factors</p><p>within the realm of speaking a second language that pose challenges for some</p><p>learners.</p><p>2.1 Clustering</p><p>Given that spoken language is characterized by the amalgamation of words</p><p>into phrases or clusters, this phenomenon impacts the way we speak. Organizing</p><p>words into contiguous strings is a natural facet of spoken language, constrained</p><p>by two inherent limitations: the necessity to pause for breath and the requirement</p><p>to mentally plan and retain the cluster before and during speech.</p><p>2.2 Redundancy</p><p>As previously mentioned, spoken language lacks the logical and precise</p><p>nature of well- constructed written language. This discrepancy arises because,</p><p>5</p><p>during the act of writing, individuals have the luxury of time to plan their production</p><p>and the capacity to revise their work if errors or improvements are noted. In</p><p>contrast, speaking necessitates simultaneous thinking and rephrasing.</p><p>Consequently, speakers often experience false starts, employ unnecessary or</p><p>ungrammatical phrases, or repeat words and expressions. This redundancy can</p><p>disconcert some second-language speakers, who may view it as undesirable and</p><p>strive to avoid it. However, redundancy actually offers language users invaluable</p><p>thinking time and constitutes a natural aspect of spoken language.</p><p>2.3 Reduced F</p><p>Reduced forms, including contractions and elisions, feature prominently in</p><p>most spoken languages. Students who primarily learn isolated words or focus on</p><p>a language's written form can sound excessively formal, potentially influencing how</p><p>they are perceived by listeners. Similar to redundancy, many language learners</p><p>harbor concerns about the appropriateness of using these reduced forms.</p><p>2.4 Lexis</p><p>Perhaps the primary impediment to efficient speaking lies in a lack of</p><p>vocabulary. Without knowledge of specific words, fluent communication becomes</p><p>exceedingly challenging. Moreover, it's not just a matter of knowing words; it also</p><p>entails the ability to recall them when needed. Occasions where individuals in their</p><p>first language forget words and resort to seeking assistance or describing their</p><p>intended message are common enough. However, this problem is exacerbated</p><p>when speaking in a second language, compounded by the heightened stress</p><p>associated with communication in a non-native tongue.</p><p>2.5 Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation</p><p>The intricacies of stress patterns within individual words and sentences can</p><p>pose difficulties for students accustomed</p><p>to languages with systematic stress</p><p>patterns. English's stress-timed nature creates issues related to rhythm, involving</p><p>numerous unstressed words and many words with both strong and weak</p><p>pronunciation forms. Additionally, English's intonation patterns can prove</p><p>challenging for many language learners. Any combination of these issues has the</p><p>potential to affect message delivery.</p><p>6</p><p>2.6 Register</p><p>In comparison to writing, speaking—perhaps more than any other aspect of</p><p>language— encompasses a wide range of registers and levels of formality. For</p><p>someone fluent in the target language, selecting the most appropriate word or</p><p>phrase from an array of alternatives can already be a challenge. However, if a person</p><p>lacks full awareness of all the connotations attached to a particular word or phrase,</p><p>these challenges are further compounded.</p><p>2.7 Time</p><p>All the aforementioned challenges become more daunting due to the time</p><p>constraints placed on speakers. They must thoroughly comprehend what has been</p><p>said, consider various possibilities, make decisions regarding their response, and</p><p>then articulate their response appropriately—all within the constraints of the</p><p>conversation's tempo.</p><p>2.8 Perception</p><p>Language learners often wrestle with self-perception. While they may</p><p>effectively convey a message, there remains a persistent nagging doubt that they</p><p>could perform better, that their proficiency in their second language falls short of</p><p>their proficiency in their first language. This self-evaluation tends to focus on</p><p>inadequacies rather than accomplishments. As educators, it is incumbent upon us</p><p>to encourage students to recognize and celebrate their achievements, alongside</p><p>acknowledging areas for improvement.</p><p>2.9 Affective Filters</p><p>Many individuals feel embarrassment when they make errors or express</p><p>something that may be perceived as unintelligent by their teacher or peers.</p><p>Furthermore, adults often carry other preoccupations into the classroom, such as</p><p>an earlier argument or impending bills to be paid. All of these factors have the</p><p>potential to influence a student's classroom performance.</p><p>THEME 3 – SPEAKING PROFICIENCY</p><p>When a teacher declares their objective as focusing on speaking skills, it</p><p>7</p><p>can prove challenging to assess success adequately. Merely stating that speaking</p><p>skills are the goal neglects the examination of the diverse micro skills that</p><p>collectively constitute speaking proficiency. Various attempts have been made to</p><p>categorize and articulate these subskills that proficient speakers have mastered.</p><p>Brown (2001, p. 272) offers a comprehensive summary of these subskills. These</p><p>speaking subskills, often referred to as micro skills, encompass the following:</p><p>• Generating language chunks of varying lengths;</p><p>• Articulating distinctions among English phonemes orally;</p><p>• Implementing stress patterns, positioning words in stressed and unstressed</p><p>roles, rendering the language's rhythm, and employing appropriate</p><p>intonation patterns corresponding to the intended communicative function;</p><p>• Correctly pronouncing reduced forms of both words and phrases;</p><p>• Employing an appropriate quantity of words or lexical units to convey the</p><p>intended message;</p><p>• Speaking fluently, at variable speeds depending on the intended outcome;</p><p>• Self-monitoring one's speech and employing various devices such as</p><p>pauses, self- correction, and redundancy to enhance message clarity;</p><p>• Employing a range of word classes or families (e.g., nouns, verbs,</p><p>adjectives), grammatical structures, syntax, and other linguistic systems;</p><p>• Expressing speech in naturally meaningful units, ensuring that pauses,</p><p>breaths, and sentences are of appropriate duration;</p><p>• Employing various grammatical forms to convey the same function;</p><p>• Utilizing cohesive devices in spoken discourse;</p><p>• Effectively executing communicative functions based on the participants,</p><p>circumstances, and objectives;</p><p>• Adapting to different socio-linguistic features, such as altering the register</p><p>or adjusting pragmatic conventions;</p><p>• Effectively indicating connections and relationships between events or</p><p>facts, distinguishing the main idea, supporting ideas, new information, given</p><p>information, generalizations, etc.;</p><p>• Employing suitable gestures, body language, and other non-verbal cues to</p><p>complement and reinforce verbal communication;</p><p>• Employing a wide array of speaking strategies, including emphasizing key</p><p>words, providing context, and assessing others' comprehension to ensure</p><p>8</p><p>effective communication.</p><p>By consciously acknowledging and concentrating on these distinct speaking</p><p>micro skills, we can ensure the effective development of the overarching skill of</p><p>speaking. This approach also equips us to identify specific issues when students</p><p>are speaking and make efforts to address them, rather than simply attributing a</p><p>student's speaking difficulties to a lack of proficiency.</p><p>THEME 4 – WHAT TO INCLUDE IN INSTRUCTION</p><p>In addition to instructing students in the various speaking subskills outlined</p><p>in the preceding section, what else should be imparted to help them become</p><p>proficient speakers?</p><p>4.1 Knowledge</p><p>Students must be educated in the grammar, vocabulary, and phonological</p><p>structure of the language to achieve their objectives. For some students and</p><p>methodologies, this will involve explicit knowledge of these systems, enabling them</p><p>to respond to questions about the language. This is particularly pertinent in more</p><p>traditional methodologies, such as grammar translation. However, for other</p><p>students and methodologies, explicit knowledge of language systems may not be</p><p>necessary, as long as students can demonstrate their understanding through</p><p>practical use. A fitting analogy is that of driving a car: to pass a driving test, one</p><p>need only demonstrate to the examiner the ability to operate a vehicle safely</p><p>according to road rules. It is not obligatory to comprehend the inner workings of the</p><p>vehicle's internal combustion engine.</p><p>4.2 Capacity</p><p>In addition to acquiring knowledge of language systems, students must</p><p>possess the capacity to utilize the language when required. The most evident</p><p>means to achieve this is by providing ample opportunities in the classroom for</p><p>students to employ the language they have learned, not only from the current lesson</p><p>but also from prior lessons and even outside the classroom. Indeed, some students</p><p>may encounter more opportunities to use the language in real-life situations. Thus,</p><p>educators may need to explore strategies for leveraging these opportunities, in</p><p>9</p><p>addition to the more controlled, artificial situations within the classroom.</p><p>4.3 Communication Strategies</p><p>Certain learners can achieve remarkable results in a second language with</p><p>minimal linguistic resources, relying primarily on communication strategies. These</p><p>strategies come into play when speakers encounter deficiencies or gaps in their</p><p>linguistic knowledge. To compensate for these gaps, learners might employ</p><p>strategies such as:</p><p>• Utilizing circumlocution: Explaining or providing examples to convey</p><p>their intended message;</p><p>• Employing gestures;</p><p>• Offering paraphrases;</p><p>• Guessing at a word;</p><p>• Altering or revising the message;</p><p>• Adapting the message.</p><p>While it is advisable to assist students in developing these coping strategies</p><p>for language deficiencies, it is hoped that over time, as learners become more</p><p>competent, they will rely less on communication strategies. Additionally, excessive</p><p>reliance on these strategies has the potential to impede future language</p><p>acquisition.</p><p>4.4 Fluency and Accuracy</p><p>Activities can often be categorized as either fluency or accuracy tasks.</p><p>Fluency tasks generally prioritize rapid and effective communication, regardless of</p><p>any errors made. In contrast, accuracy tasks focus more on correctness, often at</p><p>the expense of speed, as students</p><p>pay more attention to selecting the precise verb</p><p>tense or preposition. While it can be useful in the classroom to differentiate between</p><p>these two types of activities, it may be less crucial in real-world contexts. Proficient</p><p>speakers can produce approximately 150 words per minute, equivalent to one</p><p>word every 400 milliseconds (Thornbury, 2012, p. 201). However, fluency is not</p><p>determined solely by speed; it also hinges on the frequency of pauses and the</p><p>number of syllables between pauses. To truly cultivate speaking proficiency in</p><p>students, it is essential to eventually merge fluency and accuracy. Fluency will</p><p>reach a certain level and then plateau unless accuracy also improves concurrently.</p><p>10</p><p>THEME 5 – STUDENT OBJECTIVES</p><p>It is undeniably crucial not only to determine what we intend to teach but</p><p>also to consider the aspirations of our students regarding their foreign language</p><p>proficiency and the means by which they plan to reach their objectives. Sometimes,</p><p>students themselves may not be fully cognizant of their goals, potentially resulting</p><p>in a waning interest as they become uncertain about the purpose of their English</p><p>studies. Discovering and shaping students' objectives can prove to be a valuable</p><p>endeavor for both educators and learners.</p><p>5.1 Achieving Native-Speaker Level</p><p>One conceivable goal is to attain a level of speech comparable to that of a</p><p>native speaker or to converse in the second language with the same proficiency</p><p>as in their first language. Although this is an admirable aspiration, it is likely</p><p>unattainable for most individuals, due to various factors, including:</p><p>• The substantial time required to achieve native-like fluency;</p><p>• Insufficient exposure to the target language;</p><p>• Ongoing interference from the first language in pronunciation, grammar,</p><p>and vocabulary;</p><p>• Non-linguistic considerations, such as cultural knowledge;</p><p>• Limited opportunities for verbal expression in the target language.</p><p>Additionally, it is pertinent to question which type of native speaker the</p><p>learner has in mind, given the diversity of accents, dialects, sociolects, age groups,</p><p>and socio-economic backgrounds among native speakers.</p><p>5.2 Aiming for Acceptable Proficiency</p><p>Instead of striving for native-like proficiency, a more attainable goal is to</p><p>achieve acceptable proficiency. In this context, language users are permitted to</p><p>make some errors, not employ the full spectrum of phrasal verbs and idiomatic</p><p>expressions, and maintain traces of their first language accent. These aspects are</p><p>deemed acceptable if the objective is to communicate effectively in various</p><p>situations. Imperfection in speech need not impede the achievement of this goal.</p><p>11</p><p>5.3 Focusing on Proficiency in Specific Areas</p><p>Another potential objective is for students to concentrate solely on the areas</p><p>that are relevant to their needs and achieve proficiency in those specific domains.</p><p>For instance, a doctor who primarily interacts with patients from their own country</p><p>may only require English proficiency to attend conferences and read academic</p><p>articles. Similarly, a receptionist in a large corporation might only need sufficient</p><p>English skills to answer phone calls and direct customers to the appropriate</p><p>personnel. In such cases, there may be no need to practice beyond what is</p><p>necessary to perform these specific tasks.</p><p>5.4 English as a Lingua Franca</p><p>In 2000, Jenkins published a seminal work titled "The Phonology of English</p><p>as a Foreign Language," advocating that pronunciation instruction should not</p><p>adhere to British or American English standards when evaluating and instructing</p><p>students in language. Instead, greater emphasis should be placed on teaching</p><p>pronunciation suitable for international communication. The rationale behind this</p><p>proposition lies in the fact that second language English users are more likely to</p><p>converse with other second language users rather than native speakers.</p><p>Subsequently, in 2007, Jenkins expanded her argument, suggesting that</p><p>this approach should extend beyond phonology to encompass all facets of English.</p><p>According to her viewpoint, there is no necessity to teach idiomatic expressions,</p><p>phrasal verbs, or intricate tenses if the learner's primary objective is to communicate</p><p>with other international speakers. The implications of her argument are substantial,</p><p>liberating teachers and students from the burden of excessively focusing on the</p><p>intricacies of a language that students may rarely use. However, it is worth noting</p><p>that her ideas are not universally accepted within the academic realm, among</p><p>practitioners, or by students themselves.</p><p>CONCLUSION</p><p>In this initial class on speaking skills, we have delved into the definition of</p><p>speaking and explored the challenges confronting students when attempting to</p><p>communicate in a second language. We then scrutinized the micro skills</p><p>encompassed in speaking before considering various elements that may require</p><p>teaching. Finally, we contemplated the potential objectives of our students and how</p><p>12</p><p>these objectives might influence our teaching approach. In the next class, we will</p><p>commence our exploration of how to design activities and tasks for the classroom.</p><p>Theoretical approach texts</p><p>ZANETTI, A. Is Your English Fully Operational? – Accurate, Fluent and Fluid</p><p>Speaking. Richmondhare, Aug. 24, 2017. Available at:</p><p><http://www.richmondshare.com.br/is-your-english-fully-operational-accurate-</p><p>fluent-and-fluid-speaking/>. Retrieved: 15 jun. 2018.</p><p>Practical approach texts</p><p>REES, G. Find the gap: increasing speaking in class. British Council, 2004.</p><p>Available at: <https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/find-gap-increasing-</p><p>speaking-class>. Retrieved: 15 jun. 2018.</p><p>Further reading</p><p>JACKENDOFF, R. How Did Language Begin. Linguistic Society of America,</p><p>2007. Available at: <https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/faq-how-did-</p><p>language-begin>. Retrieved: 15 jun. 2018.</p><p>http://www.richmondshare.com.br/is-your-english-fully-operational-accurate-</p><p>http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/find-gap-increasing-</p><p>http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/find-gap-increasing-</p><p>http://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/faq-how-did-</p><p>13</p><p>BIBLIOGRAPHY</p><p>JACKENDOFF, R. How Did Language Begin. Linguistic Society of America,</p><p>2007. Available at: <https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/faq-how-did-</p><p>language-begin>. Retrieved: 15 jun. 2018.</p><p>JENKINS, J. English as a Lingua Franca: attitude and identity. Oxford: Oxford</p><p>University Press, 2007.</p><p>_____. The Phonology of English as a Foreign Language. Oxford: Oxford</p><p>University Press, 2000.</p><p>THORNBURY, S. Speaking Instruction in The Cambridge Guide to Pedagogy</p><p>and Practice in Second Language Teaching Cambridge. Cambridge:</p><p>Cambridge University Press, 2012.</p><p>http://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/faq-how-did-</p>