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<p>Linguística Aplicada</p><p>ao Ensino do Inglês</p><p>para Jovens e</p><p>Adultos</p><p>Rosa Maria Neves da Silva</p><p>Montes Claros/MG - 2012</p><p>Rosa Maria Neves da Silva</p><p>Linguística Aplicada</p><p>ao Ensino do Inglês</p><p>para Jovens e</p><p>Adultos</p><p>© - EDITORA UNIMONTES - 2012</p><p>Universidade Estadual de Montes Claros</p><p>REITOR</p><p>João dos Reis Canela</p><p>VICE-REITORA</p><p>Maria Ivete Soares de Almeida</p><p>DIRETOR DE DOCUMENTAÇÃO E INFORMAÇÕES</p><p>Huagner Cardoso da Silva</p><p>EDITORA UNIMONTES</p><p>Conselho Editorial</p><p>Prof. Silvio Guimarães – Medicina. Unimontes.</p><p>Prof. Hercílio Mertelli – Odontologia. Unimontes.</p><p>Prof. Humberto Guido – Filosofia. UFU.</p><p>Profª Maria Geralda Almeida. UFG</p><p>Prof. Luis Jobim – UERJ.</p><p>Prof. Manuel Sarmento – Minho – Portugal.</p><p>Prof. Fernando Verdú Pascoal. Valencia – Espanha.</p><p>Prof. Antônio Alvimar Souza - Unimontes</p><p>Prof. Fernando Lolas Stepke. – Univ. Chile.</p><p>Prof. José Geraldo de Freitas Drumond – Unimontes.</p><p>Profª Rita de Cássia Silva Dionísio. Letras – Unimontes.</p><p>Profª Maisa Tavares de Souza Leite. Enfermagem – Unimontes.</p><p>Profª Siomara A. Silva – Educação Física. UFOP.</p><p>REVISÃO LINGUÍSTICA</p><p>Ângela Heloiza Buxton</p><p>Arlete Ribeiro Nepomuceno</p><p>Aurinete Barbosa Tiago</p><p>Carla Roselma Athayde Moraes</p><p>Luci Kikuchi Veloso</p><p>Maria Cristina Ruas de Abreu Maia</p><p>Maria Lêda Clementino Marques</p><p>Ubiratan da Silva Meireles</p><p>REVISÃO TÉCNICA</p><p>Admilson Eustáquio Prates</p><p>Cláudia de Jesus Maia</p><p>Josiane Santos Brant</p><p>Karen Tôrres Corrêa Lafetá de Almeida</p><p>Káthia Silva Gomes</p><p>Marcos Henrique de Oliveira</p><p>DESIGN EDITORIAL E CONTROLE DE</p><p>PRODUÇÃO DE CONTEÚDO</p><p>Andréia Santos Dias</p><p>Camilla Maria Silva Rodrigues</p><p>Clésio Robert Almeida Caldeira</p><p>Fernando Guilherme Veloso Queiroz</p><p>Francielly Sousa e Silva</p><p>Hugo Daniel Duarte Silva</p><p>Marcos Aurélio de Almeida e Maia</p><p>Magda Lima de Oliviera</p><p>Sanzio Mendonça Henriques</p><p>Tatiane Fernandes Pinheiro</p><p>Tátylla Ap. Pimenta Faria</p><p>Vinícius Antônio Alencar Batista</p><p>Wendell Brito Mineiro</p><p>Zilmar Santos Cardoso</p><p>CATALOGADO PELA DIRETORIA DE DOCUMENTAÇÃO E INFORMAÇÕES (DDI) - UNIMONTES</p><p>Dados Internacionais de Catalogação na Publicação (CIP)</p><p>EDITORA UNIMONTES</p><p>Campus Universitário Professor Darcy Ribeiro</p><p>s/n - Vila Mauricéia - Montes Claros (MG)</p><p>Caixa Postal: 126 - CEP: 39.401-089 - Telefone: (38) 3229-8214</p><p>www.unimontes.br / editora@unimontes.br</p><p>Este livro ou parte dele não pode ser reproduzido por qualquer meio sem autorização escrita do Editor.</p><p>Chefe do Departamento de Ciências Biológicas</p><p>Guilherme Victor Nippes Pereira</p><p>Chefe do Departamento de Ciências Sociais</p><p>Maria da Luz Alves Ferreira</p><p>Chefe do Departamento de Geociências</p><p>Guilherme Augusto Guimarães Oliveira</p><p>Chefe do Departamento de História</p><p>Donizette Lima do Nascimento</p><p>Chefe do Departamento de Comunicação e Letras</p><p>Ana Cristina Santos Peixoto</p><p>Chefe do Departamento de Educação</p><p>Andréa Lafetá de Melo Franco</p><p>Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de Artes Visuais</p><p>Maria Elvira Curty Romero Christoff</p><p>Coordenador do Curso a Distância de Ciências Biológicas</p><p>Afrânio Farias de Melo Junior</p><p>Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de Ciências Sociais</p><p>Cláudia Regina Santos de Almeida</p><p>Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de Geografia</p><p>Janete Aparecida Gomes Zuba</p><p>Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de História</p><p>Jonice dos Reis Procópio</p><p>Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de Letras/Espanhol</p><p>Orlanda Miranda Santos</p><p>Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de Letras/Inglês</p><p>Hejaine de Oliveira Fonseca</p><p>Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de Letras/Português</p><p>Ana Cristina Santos Peixoto</p><p>Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de Pedagogia</p><p>Maria Narduce da Silva</p><p>Ministro da Educação</p><p>Aloizio Mercadante</p><p>Presidente Geral da CAPES</p><p>Jorge Almeida Guimarães</p><p>Diretor de Educação a Distância da CAPES</p><p>João Carlos Teatini de Souza Clímaco</p><p>Governador do Estado de Minas Gerais</p><p>Antônio Augusto Junho Anastasia</p><p>Vice-Governador do Estado de Minas Gerais</p><p>Alberto Pinto Coelho Júnior</p><p>Secretário de Estado de Ciência, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior</p><p>Nárcio Rodrigues</p><p>Reitor da Universidade Estadual de Montes Claros - Unimontes</p><p>João dos Reis Canela</p><p>Vice-Reitora da Unimontes</p><p>Maria Ivete Soares de Almeida</p><p>Pró-Reitora de Ensino</p><p>Anete Marília Pereira</p><p>Diretor do Centro de Educação a Distância</p><p>Jânio Marques Dias</p><p>Coordenadora da UAB/Unimontes</p><p>Maria Ângela Lopes Dumont Macedo</p><p>Coordenadora Adjunta da UAB/Unimontes</p><p>Betânia Maria Araújo Passos</p><p>Diretor do Centro de Ciências Humanas - CCH</p><p>Antônio Wagner Veloso Rocha</p><p>Diretora do Centro de Ciências Biológicas da Saúde - CCBS</p><p>Maria das Mercês Borem Correa Machado</p><p>Diretor do Centro de Ciências Sociais Aplicadas - CCSA</p><p>Paulo Cesar Mendes Barbosa</p><p>Chefe do Departamento de Artes</p><p>Maristela Cardoso Freitas</p><p>Autor</p><p>Rosa Maria Neves da Silva</p><p>MA in Linguistics and Specialization in TEFL (Ball State University, USA) as a</p><p>Fulbright Grantee; Specialization in ESP (University of Lancaster, England);</p><p>Teaching License in Portuguese and English (FUPAC, Barbacena, MG); Retired</p><p>Associate Professor from UFMG; English Linguistics Teacher – PREPES/</p><p>PUCMG; Visiting Professor of Portuguese and Brazilian Culture (Portland State</p><p>University, USA); Publications: Glossário Bilíngue de Tecnologia e Negócios</p><p>(1998, Editora Nova Fronteira), Glossário de Termos Parlamentares - bilíngue</p><p>(Assembléia Legislativa de Minas Gerais), Leitura de Textos em Inglês: uma</p><p>abordagem instrumental (co-author); Language Specialist for Undergraduate</p><p>Courses Assessment at Conselho Estadual de Educação de Minas Gerais;</p><p>Professional Translator.</p><p>Sumário</p><p>By way of presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9</p><p>UNIT 1</p><p>What is applied linguistics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11</p><p>1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11</p><p>1.2 The Object of Teaching and Learning: Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12</p><p>References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21</p><p>UNIT 2</p><p>What does it mean to learn a foreign language? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23</p><p>2.1 The Learning Process: Core Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23</p><p>2.2 Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25</p><p>2.3 Learning Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26</p><p>2.4 Your new self . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27</p><p>References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28</p><p>UNIT 3</p><p>What does it take to teach a foreign language? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29</p><p>3.1 Approaching Language Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29</p><p>3.2 Learning assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38</p><p>References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39</p><p>UNIT 4</p><p>How is the foregoing material applicable to the classroom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41</p><p>4.1 Sample unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41</p><p>4.2 General task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41</p><p>References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .</p><p>cultures, languages, races or people is only the</p><p>result of prejudice, discrimination, and should</p><p>not be encouraged. There are similarities and</p><p>differences between languages, as there are</p><p>similarities and differences between cultures.</p><p>There is no one culture better than another.</p><p>Finally, there is this question which you</p><p>28</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>may have many times asked yourself: Why</p><p>learn languages? The answer for yourself is</p><p>the same you should have for your students,</p><p>who most certainly must be convinced and</p><p>motivated to learn. First, let us remember</p><p>that the ability to learn languages is not</p><p>limited by economic background, ethnic</p><p>background, nationality, gender, race, religion,</p><p>or age. Despite the individual differences</p><p>concerning abilities and strengths, everyone</p><p>can develop language ability to some degree.</p><p>Learning another language not only adds to</p><p>your general knowledge, but also expands</p><p>upon the knowledge and understanding you</p><p>have of your native language and culture.</p><p>Learning another language is not only</p><p>learning new grammar concepts, memorizing</p><p>a new vocabulary and different sounds, but it</p><p>provides you with insights into other cultures,</p><p>helps create a more positive attitude towards</p><p>differences and have a better understanding</p><p>of the difficulties faced by people who have</p><p>to move out of their countries. In the world</p><p>of today, learning another language prepares</p><p>you to find more professional opportunities,</p><p>expand your social and cultural life activities.</p><p>References</p><p>MINAS GERAIS. Conteúdo Básico Comum de Língua Estrangeira do Ensino Fundamental do</p><p>6º ao 9º Ano. Belo Horizonte: 2008.</p><p>LADO, Robert Linguistics Across Cultures. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor. 1957.</p><p>BRASIL. Mistério da Educação. Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais de Língua Estrangeira.</p><p>Brasília: 1998.</p><p>SELINKER, L. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-241. 1972.</p><p>29</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>UNIT 3</p><p>What does it take to teach a</p><p>foreign language?</p><p>3.1 Approaching Language</p><p>Teaching</p><p>Now that you have improved your knowledge of what learning is all about, of learning</p><p>styles and of the creation of that new self when you learn a foreign language, let us move to the</p><p>front of the classroom and talk about teaching.</p><p>Language teaching can be approached</p><p>in many ways, both explicitly and implicitly.</p><p>The most common, traditional mode that</p><p>you know is the explicit mode of teaching,</p><p>which includes explanations about how</p><p>the language works, direct teaching of</p><p>concepts, academic language and reading</p><p>comprehension strategies as well as</p><p>memorization of rules and forms. In this case,</p><p>the content and messages of sentences and</p><p>utterances is given second place. This teaching</p><p>tends to be structural in nature.</p><p>Implicit teaching, on the other hand,</p><p>is made by guiding the learner to identify</p><p>grammar patterns in samples of authentic</p><p>use while keeping a focus on the message/</p><p>content. Some of the advantages of the</p><p>implicit teaching include the immediate</p><p>applicability of grammar patterns to</p><p>real life contexts, therefore being more</p><p>communicative and creative than explicit</p><p>teaching based on grammar explanation and</p><p>structural exercises. However, a combination</p><p>of both explicit and implicit teaching seems to</p><p>be a positive tool for the teacher.</p><p>Implicit teaching can be performed</p><p>through activities that demand observation</p><p>and identification applied to a number of</p><p>situations. Let us remember that this type of</p><p>teaching is especially valuable for intuitive</p><p>learners, who will profit the most from them.</p><p>In this type of teaching, learners are exposed</p><p>to demonstrations of language in use little</p><p>with no grammar explanation, as used in</p><p>◄ Figure 10: Regular</p><p>classroom, regular class</p><p>Source: http://srhabay.wi-</p><p>kispaces. com/15 +CLAS-</p><p>SROOM +COMMANDS.</p><p>Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012.</p><p>30</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>traditional methods. The activities have an</p><p>immediate applicability to the learner’s lives</p><p>or cultural backgrounds; they are usually</p><p>motivational and the learner has more</p><p>possibility of self-correction of mistakes.</p><p>Anyway, whatever type of teaching you</p><p>choose should include cooperative strategies</p><p>for the learners to share, compare and discuss</p><p>their results. This is particularly important</p><p>as learners with different learning styles can</p><p>profit from a proper combination of these</p><p>styles.</p><p>What this also means is that the teacher</p><p>has the options of emphasizing either of the</p><p>learners’ productive skills, that is, speaking</p><p>or writing, or their receptive skills – listening</p><p>and reading. The foreign language itself can</p><p>be approached from its structure, grammar,</p><p>vocabulary, or as a tool for communication.</p><p>The techniques, or types of activities</p><p>proposed to teaching will vary according</p><p>to the approach chosen. Considering the</p><p>needs of the Brazilian learners in general, the</p><p>Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais de Língua</p><p>Estrangeira and the Conteúdo Básico Comum de</p><p>Língua Estrangeira do Ensino Fundamental do 6º</p><p>ao 9º Ano defined the teaching objectives for</p><p>our children, teenagers and young adults in</p><p>formal education in terms of a communicative</p><p>approach. What this means is that the syllabus</p><p>must stress the social nature of language</p><p>to empower the learner as a social actor.</p><p>Therefore, the teaching material, including</p><p>textbooks, learning and evaluation activities</p><p>must be adequately selected so as to provide</p><p>the learner with the necessary tools to</p><p>develop their communicative competence.</p><p>Although the terms ‘approach’</p><p>and ‘method’ are sometimes used</p><p>interchangeably, there is a basic distinction</p><p>between approaches and methods. A method</p><p>is fixed teaching system comprising a set of</p><p>stages, orderly organized, including activities,</p><p>procedures, techniques and practices; a plan</p><p>for the presentation of the language material</p><p>to be learned. Approaches are said to be</p><p>teaching philosophies, which are interpreted</p><p>and applied in different ways - the methods</p><p>– in the classroom. Since the beginning of</p><p>the last century a number of methods were</p><p>proposed for foreign language teaching,</p><p>including, among others, Grammar Translation</p><p>Method; Cognitive Approach; Audio-Lingual</p><p>Method; Direct Method; Presentation,</p><p>Practice, Production (PPP); The Silent Way;</p><p>Suggestopedia; Total Physical Response (TPR);</p><p>Community Language Learning (CLL); Total</p><p>Immersion Technique; Task-based Learning;</p><p>The Lexical Approach; English for Specific</p><p>Purposes (ESP). From this list you can see that</p><p>the words ‘approach’ and ‘method’ are used</p><p>interchangeably, as some authors believe that</p><p>that term ‘method’ should be avoided in favor</p><p>of the term ‘approach’.</p><p>These methods/approaches can be</p><p>classified in three main categories, or types:</p><p>(a) structural, (b) functional and (c) interactive</p><p>methods.</p><p>3.1.1 The Structural Approach</p><p>Structural approaches to foreign</p><p>language teaching give first priority to</p><p>exploring and mastering the grammatical</p><p>and phonological patterns of the language.</p><p>Most of the so-called traditional methods</p><p>focused on sentence structure giving first</p><p>priority to particular grammatical points,</p><p>grammatical functions, like subject and</p><p>predicate, word order and the memorization</p><p>of word lists. Activities in general included</p><p>repetition and memorization. The best</p><p>known purely structural method, developed</p><p>on an oral approach, is the Audio-Lingual</p><p>method characterized by the use of the</p><p>foreign language itself – never the learner’s</p><p>mother tongue - to explain the grammar and</p><p>new words of the target language, drills and</p><p>memorization of sentence structures to create</p><p>some kind of conditioning, so that the student</p><p>could finally overcome their native language</p><p>habits and acquire new habits to use those</p><p>structures naturally,</p><p>The Audio-Lingual method innovated</p><p>when an audio-visual lab was added to the</p><p>teaching practice as its most important tool.</p><p>The Audio-Lingual method</p><p>was a milestone in</p><p>the history of foreign language teaching.</p><p>3.1.1.1 The Audio-Lingual Method</p><p>The Audio-Lingual Method, an oral-</p><p>based approach, drills students in the use</p><p>of grammatical sentence patterns and is</p><p>supported by a strong theoretical base in</p><p>LEARN MORE</p><p>An important</p><p>distinction must</p><p>be made between</p><p>grammatical/syntactic</p><p>functions – subject,</p><p>predicate, object</p><p>and complement</p><p>- and communicative</p><p>functions - apologize,</p><p>describe, invite, reason,</p><p>comment, criticize and</p><p>a number of others.</p><p>TASK</p><p>Instead of referring</p><p>you to the Internet,</p><p>I attached this text</p><p>about the Audio</p><p>Lingual Method to this</p><p>textbook as ANNEX 3 so</p><p>that you do not run the</p><p>risk of having it deleted</p><p>from the Web.</p><p>The complete, detailed</p><p>text is available at</p><p>http://faculty.ksu.</p><p>edu.sa/fallay/Pages/</p><p>ChapterFourTheAudio-</p><p>LingualMethod.aspx</p><p>31</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>linguistics and psychology. The assumption</p><p>behind this method is that the understanding</p><p>and retention of sentence patterns by</p><p>the learners occurs through conditioning,</p><p>responding to stimuli, and that learners could</p><p>form new habits after overcoming the habits</p><p>of their native language.</p><p>The method makes use of</p><p>drills of various types: repetition drill,</p><p>chain, substitution, addition, expansion,</p><p>transformation, completion, translation,</p><p>sentence formation, replacement, question</p><p>and answer. Practice, mainly understood as</p><p>repetition, is intensive and extensive.</p><p>3.1.2 The Communicative Approach</p><p>Interaction is a basic feature of teaching</p><p>and learning. Any regular class demands</p><p>asking and answering questions, receiving</p><p>and returning tasks, discussions, etc. This</p><p>interaction is intensified and extended in the</p><p>so called Communicative Approach to foreign</p><p>language teaching. The Communicative</p><p>Approach draws on Michael Halliday’s (1973)</p><p>account of language as being functional.</p><p>Language strategies are then a tool to the</p><p>realization of communicative functions, like</p><p>getting things done, informing, inviting,</p><p>convincing, reasoning, requesting, etc. The</p><p>approach also includes the constructivist</p><p>conception of learning as experimental</p><p>response to real world events and as a socially</p><p>mediated process.</p><p>Within the communicative approach to</p><p>foreign language teaching:</p><p>•	 language is viewed mainly as a tool to</p><p>communication;</p><p>•	 classroom activities develop around</p><p>authentic, meaningful communication;</p><p>•	 fluency is essential to communication;</p><p>•	 communication requires the integration</p><p>of various language skills;</p><p>•	 actual communication demands</p><p>creativity based on the testing of</p><p>hypotheses;</p><p>•	 trial and error is a part of language</p><p>learning;</p><p>•	 actual language learning requires</p><p>contextualization;</p><p>•	 culture cannot be dissociated from</p><p>language;</p><p>•	 practice is essential;</p><p>•	 competence is built through use;</p><p>•	 language has to be adequate to the social</p><p>context.</p><p>Being an umbrella term, the</p><p>communicative approach typically</p><p>encompasses a number of trends, methods,</p><p>practices, procedures, activities, all of them</p><p>with a view to prepare the learner to use</p><p>language effectively in the real world.</p><p>The approach acknowledges the social-</p><p>interactional nature of language, its role as an</p><p>intervening tool for social relations, a mirror</p><p>for an underlying culture.</p><p>By now you have already mastered a</p><p>number of concepts and may be wondering</p><p>which methods, practices, activities to adopt</p><p>for your teaching. The Parâmetros Curriculares</p><p>Nacionais (PCN) – língua estrangeira (1998),</p><p>clearly stress the communicative scope of</p><p>foreign language teaching in the Brazilian</p><p>context. Under the provisions of the PCN, our</p><p>schools must then adopt methods/trends that</p><p>provide the learner with activities, procedures,</p><p>tasks to allow them to develop their</p><p>productive and receptive skills accordingly,</p><p>therefore being prepared for perform his role</p><p>in the society.</p><p>To meet the provisions of the PCN for</p><p>the Brazilian schools the foreign language</p><p>learner is expected to be able to understand</p><p>the social-interactional nature of language,</p><p>identify and apply simple culture-specific</p><p>patterns in conversation; develop appropriate</p><p>pronunciation and intonation; reapply</p><p>grammar forms and vocabulary to appropriate</p><p>contexts; identify and apply the levels of</p><p>language register – formal, semi-formal and</p><p>informal; infer word and sentence meanings;</p><p>understand the general and specific meanings</p><p>of written texts; create simple meaningful</p><p>chunks; produce short, coherent texts.</p><p>3.1.2.1 Functional Approaches</p><p>Contrary to the proposal of the</p><p>structural methods, functional approaches</p><p>include methods proposing that structures</p><p>must be presented and mastered in those</p><p>LEARN MORE</p><p>Go to ANNEX 3 and</p><p>read about the Audio</p><p>Lingual Method for</p><p>features and scope,</p><p>then suppose you</p><p>teach in a school where</p><p>the audio lingual is</p><p>the method to be</p><p>used in your English</p><p>classes. Create a set</p><p>of drills based on the</p><p>description of typical</p><p>Audio-Lingual Method</p><p>drills.</p><p>GLOSSARY</p><p>DRILL: A drill is defined as</p><p>a learning exercise aimed</p><p>at perfecting facility and</p><p>skill, especially by regular</p><p>practice.</p><p>LEARN MORE</p><p>CONSTRUCTIVIST</p><p>LEARNING - Learning</p><p>is viewed as an active,</p><p>contextualized process</p><p>of constructing</p><p>knowledge based on</p><p>personal experiences</p><p>and hypotheses of</p><p>the environment,</p><p>and on the previous</p><p>knowledge and</p><p>experiences of the</p><p>learner. This view of</p><p>learning was supported</p><p>by a number of works</p><p>by Vygotsky and</p><p>Piaget, among which I</p><p>suggest that you read,</p><p>if you are interested in</p><p>those theories, PIAGET,</p><p>Jean. A Linguagem</p><p>e o Pensamento na</p><p>Criança. Trad. Manuel</p><p>Campos. Rio de Janeiro:</p><p>Fundo de Cultura,</p><p>1959; VYGOTSKY,</p><p>Lev Pensamento e</p><p>linguagem. São Paulo:</p><p>Martins Fontes, 1987.</p><p>32</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>situations in which they could be used. It</p><p>emphasizes the processes of learning or</p><p>receiving knowledge, memorizing knowledge</p><p>by repetition and start practicing it when</p><p>such knowledge becomes a personal skill</p><p>and habit. To achieve this, students learn</p><p>vocabulary and practice reading skills.</p><p>Learning is then viewed as habit formation,</p><p>where mistakes are to be avoided; language</p><p>skills are presented orally first; word meanings</p><p>are learned in context, both linguistic and</p><p>cultural; oral practice is emphasized.</p><p>3.1.2.1.1 The notional-functional approach</p><p>Developed in Europe in the early 1970s,</p><p>this approach focused on semantic and</p><p>performance criteria: (a) notions, like quantity,</p><p>manner, time and place, and emotions,</p><p>and (b) communicative functions, like</p><p>apologize, describe, invite, reason, comment,</p><p>criticize. The procedures do not provide for</p><p>grammar and vocabulary explanation and</p><p>memorization of rules, therefore relying</p><p>on the assumption that the student has</p><p>already mastered those aspects of the</p><p>language. Teaching materials in general did</p><p>not include a list of functions or notions.</p><p>Anyway, the concept underlying the proposal</p><p>was useful and valuable for the subsequent</p><p>communicative trends in teaching.</p><p>3.1.2.2 Interactive Methods</p><p>Language teaching methods tend to</p><p>be more and more interactive, leading the</p><p>learner to be more active, therefore focusing</p><p>on the development of both the productive</p><p>and receptive skills and allowing the learner to</p><p>be more creative instead of merely repetitive.</p><p>Below are some examples of how some major</p><p>interactive methods work.</p><p>3.1.2.2.1 Strategic Interaction: focus on speaking</p><p>For Di Pietro (1987), human conversation</p><p>always involves a turning point after a first</p><p>stage when phatic, expected, ‘meaningless’</p><p>utterances used are meant to establish a</p><p>mood of sociability. That turning point then</p><p>triggers the actual intended conversation,</p><p>filled with surprises. An easy example is when</p><p>you meet a friend in the street. You exchange</p><p>greetings – this is expected, and whatever</p><p>you say is accepted as greeting. Then you</p><p>may hear something like “Did you hear that</p><p>my husband was awarded</p><p>a prize for his latest</p><p>urban development project?” At this point</p><p>what Di Pietro says is that language teachers</p><p>fail when they prepare their students only</p><p>to memorize greetings, phatic expressions</p><p>LEARN MORE</p><p>PHATIC EXPRESSIONS</p><p>are those expressions</p><p>used to establish a</p><p>mood of sociability,</p><p>introduce some</p><p>conversation</p><p>while not actually</p><p>communicating</p><p>information or ideas.</p><p>When you meet</p><p>someone and say</p><p>“How are you?”, for</p><p>example, you do</p><p>not really want the</p><p>other person to give</p><p>you any information</p><p>about him or her, but</p><p>simply to have it as</p><p>an introduction to a</p><p>conversation, or merely</p><p>a general form of</p><p>greeting.</p><p>Figure 11: (Em)Phatic</p><p>talking!</p><p>Source: http://www.</p><p>brainstuck.com/tag/</p><p>beard/. Acesso em: 02 abr.</p><p>2012.</p><p>►</p><p>33</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>instead of preparing them for that unknown,</p><p>unexpected bit of the conversation coming</p><p>with that ‘decision moment’, that turning</p><p>point when the speaker has to resort to their</p><p>creativity and competence to move on with</p><p>the conversation.</p><p>To help the teacher with their task</p><p>he proposes a pragmatics-centered, learner-</p><p>centered method that makes use of strategic</p><p>interactions based on real-life scenarios</p><p>created by the teacher. The scenarios can</p><p>involve two or more speakers/interlocutors.</p><p>Although speaking is given first priority, the</p><p>four language skills are involved, starting</p><p>from reading comprehension. Reading,</p><p>listening and writing activities support the</p><p>development of the speaking skill.</p><p>Here is a sample scenario I produced for</p><p>you:</p><p>Group A</p><p>You are an exchange student in the USA.</p><p>After your first term in school you have</p><p>made some new friends. One of them is going</p><p>to be 19 next Saturday and you have</p><p>been invited to his birthday party. As most</p><p>students, you live on a tight budget.</p><p>Anyway, you want to buy him a present, so</p><p>you go to a shopping mall. After doing</p><p>some window shopping, you decide that a tie</p><p>will be a good present as your friend</p><p>will be working in an office in the summer.</p><p>Besides, a tie is not so expensive and</p><p>suits your budget quite well.</p><p>Group B</p><p>You are a salesperson in a gift shop of a</p><p>well-known shopping mall. At work this</p><p>morning, you were instructed to do your best</p><p>to sell some Calvin Klein belts which</p><p>were left from the last season. The store</p><p>manager told you that for each belt sold</p><p>the salesperson in charge will receive an extra</p><p>sales commission. At this exact m o m e n t</p><p>somebody is entering the shop. Be prepared</p><p>to help your customer.</p><p>In this scenario the basic communicative</p><p>functions practiced are argumenting /</p><p>convincing/ asking.</p><p>The procedures, always based on</p><p>teamwork, are developed in three stages:</p><p>rehearsal, performance and debriefing.</p><p>During rehearsal the students prepare</p><p>the conversation based on the script they</p><p>received for the scenarios and supported by</p><p>research, discussion and experimentation.</p><p>They are allowed to research whatever</p><p>means they may have concerning grammar,</p><p>lexicon and culture. Performance is the stage</p><p>when the actual conversation occurs. It</p><p>encourages the learner to take risks and feel</p><p>self-confident as they learn that there</p><p>is no pre-determined or a one-and-only</p><p>language form or communicative strategy</p><p>in conversation. During performance, the</p><p>teacher takes notes and does not interfere. It</p><p>is during debriefing that the teacher discusses</p><p>the pertinent occurrences observed during</p><p>performance and guarantees the solution of</p><p>the problems and mistakes observed during</p><p>the performance.</p><p>3.1.3 The Lexical Approach</p><p>Proposed by Michael Lewis (1993), the Lexical Approach develops various of the basic</p><p>principles of the Communicative Approach highlighting the nature and importance of</p><p>lexis to language teaching. You will be surprised to learn that Lewis describes language as</p><p>‘grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar’. This means that language teaching should</p><p>give first priority to the mastering of lexical chunks over grammar. Lexical chunks are defined</p><p>as any pair or group of content words commonly found together, like good morning, foreign</p><p>language, low price. Lewis makes a distinction between vocabulary and lexis, lexis including</p><p>not only individual words but also the word combinations that he termed lexical chunks.</p><p>Chunks can occur as:</p><p>•	 collocations: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs which go together, like fast track, head</p><p>hunting, speak slowly.</p><p>•	 frozen (fixed) expressions: expressions which cannot be changed; idiomatic</p><p>expressions, like I beg your pardon.</p><p>•	 Semi-fixed expressions: expressions which allow for at least one word to be</p><p>replaced with others, like How are you doing?</p><p>TASK</p><p>Provide a list of 10</p><p>collocations, 10 frozen</p><p>expressions and 10</p><p>semi-fixed expressions</p><p>in English.</p><p>34</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>According to Lewis, as much language consists of multi-word chunks, teaching should</p><p>develop the learner’s proficiency with the lexicon. It is by mastering a set of frequently used</p><p>combinations, or chunks that the learner develops his perception of the grammar, and not the</p><p>other way around. This view contradicts those traditional views of language learning that place</p><p>grammar as the basis of language, and mastery of the grammatical system as a prerequisite for</p><p>effective communication. Additionally, some authors agree that, in communication, a lexical</p><p>mistake generally results in misunderstanding, while a grammar mistake only rarely does.</p><p>However unpopular it is with teachers, language which contains grammatical</p><p>errors is unlikely to be misunderstood in context, but with lexical errors</p><p>misunderstanding, incomprehension, or in rare cases even offence, are quite</p><p>likely. Recognizing the lexical nature of language, and the centrality of lexis to</p><p>the creation of meaning, and consequently to communicative power, demotes</p><p>grammar – and in particular, the often unnatural, inaccurate grammar of</p><p>standard EFL – to a subsidiary role. (MICHAEL LEWIS 1997, p.37)</p><p>It is clear, however, that Lewis is not saying that you, as a teacher, should not correct your</p><p>learners’ errors, or give less attention to grammar. Remember that fluency requires a certain</p><p>level of accuracy. What he proposes is giving first priority to the lexicon instead of grammar. So</p><p>you can make your classes more interesting by leaving grammar rules to be learned inductively,</p><p>primarily from observation. Essentially, learning should follow the sequence observe – create</p><p>hypotheses – experiment, instead of the traditional sequence present – practice – produce.</p><p>As you can see, this is primarily a constructivist/communicative proposal, centered on the</p><p>learner. The learner himself observes specific language strategies, creates his hypotheses about</p><p>them and tries his own forms based on those hypotheses. In fact, when engaging in conversation,</p><p>the speaker has to risk using creative forms of language; when reading a foreign text the reader has</p><p>to observe and create hypotheses about the content of the text to achieve understanding.</p><p>LEARN MORE</p><p>Go to http://www.</p><p>kenlackman.com/files/</p><p>LexicalActivities</p><p>Book102.pdf</p><p>for more information</p><p>on the The Lexical</p><p>Approach.</p><p>GLOSSARY</p><p>COLLOCATION:</p><p>a lexical pair of</p><p>content words like</p><p>in communicative</p><p>approach, pretty girl,</p><p>speak fluently. Groups</p><p>of words like by the</p><p>way or get up do not</p><p>fit into the concept</p><p>because they include</p><p>both function and</p><p>content words. In</p><p>English, some words</p><p>naturally collocate (go</p><p>well together) with</p><p>others.</p><p>CONTENT WORD</p><p>or FULL WORD, or</p><p>LEXICAL WORD - any</p><p>word belonging to the</p><p>open class of words,</p><p>that is, words which</p><p>carry meaning in a</p><p>sentence: noun, verb,</p><p>adjective.</p><p>FUNCTION WORD or</p><p>GRAMMATICAL WORD</p><p>- (palavra gramatical) a</p><p>word belonging to the</p><p>closed class of words,</p><p>that is, words which do</p><p>not carry content and</p><p>are used as a syntactic</p><p>(or construction)</p><p>marker. In the examples</p><p>above, the words by,</p><p>the, up.</p><p>TARGET LANGUAGE</p><p>– The foreign/second</p><p>language being</p><p>learned.</p><p>Figure 12: Hold your</p><p>teeth!</p><p>Source: http://www.proz.</p><p>com/forum/fun_with_</p><p>images/221038-how_</p><p>to_pronounce_the_th_</p><p>sound_in_english.html.</p><p>Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012.</p><p>►</p><p>3.1.4 A Reading Approach</p><p>Traditionally in our foreign language</p><p>teaching practice learn a language was</p><p>achieved by studying its vocabulary, grammar</p><p>and sentence structure, and reading was</p><p>reduced to sentences and paragraphs</p><p>produced by textbook writers and teachers.</p><p>The reading of authentic materials was limited</p><p>to literary works and only offered to advanced</p><p>learners, those who supposedly had already</p><p>developed the language skills required for</p><p>them to understand those texts. This clearly</p><p>shows that learning did not occur through</p><p>actual reading.</p><p>The advent of the communicative</p><p>approach to language teaching provided</p><p>the teachers with a different understanding</p><p>of the role of reading in language teaching</p><p>and the types (genre) of texts that could be</p><p>used in the classroom. For the purposes of</p><p>developing communicative competence,</p><p>any type of materials related to everyday life,</p><p>like newspaper articles, advertising leaflets,</p><p>interviews, website texts are appropriate</p><p>provided that they are of interest to the</p><p>learners. When selecting a text to read</p><p>you have a purpose for your reading: get</p><p>35</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>information, leisure, improve knowledge,</p><p>curiosity… Language learners must see a clear</p><p>purpose in reading in class. An interesting</p><p>text is motivational, reading promotes</p><p>implicit learning, provides cultural content,</p><p>and displays the intricacies of the language</p><p>grammar. As a teaching tool, texts must</p><p>provide the reader with cognitive challenges</p><p>that give them opportunities to process</p><p>meaning effectively.</p><p>Normal readers do not read all text types</p><p>in a magazine or newspaper with the same</p><p>interest, so learners are not expected to read</p><p>whatever text presented in the classroom with</p><p>the same interest. Sometimes you read only for</p><p>main ideas, sometimes for details, and the way</p><p>a reader approach the text is determined by the</p><p>purpose they set for reading. This means that</p><p>the focus of the reader varies accordingly: while</p><p>scanning a list of prices for sneakers you may</p><p>not give attention to that additional note on</p><p>colors available. Reading is focus-selective.</p><p>The specific knowledge, skills, and</p><p>strategies that a reader has to use to achieve</p><p>comprehension, depend on the purpose</p><p>set for reading and the specific type of text</p><p>selected. Text comprehension competence</p><p>is achieved through practicing extensive</p><p>and intensive reading, integrating the reader</p><p>previous knowledge into the new information,</p><p>being motivated to read, relying on the</p><p>interaction of different skills and strategies,</p><p>like recalling, inferring, experimenting,</p><p>guessing.</p><p>TASK</p><p>After reading, refer to ANNEX 4 - Teaching Reading: Strategies for Developing Reading Skills – and</p><p>produce a short lesson based on the following text:</p><p>Since 1977, Bollywood movies have been staged and filmed at 16 air-conditioned studios spread</p><p>over 520 acres in a place called Film City, located in the northern Mumbai suburb of Goregaon.</p><p>Now the Maharashtra government thinks it’s time to make Bollywood’s office a state-of-the-</p><p>art, one-stop-shop for filmmakers as well as a major tourist attraction.</p><p>Future tourists will have access to shoots and sets and there’s a Bollywood museum also</p><p>being planned on Film City premises.</p><p>According to news reports, special sections will be built on sets to allow tourists to watch</p><p>shoots in progress through mirrored walkways that will ensure minimal interference.</p><p>Production houses will be offered discounts if they hold shoots on sets that are along the</p><p>virtual tour route.</p><p>“We want the Film City to become one of the best places for filmmaking,» Film City public</p><p>relations officer Saini told media.</p><p>«We also want it to become a sought after tourist spot. However, we won’t open the entire Film</p><p>City for tourism purposes. There will be just few places that will be open to the general public.</p><p>“We have decided to work on this plan because we used to get many requests from people</p><p>so we thought why not do something so that people can see what happens inside a film set and</p><p>get a closer look at Bollywood?” he added.</p><p>Mumbai’s Film City to open to tourists</p><p>Plan has visitors allowed onto actual film sets and able to see shoots in progress</p><p>Source:http://www.cnngo.com/mumbai/visit/mumbais-film-city-open-tourists-</p><p>911279?hpt=hp_bn10 on Sept.13, 2011.</p><p>Rethinking education for the 21st Century, Colombian philosopher and  educator Bernardo</p><p>Toro (1997 – Colombia) clearly states that there is no democracy without a quality education to</p><p>enable the child to understand the surrounding context and this has to start from developing</p><p>the reading comprehension and writing skills of children.</p><p>Initially Toro’s giving first priority to reading and writing may appear simply as</p><p>acknowledgment of the usefulness and recurrence of reading in today’s world. The code is,</p><p>however, a call to the accountability of the reader, their responsibility for misinterpreting texts,</p><p>reading superficially, which may lead to dangerous results. What Toro does is to authenticate</p><p>the status of the written text as the most important and enduring documentary record ever</p><p>created. His Code also reminds of that reading is the primary form of achieving a comprehensive</p><p>understanding of the world, and this gives us reason enough to choose teaching a foreign</p><p>language through reading.</p><p>LEARN MORE</p><p>Refer to http://www.</p><p>powershow.com/</p><p>view/147203- ZGM3Z/</p><p>Teaching_Techniques_</p><p>and_Strategies_in_</p><p>Foreign_Languages_</p><p>flash_ppt_presentation</p><p>and to</p><p>Richards, Jack C. &</p><p>Rodgers, Theodore</p><p>Approaches and</p><p>Methods in Language</p><p>Teaching. Cambridge</p><p>University Press, 2001</p><p>to read about foreign</p><p>language approaches</p><p>and methods.</p><p>TASK</p><p>Go over the main</p><p>features of the</p><p>methods discussed and</p><p>produce a comparative</p><p>account of such</p><p>features. Then, after</p><p>learning more about</p><p>the Communicative</p><p>Approach decide if</p><p>one of those methods</p><p>or a combination of</p><p>methods better match</p><p>the objectives of your</p><p>teaching and give five</p><p>reasons for your choice.</p><p>36</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>Teaching through reading enables the teacher to reach a larger number of learners at the</p><p>same time while offering the learners equal learning opportunities; enables learners to develop</p><p>the other skills for language as a whole is a natural combination of oral and written elements and</p><p>writing and oral activities result from the text content and comprehension. Reading in a foreign</p><p>language implies allowing the reader to enjoy a “psycholinguistic guessing game” (GOODMAN,</p><p>1967). Of course, when you read you do not guess all the time, but this is one of the strategies</p><p>readers use to grasp the meaning of the text. Anyway there is clearly an interaction between</p><p>thought and language while developing the abilities to infer, preview, create and confirm</p><p>hypotheses, draw conclusions, and guess!</p><p>The linguistic content acquired through the written text must inevitably be reapplied to</p><p>other communicative contexts and situations. In fact, reapplication to real life is a key element</p><p>of the actual objective of language learning. As reading is a receptive skill, the receptive</p><p>competence acquired becomes the semantic and structural content of the productive skills, that</p><p>is, speaking and writing, therefore creating what I call a ‘boomerang effect’.</p><p>It is clear then that the option to give first priority to a specific skill, in this case reading,</p><p>does not mean to exclude the other skills. Human languages are not realized through one skill</p><p>only; human beings do not develop the four skills equally. If I asked you about your Portuguese,</p><p>you would probably tell me that you are better at speaking than at writing, or better at reading</p><p>than at speaking. So why expect</p><p>something different from yourself or your students, moreover</p><p>when learning a foreign language? In fact all this only reflect the natural, necessary balance of</p><p>human nature. Being aware of this balance only adds to a better understanding of the learner’s</p><p>difficulties while contributing to reduce the teacher’s anxiety and concerns.</p><p>Finally here is a note on reading in the real world and reading in the instructional</p><p>context. Basically, the distinction between these two types of reading is saying that one is</p><p>reading for pleasure while the other is reading for information. However, a good selection</p><p>of texts can provide the learner with pleasant information! Krashen argued that pleasure</p><p>reading is an important source of comprehensible input for language acquisition, and that</p><p>the basic requirement</p><p>“is that the story or main idea be comprehensible and the topic be</p><p>something the student is genuinely interested in, that he would read in his</p><p>first language” (Krashen, 1982)</p><p>3.1.4.1 ESP (English for Specific Purposes)</p><p>ESP is one of the various trends under the</p><p>umbrella term communicative approach.</p><p>An extended research developed in Brazil</p><p>in the 1990s identified reading as the most</p><p>frequently used of the four skills among</p><p>Brazilian teenagers and young adults and</p><p>professionals. The research accounted for the</p><p>difficulties, needs and wants of learners and</p><p>schools alike as well as for the educational</p><p>objectives established by the Brazilian</p><p>educational authorities. In Annex 5 you find a</p><p>detailed discussion of ESP.</p><p>3.1.4.2 What about writing?</p><p>A first step in the process of teaching</p><p>writing must always be to review the</p><p>concept of writing and redefine the scope</p><p>of writing in the Brazilian educational</p><p>environment for teenagers and young</p><p>adults. Writing in fact starts with the simple</p><p>copy of words. Although English makes use</p><p>of the alphabet that we know, combining</p><p>characters to produce English words, that is,</p><p>spelling is very particular of that language</p><p>and not always logical from the viewpoint</p><p>of a Brazilian speaker. Simple activities</p><p>like copies and dictation can be valuable</p><p>tools for beginners, mainly if the learner</p><p>copies meaningful chunks instead of single</p><p>words. Together with writing, learners</p><p>develop memorization and listening to</p><p>pronunciation.</p><p>For beginners, copies can be enough as</p><p>a first step to develop writing. Other activities</p><p>like transforming active sentences into passives,</p><p>paraphrasing and transforming direct discourse</p><p>into indirect speech, reordering jumbled</p><p>sentences, these are all forms of practicing</p><p>writing, a guided exercise of the productive skill</p><p>of writing. Guided/controlled writing should</p><p>37</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>precede creative writing and can be supported</p><p>by visual aids: pictures, graphs, and others.</p><p>Creative, free writing, on the other hand involves</p><p>a number of stages, and requires the writer</p><p>alone to pick up a topic, plan, outline, organize,</p><p>draft and revise the text. In the teenager/young</p><p>adult classroom, creative writing should include</p><p>the production of short poems, simple stories,</p><p>personal letters, blogs, and others.</p><p>Writing in a foreign language is somehow</p><p>complex and it has to follow the cultural</p><p>conventions and linguistic patterns of the</p><p>English variant selected: British English or</p><p>American English, for example, for each text</p><p>type or genre. As much as there is no variant</p><p>better than another, speaking and writing</p><p>must reflect the requirements of that variant.</p><p>Levels of formality, presentation, even size of</p><p>certain texts vary from one variant to another.</p><p>Simple uses, like valedictions - word or phrase</p><p>of farewell used to end a letter or message</p><p>– vary from one variant to another. Yours</p><p>sincerely is typically used in British English</p><p>while  American English uses Sincerely yours</p><p>or Sincerely in formal correspondence.</p><p>What is important is that whatever</p><p>methods, techniques, procedures, activities</p><p>are chosen for a given course should reflect</p><p>the core concepts developed in Applied</p><p>Linguistics and meet the communicative</p><p>objectives established in the provisions of the</p><p>PCNs. As I see it, this is what a communicative</p><p>teaching should include:</p><p>•	 Value both individual and cooperative</p><p>work by calling for both the individual’s</p><p>creativity and the reaching of a common</p><p>ground.</p><p>•	 Place the teacher as an orchestrator</p><p>of activities, a research pal, one who</p><p>shares information and interacts with</p><p>the learners, controlling the instructional</p><p>process but not dominating over the</p><p>learner’s efforts to succeed in the</p><p>acquisition of the target language.</p><p>•	 View linguistic and cultural elements as</p><p>live bodies which have to combine to</p><p>produce actual communication.</p><p>•	 Promote a balance between learner’s</p><p>fluency and accuracy.</p><p>•	 Trigger the learner’s building of a new</p><p>linguistic self in accordance with the</p><p>foreign environment.</p><p>•	 View the occurrence of mistakes as a</p><p>necessary step in the learning process</p><p>and use it as a tool for the teaching /</p><p>learning of specific linguistic aspects.</p><p>•	 Track the learners’ process of building the</p><p>various stages of their interlanguage.</p><p>•	 Use extra material and extensive tasks</p><p>according to individual needs and wants.</p><p>•	 Rely on a balance between those</p><p>protocols dictated by cultural</p><p>conventions and the strategies</p><p>formulated by the individual’s intention.</p><p>•	 Exercise the four language skills while</p><p>clearly setting priorities according to the</p><p>objectives of the course, the school and</p><p>the education authority regulations.</p><p>•	 Develop the communicative competence</p><p>with the balanced support of</p><p>the grammatical, semantic, phonological,</p><p>strategic, functional competencies.</p><p>•	 Observe individual learning styles.</p><p>•	 Observe and value the diverse</p><p>development of the four skills for</p><p>individual learners.</p><p>•	 Reach a satisfying predetermined</p><p>teaching goal or conclusion.</p><p>•	 Continuously and adequately assess</p><p>learning quantity and quality using the</p><p>same language teaching strategies.</p><p>•	 Be motivational, thus not boring to either</p><p>teachers or students.</p><p>The learners are expected to</p><p>•	 Profit from any type of previous linguistic</p><p>knowledge - native or another foreign</p><p>language - they may have</p><p>•	 Understand the social-interactional role</p><p>of language</p><p>•	 Make appropriate and recurrent use</p><p>of the communicative functions: ask,</p><p>answer, invite, discuss, describe, reason,</p><p>explain...</p><p>•	 Make adequate selection and use of the</p><p>lexicon</p><p>•	 Identify linguistic variants</p><p>•	 Make appropriate use of register in</p><p>relation to the context of situation</p><p>•	 Interpret the content and message of</p><p>written texts</p><p>•	 Apply the language learned in various</p><p>modes of interaction</p><p>•	 Produce short, coherent written texts of</p><p>selected genres</p><p>LEARN MORE</p><p>Access the page below</p><p>for more information</p><p>on creative writing.</p><p>http://www.</p><p>teachingenglish.org.</p><p>uk/articles/creative-</p><p>writing-language-</p><p>learners-teachers</p><p>and</p><p>http://www.learnnc.</p><p>org/lp/pages/672 for</p><p>writing and Second</p><p>Language Teaching</p><p>TASK</p><p>Go to</p><p>http://elpweb.com/</p><p>materials/wp-content/</p><p>uploads/2006/03/</p><p>Writing_3_Activity_1.</p><p>pdf and</p><p>http://elpweb.com/</p><p>materials/wp-content/</p><p>uploads/2006/04/</p><p>L2%20W%20task1%20</p><p>activity3.pdf</p><p>and complete the</p><p>exercises.</p><p>These are interesting</p><p>examples of how to</p><p>propose simple guided</p><p>writing activities.</p><p>38</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>3.2 Learning assessment</p><p>By many considered the most difficult</p><p>area of teaching, learning assessment,</p><p>understood as collecting information on a</p><p>learner’s language ability or achievement,</p><p>has been a controversial area, the scope</p><p>and forms of which not always being clearly</p><p>defined. Within the traditional school context,</p><p>learning assessment has been cumulative and</p><p>reductionist, distant from learning in time</p><p>and many times making use of activities and</p><p>strategies not used for teaching.</p><p>As I see it, language learning assessment</p><p>must aim to advance learning, be continuous,</p><p>recurrent, balanced</p><p>and parallel to teaching,</p><p>a systematic, strategic observation of the</p><p>development and moment of learning;</p><p>progressive while accounting for the</p><p>various levels of the learner’s interlanguage;</p><p>constructive and positive, so that errors and</p><p>mistakes are viewed as an essential part of</p><p>learning and every bit of learning is accounted</p><p>for.</p><p>Effective assessment depends on the</p><p>teacher understanding some core concepts.</p><p>Language use is not only a matter of</p><p>determining what is right or wrong, but also</p><p>what is standard and non-standard (dialectal);</p><p>formal, semi-informal and informal; used and</p><p>not used in certain contexts or by certain</p><p>speakers; grammatical or ungrammatical;</p><p>acceptable or not acceptable; typical of</p><p>certain social groups; frequently used or</p><p>not; error or mistake… Understanding these</p><p>concepts will help the teacher have a better</p><p>evaluation of learners’ results. Many times</p><p>learners come out with unexpected answers,</p><p>which are, in fact, correct, good occurrences</p><p>in the language although not the ones</p><p>the teacher wanted to have. To avoid this</p><p>attention must be given to the directions for</p><p>each question or activity that should clearly</p><p>state the objectives of the activity.</p><p>Considering that no human being</p><p>develops the four language skills or show the</p><p>same level of performance, you should expect</p><p>yourself to be better at one skill and not</p><p>another and, when assessing your students,</p><p>remember this and value whatever skill your</p><p>student has developed. Something else to</p><p>consider is that what is difficult for the teacher</p><p>may not necessarily be difficult for your</p><p>student.</p><p>Assessment can take a number of forms,</p><p>use various types of activities and questions,</p><p>but these should always be compatible</p><p>with the teaching strategies used. It should</p><p>provide useful, clear information on students’</p><p>strengths and weaknesses in such a way as</p><p>to give the teacher an insight on suitable</p><p>materials and activities to use in teaching;</p><p>determine the student readiness for a further</p><p>stage of learning; provide feedback on the</p><p>effectiveness of a teaching program, method,</p><p>approach or procedure. Grades should be</p><p>assigned on achievement, not on failures.</p><p>Within a communicative teaching</p><p>context, learners who are exposed to</p><p>performance-based environments, who are</p><p>used to completing activities that give them</p><p>the ability to actually use the target language</p><p>in simulated real-life situations must also be</p><p>evaluated for their linguistic performance</p><p>if the teacher is to gain a fair and accurate</p><p>picture of what they know and are able to</p><p>do with the foreign language. Performance</p><p>assessment enables the learner to show the</p><p>specific skills and competencies they have</p><p>mastered while applying to life like situations.</p><p>Teaching communicatively presupposes</p><p>assessing communicatively otherwise it would</p><p>not be fair to the learner.</p><p>Figure 13: The</p><p>unmaking of English</p><p>Source: www.chrismad-</p><p>den.co.uk/. Disponível em</p><p>http://www.jesslaccetti.</p><p>co.uk/labels/learning%20</p><p>styles.html. Acesso em: 02</p><p>abr. 2012.</p><p>►</p><p>39</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>References</p><p>PENNYCOOK, Alastair Critical Applied Linguistics: A Critical Introduction. Routledge, 2001.</p><p>CANALE, M. and SWAIN, M., Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second</p><p>language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics 1:1-47. , 1980.</p><p>Di PIETRO, R. J. Strategic interaction: Learning languages through scenarios. New York:</p><p>Cambridge University Press, 1987.</p><p>GOODMAN, K..    Reading: A psycholinguistic guess game.    Journal of the  Reading  Specialist,</p><p>May, 126-135. 1967.</p><p>HALLIDAY, M.A.K. Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold, 1973.</p><p>KRASHEN, S. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, Pergamon, 1982.</p><p>LEWIS, Michael. The Lexical Approach: The State of ELT and a Way Forward, LTP Language</p><p>Teaching Publication, 1993.</p><p>MAGALHÃES, Helena Maria Gramiscelli. Anglo American Culture. Caderno da UAB, 2011.</p><p>RICHARDS, Jack C. & RODGERS, Theodore. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.</p><p>Cambridge University Press, 2001</p><p>Scarcella, R.C., &  Oxford, R.L. The Tapestry of Language Learning: The Individual in the</p><p>Communicative Classroom. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1992.</p><p>TOMALIN, B. and STEMPLESKI S., Cultural Awareness. Oxford University Press, 1996.</p><p>http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/03/Writing_3_Activity_1.pdf</p><p>http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/672</p><p>http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/03/Writing_3_Activity_1.pdf</p><p>http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/04/L2%20W%20task1%20activity3.pdf</p><p>41</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>UNIT 4</p><p>How is the foregoing material</p><p>applicable to the classroom?</p><p>4.1 Sample unit</p><p>In this unit you are provided with a sample lesson resuming the concepts and proposals you</p><p>learned in the previous units. It is meant to show you how you can profit from those concepts</p><p>and proposals by offering your students a set of individual and group activities, triggered by</p><p>reading comprehension. The four skills are developed in those lessons, which always include a</p><p>final section on applicability to the real world.</p><p>This sample unit was taken from Neves da Silva Magalhães (2001). Reading the World:</p><p>COMPREHENSIVE COLLABORATIVE INTERACTION (2001). It was prepared to meet the provisions</p><p>of both the Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais de Língua Estrangeira and the Conteúdo Básico</p><p>Comum de Língua Estrangeira do Ensino Fundamental do 6º ao 9º Ano, therefore starting with</p><p>reading comprehension.</p><p>Lessons that follow this pattern are based on a tripod including:</p><p>Communicative functions: inform, reason, describe, narrate, explain…</p><p>Linguistic strategies: selected syntactic structures and vocabulary</p><p>Contexts of situation (topics): technological innovation, business, everyday situations, sports…</p><p>4.2 General task</p><p>1. Your task is to go through the sample lesson and complete the activities</p><p>proposed.</p><p>2. Then, based on what you read in the previous units, comment on how the sample lesson</p><p>reflects or not the Applied Linguistics concepts learned.</p><p>3. Now it is your turn do prepare a similar unit.</p><p>Theme Unit</p><p>Make them hear you</p><p>Communicative Functions: reasoning, justifying, stating facts, informing about personal</p><p>conditions, expressing anguish and fear, asking for help...</p><p>Linguistic strategies: simple past narrative, discourse markers of time and place, linking</p><p>words, modals used to indicate possibility and advice, regular and irregular verb forms used to</p><p>express feelings and conditions.</p><p>Context of Situation: diplomacy and the citizen in trouble.</p><p>42</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>•	 Competencies to be achieved: use specific language to write letters, use modals to</p><p>indicate possibility and advice, describe specific conditions and express anguish and fear.</p><p>•	 Applicability: Be able to produce formal letters for a specific purpose and in different</p><p>contexts of situation.</p><p>TASK 1: READ THE TEXT</p><p>Diplomacy and the citizen in trouble.</p><p>IN: Diplomacy – A COURSE OF STUDY FOR ENGLISH FOR PROFESSIONALS</p><p>Washington, D.C. 1979</p><p>A Letter from Jail</p><p>October 20</p><p>To Whom It May Concern:</p><p>I am writing on behalf of my husband, his brother, and myself. We are three American</p><p>citizens who are in jail in Santa Maria, Tacaremba. We were arrested on the border for a crime</p><p>which we did not commit. The van that we were riding in was driven by a Canadian man who,</p><p>we later found out, was smuggling cocaine. We knew nothing about the cocaine. We were</p><p>hitchhiking and we accepted a ride from this man.</p><p>When we got to the border, the police found thousands of dollars worth of cocaine which</p><p>was hidden in the van. We couldn’t believe it. The man seemed to be so nice. He confessed that</p><p>he was smuggling the drug. He explained to the police that we knew nothing about the cocaine.</p><p>But they didn’t believe him. They think we are part of a dope smuggling ring.</p><p>Perhaps because</p><p>we have an Italian name, the police think we were sent by the Mafia to smuggle dope, and that</p><p>we just disguised ourselves as hippies.</p><p>We are in two very small cells. My husband and I were separated – he is in a cell with his</p><p>brother and the Canadian smuggler, and I am with some strange women. We are frightened and</p><p>confused. We aren’t sure what our legal rights are.</p><p>Can you help us get a lawyer? And can you notify our families? Most of all, could you send</p><p>an American official to visit us, so that we can talk to someone who understands this situation</p><p>and can give us some advice?</p><p>Thank you for your help.</p><p>Sincerely,</p><p>Nicole Monte</p><p>Michael Monte</p><p>Peter Monte</p><p>TASK 2: WORK ON TEXT ORGANIZATION</p><p>a. Take out from the text discourse markers that carry the ideas of:</p><p>place -</p><p>duration of time -</p><p>addition -</p><p>purpose -</p><p>cause -</p><p>alternative –</p><p>43</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>CLUE</p><p>Functional Grammar Recall</p><p>Narrative in the past</p><p>Narratives are usually written in the simple past tense of verbs. The simple past is used</p><p>whenever we tell stories, tell of events in a sequence and mention a single event that was</p><p>completed in a past time.</p><p>Example: The kidnappers agreed to release the hostages when the family paid the</p><p>ransom.</p><p>Note: The simple present can equally be used in narratives.</p><p>b. Rewrite paragraph 2 using simple present narrative.</p><p>c. Rewrite these affirmative and negative statements of facts using the simple present</p><p>1. We knew nothing about this cocaine.</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>2. The man seemed to be so nice.</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>3. They didn’t believe me.</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>4. He explained to the police that we had nothing to do with that smuggling.</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>5. The van that we were riding in was driven by a Canadian.</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>d. Match the columns to find the words or expressions that are similar in meaning.</p><p>1. a small truck ____ hitchhiking</p><p>2. authority ____ van</p><p>3. dope smuggling ring ____ concealed</p><p>4. on behalf of ____ official</p><p>5. hidden ____ scared</p><p>6. asking for a ride ____ people who smuggle drugs</p><p>7. confessed ____ for</p><p>8. frightened ____ admitted</p><p>e. The word smuggle means bring drug into a country illegally. Other words can be formed</p><p>from smuggle by adding suffixes. Let’s practice using them accordingly.</p><p>Example: Smuggling is a crime.</p><p>1. The van driver was a ________________.(smuggler, smuggling, smuggle, smuggled)</p><p>2. He was used to _______________ cocaine.(smuggler, smuggle, smuggling, smuggle)</p><p>3. The police questioned them for hours: “Did you __________that cocaine?” (smuggler,</p><p>smuggle, smuggling, smuggled)</p><p>4. Colombians are famous for ____________ drugs. (smuggling, smuggler, smuggled,</p><p>smuggle)</p><p>5. He ___________________ drugs for years. Although illegal, that activity made him a</p><p>rich man. (smuggling, smuggle, smuggled, smuggler)</p><p>44</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>CLUE</p><p>GRAMMAR RECALL</p><p>Relative Clauses</p><p>Relative clauses are used to explain, describe, specify, detail a situation, express</p><p>concepts and viewpoints. Who, whom, what, which, where, when or that introduce a</p><p>relative clause and refer to a word previously expressed:</p><p>The kidnapper, who was arrested, pleaded guilty.</p><p>who was arrested = relative clause</p><p>who = the kidnapper</p><p>communicative function = detail a situation</p><p>The city where the police caught them is named Tacaremba.</p><p>where the police caught them = relative clause</p><p>where = the city</p><p>communicative function = indicate place</p><p>Relative clauses can be paraphrased by simple sentences containing an adjective.</p><p>The kidnapper, who is very intelligent, claimed innocence.</p><p>The intelligent kidnapper claimed innocence.</p><p>f. Let’s practice by completing the sentences below. Use the verbs in parentheses.</p><p>Communicative function: expressing concepts.</p><p>A cocaine smuggler is a person ____________________________ (smuggle).</p><p>Hitchhikers are travelers ____________________________________ (hitchhike).</p><p>Prisoners are criminals___________________________________________ (jail).</p><p>A policeman is an officer________________________________________ (arrest).</p><p>An ambassador is a diplomat _________________________________ (represent).</p><p>g. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate relative pronoun: that, what, when, where, who,</p><p>whom, which.</p><p>The couple in jail said: “Smuggling is a crime ________ we did not commit.”</p><p>A kidnapper is a person _______ takes people as hostages.</p><p>The American couple says that they didn’t know the friend with___________ they were</p><p>travelling was a criminal.</p><p>Tourists are now used to visiting the jail ____________ the smugglers were kept.</p><p>The van ________ we were riding in was driven by a Canadian man.</p><p>Springtime is the time ________ most tourists go to Tacaremba.</p><p>45</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>TASK 3: WORK ON TEXT COMPREHENSION</p><p>1. Indicate the paragraphs where these ideas are found so that you have a general mapping</p><p>of the text: Paragraph 1, 2, 3 ou 4</p><p>Ms. Monte describes the situation in detail. ( )</p><p>She explains the reasons for the arrest of the Americans. ( )</p><p>The sender asks the Embassy authorities for help. ( )</p><p>The sender describes where they are arrested. ( )</p><p>Nicole asks the authorities to inform her family about their condition. ( )</p><p>The American lady explains how the suspects met the driver of the van.( )</p><p>Mr. Monte’s wife introduces the subject. ( )</p><p>Guided Writing</p><p>•	 The jumbled text below is the letter the Consul General wrote in reply to the prisoners</p><p>request for help. Organize it to produce the actual letter.</p><p>Very truly yours, Grant Moore Zimmer. We understand your concern and will do our best to</p><p>assure you of a fair trial. Consul. October 22, 1998. At that time, I will give you a list of lawyers.</p><p>We shall also try to notify your family. In reply to your letter of October 20, I’m writing to let you</p><p>know that we have contacted Emílio Gonzáles, the Director General of Tacaremba Security. Dear</p><p>Ms. Monte. He has arranged for me to visit the prison where you are being held on Monday of</p><p>next week. American Embassy. Tacaremba.</p><p>•	 Imagine that you are a foreigner in trouble abroad. Write a letter to the Embassy of your</p><p>country describing the situation and asking for help. (15 to 20 lines)</p><p>TASK 4: WORK ON APPLICABILITY</p><p>Task – This theme unit has been dealing with diplomatic issues. The text you read covers the</p><p>context of situation diplomacy and the citizen in trouble. Search for other contexts of situation</p><p>covered by the diplomatic work.</p><p>Task one: read the texts</p><p>•	 Stretch your legs</p><p>1. THE KIDNAPPING GAME – HOW NOT TO BE KIDNAPPED</p><p>Among the sentences below you can find some that advise you on how to avoid being</p><p>kidnapped. Arrange them logically creating your list of do’s and don’ts.</p><p>•	 Keep to a specific routine at the office or when on holiday.</p><p>•	 Always travel in isolated areas.</p><p>•	 Keep a low profile.</p><p>•	 Carry identification papers and medical records.</p><p>•	 Park in protected areas.</p><p>•	 Wear jewelry in risk areas of the city.</p><p>•	 Carry bags with your name and address on them.</p><p>•	 Ignore the possibility of danger to your wife (husband) and children.</p><p>•	 Stop regularly at the same restaurant or bar on your way home.</p><p>•	 Tell your family and friends where you’re going.</p><p>•	 From time to time change your route to and from work.</p><p>•	 Let people see you carry large dollar bills in your wallet.</p><p>•	 When travelling alone, phone home as soon as you have arrived at destination.</p><p>•	 Arrange covert codes to use with your family on phone,</p><p>in e-mails, when ringing the</p><p>door bell or blowing your car horn.</p><p>46</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>•	 Be suspicious of people you do not know.</p><p>•	 Think kidnapping will never happen to you.</p><p>•	 Keep you car doors locked and windows closed.</p><p>•	 Find about the safety conditions of the city or country you’re visiting,</p><p>2. Country Profile</p><p>Imagine a nation bearing the conditions described below. Based on the information</p><p>supplied, how would you rate such a country?</p><p>•	 The country is largely dependent on mineral resources and agricultural production.</p><p>•	 Men are responsible for family support. Many are not professionally prepared to start a</p><p>business of their own.</p><p>•	 Women still have domestic roles and some are not allowed to work outside home.</p><p>•	 Birth rate is high. Life expectancy: 60 years. Health services are inadequate.</p><p>•	 55% literate. Few schools are in the rural areas.</p><p>•	 Monetary unit has been slightly devaluated but inflation has been somehow under control</p><p>in recent years.</p><p>•	 Political prisoners have been recently released but strikes abound and illegal political</p><p>movements are still active.</p><p>•	 Crime rates are high. Drug abuse is a reality among teenagers and children.</p><p>•	 Traffic is a mess. The country does not have a car industry and has lowered the</p><p>number of imported cars in recent years.</p><p> Excellent</p><p> Good</p><p> Fair</p><p> Poor</p><p> Appalling</p><p>Use the stars above to rate the country for each of its aspects. Now justify your answers.</p><p>Select from the words next to the stars and the others below to create your sentences: because,</p><p>as, moreover, however, although, due to.</p><p>Teamwork: Using the information in activities I and II, create a profile of your country. Be</p><p>prepared to justify your choices.</p><p>Source: Neves da Silva, Rosa Maria & Magalhães, Helena Maria Gramiscelli. Reading the</p><p>World: COMPREHENSIVE COLLABORATIVE INTERACTION, 2001.</p><p>Key to exercises in ANNEX 6</p><p>References</p><p>NEVES DA SILVA , Rosa Maria & MAGALHÃES, Helena Maria Grramiscelli. Reading the world:</p><p>comprehensive collaborative interaction, 2001.</p><p>47</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>Summary</p><p>UNIT 1</p><p>This unit contains:</p><p>•	 An overview of the concepts, scope, means and purposes of Applied Linguistics;</p><p>•	 A discussion about the various definitions of the object of teaching and learning language,</p><p>including the nature and scope of language supported by quotes from well-known</p><p>researchers.</p><p>•	 A brief overview of regional and social dialects.</p><p>•	 A discussion of the implications of the various competencies involved in foreign language</p><p>learning.</p><p>•	 A discussion of the various types of competencies: communicative, grammatical, strategic,</p><p>pragmatic, cultural, sociolinguistic.</p><p>•	 Activities based on selected texts and cartoons aimed to give you an opportunity to apply</p><p>and exercise the foregoing discussions.</p><p>UNIT 2</p><p>This unit contains:</p><p>•	 A broad discussion of the core concepts of learning</p><p>•	 A discussion of acquisition and learning as some form of informal and formal foreign</p><p>language learning</p><p>•	 A discussion of learning and performance strategies used by foreign language learners,</p><p>like interference, transfer, overgeneralization, avoidance, overuse, fossilization, error and</p><p>mistake, pragmatics.</p><p>•	 A discussion of the various learning styles as used by foreign language learners, including</p><p>visual, verbal, active, reflective, sensitive and intuitive learners.</p><p>•	 A discussion of learning difficulties including an overview of Contrastive Analysis and its</p><p>contribution to lesson planning, understanding and previewing learner’s errors</p><p>•	 A discussion of the setting of a new self experienced by foreign language learners,</p><p>as a result of having to adjust to a new culture and use proper communicative strategies.</p><p>•	 Activities based on selected texts and cartoons aimed to give you an opportunity to apply</p><p>and exercise the foregoing discussions.</p><p>UNIT 3</p><p>This unit contains:</p><p>•	 A discussion of the basic notions of approaches, methods, activities, procedures.</p><p>•	 A description of the Structural Approach, followed by a detailed overview of the</p><p>foundations and scope of the Audio-Lingual Method showing its contribution to foreign</p><p>language teaching, the types of activities included: drilling, repetition, gap filling, and the</p><p>introduction of the audio-visual lab.</p><p>•	 A discussion of the foundations and scope of the communicative approach; communicative</p><p>approach as un umbrella term, recommendations of the PCNs,</p><p>48</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>•	 A discussion of interactive methods including an overview of the foundations and scope of</p><p>Strategic Interaction, as proposed by Robert Di Pietro, including a sample scenario; priority</p><p>given to speaking while developing the other skills as support to speaking.</p><p>•	 A discussion of the foundations and scope of The Lexical Approach, as proposed by ichael</p><p>Lewis; the notion of meaningful chunks; the notion of language as grammaticalized lexis</p><p>and not lexicalized grammar; the notion of collocation.</p><p>•	 A discussion of a reading approach including the pedagogical reasons supporting the</p><p>recommendations of the PCN for the choice of a reading approach to English teaching in</p><p>Brazilian schools.</p><p>•	 A brief overview of ESP (English for Specific Purposes) as one of the trends under the</p><p>Communicative Approach</p><p>•	 A discussion of writing, including guided and free writing followed by a suggestion</p><p>of activities.</p><p>•	 Activities based on selected texts and cartoons covering the various approaches and</p><p>methods presented, aimed to give you an opportunity to apply and exercise the foregoing</p><p>discussions.</p><p>UNIT 4</p><p>This unit contains:</p><p>•	 A sample lesson prepared to meet the provisions of the PCNs, following the Communicative</p><p>Approach, where you learn by completing the activities, preparing a similar unit, and</p><p>commenting on the lesson.</p><p>49</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>References</p><p>Basic</p><p>BRASIL. Secretaria de Ensino Fundamental/MEC. Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais – língua</p><p>estrangeira. Brasília, 1998.</p><p>JORDÃO, Clarissa Menezes A língua estrangeira na formação do indivíduo. Paraná: UFPR,</p><p>2004.</p><p>LOPES, Luiz Paulo M. A nova ordem mundial, os parâmetros curriculares nacionais e o ensino</p><p>de inglês no Brasil: a base intelectual para uma ação política. In: BARBARA & RAMOS OLIVEIRA,</p><p>Marta Kohl de. Jovens e Adultos como sujeitos de conhecimento aprendizagem. Faculdade</p><p>de Educação/USA. XXII Reunião Anual da ANPED, 1999.</p><p>Supplementary</p><p>BROWN, K. (Editor). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. 2. ed. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005.</p><p>BROWN, H.D. Principles of language learning and teaching. New York, Longman,2000.</p><p>CANALE, M. and SWAIN, M., (1980), Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to</p><p>second language teaching and testing. In: Applied Linguistics 1:1-47.</p><p>CORDER, S.P.. Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.</p><p>CORDER, S.P.. Introducing applied linguistics. Middlesex: Penguin, 1973.</p><p>DAVIES, Alan & ELDER, Catherine (Ed.) The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. Blackwell</p><p>Publishing, 2004.</p><p>De SAUSSURE, Ferdinand. Cours de linguistique générale.  Compiled by Charles Bally and</p><p>Albert Sechehaye, 1916.</p><p>Di PIETRO, Robert J. Strategic Interaction: Learning Languages through Scenarios. Cambridge</p><p>Language Teaching Library, 1987.</p><p>GOODMAN, K. (1967).    Reading: A psycholinguistic guess game.    Journal of</p><p>the Reading Specialist, May, 126-135.</p><p>GRICE, H.P. Logic and conversation In: COLE, P. & MORGAN, J. (Eds.) Syntax and Semantics.</p><p>Volume 3. New York: Academic Press, 1975.</p><p>HALLIDAY, M.A.K. Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and</p><p>Meaning. London: Edward Arnold, 1978.</p><p>HALLIDAY, M.A.K. Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold, 1973.</p><p>KLEIMAN, A.B. Afinal o que é Linguística Aplicada? In: Intercâmbio. São Paulo: LAEL/PUC, 1990.</p><p>KRASHEN, S. Principles and Practice in Second</p><p>Language Acquisition, Pergamon, 1982.</p><p>LACKMAN, Ken. Lexical Approach Activities: A Revolutionary Way of Teaching, available at.</p><p>Disponível em: http://www.kenlackman.com/files/LexicalActivitiesBook102.pdf. Acesso em: 02</p><p>abr. 2012.</p><p>50</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>LEWIS, Michael. The Lexical Approach: The State of ELT and a Way Forward. LTP Language</p><p>Teaching Publication, 1983.</p><p>LEWIS, Michael. Implementing the Lexical Approach: Putting Theory Into Practice. Hove:</p><p>Language Teaching Publications,1997.</p><p>MAGALHÃES, Helena Maria Gramiscelli. Anglo American Culture. Caderno Didático da UAB, 2011.</p><p>NEVES DA SILVA, Rosa Maria & MAGALHÃES, Helena Maria Gramiscelli Reading the World:</p><p>comprehensive collaborative interaction, 2001.</p><p>NUNAN, David. Collaborative language Learning and Teaching. Cambridge University Press,</p><p>1992.</p><p>NUNAN, David. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge University</p><p>Press, 1989.</p><p>PENNYCOOK, Alastair. Critical Applied Linguistics: a critical introduction. Routledge, 2001.</p><p>RICHARDS, Jack C. & RODGERS, Theodore. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.</p><p>Cambridge University Press, 2001.</p><p>SCARCELLA, R.C., &  OXFORD, R.L.. The Tapestry of Language Learning: The Individual in the</p><p>Communicative Classroom. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1992.</p><p>SELINKER, L. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-241, 1972.</p><p>STREVENS, P. Applied Linguistics: an overview. In: GRABE, W.; KAPLAN, R.B. Introduction to</p><p>Applied Linguistics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, p.13-31.1991.</p><p>TOMALIN, B. and Stempleski, S. Cultural Awareness. Oxford University Press, 1996.</p><p>TORO, José Bernardo. Os códigos da modernidade. Trad. e adaptação: Antonio Carlos da Costa.</p><p>Colômbia: Fundación Social, 1997.</p><p>TRAGER, G. The Field of Linguistics. Norman: Battenberg Press, 1949.</p><p>Additional</p><p>SOARES, Doris Almeida. Introdução à Linguística Aplicada e sua utilidade para as</p><p>pesquisas em sala de aula de língua estrangeira. Available at: http://www.filologia.org.br/</p><p>revista/40suple/introdao_a_linguistica%20.pdf</p><p>CELANI, M.A.A. Afinal o que é Linguística Aplicada? In: PASCHOAL, M.S.Z. & CELANI, M.A.A. (Org.)</p><p>Linguística Aplicada: da aplicação de linguística à linguística transdisciplinar. São Paulo: EDUC.</p><p>ERDOĞAN, Vacide. Contribution of Error Analysis to Foreign Language</p><p>Teaching. Available at: http://efd.mersin.edu.tr/dergi/meuefd_2005_001_002/pdf/</p><p>meuefd_2005_001_002_0261-0270_erdogan.pdf.</p><p>MATTOS E SILVA, Rosa Virgínia. Diversidade e Unidade: A Aventura Linguística do Português.</p><p>Disponível em http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/biblioteca/diversidade.pdf.</p><p>KRIEGER, Daniel, Corpus Linguistics: What It Is and How It Can Be Applied to Teaching.</p><p>Available at http://iteslj.org/ The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. IX, No. 3, March 2003.</p><p>MOITA LOPES, L.P. da. Oficina de Linguística Aplicada: A natureza social e educacional dos</p><p>processos de ensino/aprendizagem. Campinas: Mercado das Letras, 1996.</p><p>PIAGET, Jean. A Linguagem e o Pensamento na Criança. Trad. Manuel Campos. Rio de Janeiro:</p><p>Fundo de Cultura, 1959.</p><p>VYGOTSKY, Lev. Pensamento e linguagem. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 1987.</p><p>51</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>WALTER, Henriette. A aventura das línguas no ocidente. Mandarim, 1997.</p><p>WHITMAN, Walt. Slang In America, 1892.</p><p>Sites:</p><p>Cartoon Center for the American Progress: http://www.americanprogress.org/</p><p>cartoons/2008/10/100308.html</p><p>http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/biblioteca/diversidade.pdf .</p><p>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_vocabularies_of_American_English</p><p>By Steve Kelley, Times-Picayune:  http://www.cartoonistgroup.com/</p><p>082211 (1) By Nick Anderson: http://www.cartoonistgroup.com/</p><p>http://www.rumoatolerancia.fflch.usp.br/node/7 Linguística e Preconceito</p><p>http://www.fujishima-h.ed.jp/teacher/materials/American%20Gestures.pdf</p><p>http://youtu.be/7Ehnci3fJXs - Popeye Private Eye</p><p>http://www.frugalmarketing.com/dtb/xcultcomm.shtml</p><p>http://iteslj.org/</p><p>http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/applied-linguistics.htm</p><p>http://efd.mersin.edu.tr/dergi/meuefd_2005_001_002/pdf/meuefd_2005_001_002_0261-0270_</p><p>erdogan.pdf</p><p>http://serc.carleton.edu/images/NAGTWorkshops/earlycareer/teaching/learning_styles.jpg</p><p>http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/608/02/</p><p>http://www.powershow.com/view/147203-ZGM3Z/Teaching_Techniques_and_Strategies_in_Foreign_</p><p>Languages_flash_ppt_presentation</p><p>http://www.kenlackman.com/files/LexicalActivitiesBook102.pdf</p><p>http://esl.about.com/od/smalltalk/Small_Talk.htm</p><p>http://www.mnispi.org/cartoon/2001/index.htm</p><p>http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/03/Writing_3_Activity_1.pdf</p><p>http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/reading/stratread.htm</p><p>http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/672</p><p>http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/03/Writing_3_Activity_1.pdf</p><p>http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/04/L2%20W%20task1%20activity3.pdf</p><p>http://www.brainstuck.com/</p><p>53</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>Learning Activities - AA</p><p>1) In 500 words provide a brief overview, in English, of what you learned about the scope of</p><p>Applied Linguistics.</p><p>2) In your opinion, should the teacher give priority to one or more competences in relation to</p><p>the others? Explain.</p><p>3) Review the concepts of fossilization, interference, transfer, overgeneralization, avoidance,</p><p>overuse, simplification and provide five actual English examples of each.</p><p>4) How does the choice of methodology impact the development of those competencies?</p><p>5) What level of competence should be expected from foreign language learners?</p><p>6) How can foreign language users achieve proper interaction?</p><p>7) What distinguishes a communicative activity from a non-communicative learning activity?</p><p>Create one learning communicative activity and one non-communicative activity that you</p><p>could apply in your classroom.</p><p>8) Design a communicative lesson giving first priority to speaking.</p><p>9) What type of learning evaluation would you propose for your learners? Create a</p><p>communicative evaluation activity for your students.</p><p>10) Suppose you offer your students this simple question for which you want affirmative</p><p>answers: Do you like apples? and you get the following answers:</p><p>Yes, I do.</p><p>Yes, I like apples.</p><p>Yes, I do like apples.</p><p>Yes.</p><p>Sure.</p><p>A lot.</p><p>I like apples.</p><p>Which answers would you accept if you are using a structural approach to teaching? Which</p><p>answers would you accept if you are using a communicative approach to teaching? Are</p><p>there right/wrong answers, better/worse, more/less frequently used, more/less formal,</p><p>polite/impolite? How would you grade your students?</p><p>55</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>APPENDIX</p><p>Annex 1</p><p>In this section I have attached a few resources obtained for free download in the Internet.</p><p>The idea is to guarantee your access to those resources, as they can be removed from the Web.</p><p>When “Yes” means “No” or “Maybe”-- Avoiding Cross-Cultural Misunderstandings in</p><p>Global Business</p><p>An American businesswoman comes away from a meeting delighted; she finally got her</p><p>Japanese supplier to agree to a price. A few days later, she receives questions about price. It’s</p><p>almost as if she imagined the meeting. «What’s going on here?» she asks. «We agreed on the</p><p>price already, didn’t we?»</p><p>The businesswoman recalls all the Um-hmms and Yesses she heard in the meeting. “They</p><p>agreed to the price, they said yes,” she mutters to herself. “They even nodded and smiled.”</p><p>Welcome to the world of intercultural business communication -- a world fraught with</p><p>frequent misunderstandings, frayed tempers and mistrust. This American Businesswoman is not</p><p>the first or last to feel frustrated in this way. Other people have misunderstood a “yes” response.</p><p>Ways of Communication</p><p>The businesswoman needs to understand that irrespective of language, different cultures</p><p>communicate in different ways.</p><p>Good communication American style is to say what you mean</p><p>precisely, in as straightforward a manner as possible. Be direct, get to the point, say what the</p><p>bottom line is. For other cultures, this style is rude, abrasive and self-centered.</p><p>Many cultures--including Japanese, go to great lengths not to be direct. The risk of</p><p>disharmony with other group members is too great to be outspoken. It’s better to agree to</p><p>somebody face and negotiate with them afterwards than to blatantly disagree. In our opening</p><p>scenario, the Japanese supplier appeared to say yes, but continued to negotiate a price, days</p><p>after the supposed agreement. Direct communicators like Americans in general, consider this</p><p>indirectness deceptive, two-faced and lacking in integrity. What do you think?</p><p>Goals of Communication</p><p>The goals of communication vary across culture and languages. In the US, speech is often</p><p>used to demonstrate eloquence, power or lack thereof. The presidential debates are good</p><p>examples of this. So too are the expressions “For the sake of argument” or “I’ll play the devils</p><p>advocate and...” But in many Asian cultures, the goal of communication is to achieve consensus</p><p>of opinion and to promote group harmony. “Yes” can mean “no,” “maybe,” or even “we’ve got to</p><p>think a little more about this and we don’t want to fall out with you.”</p><p>Styles of Communication</p><p>So how do you know when yes really means no? Simply listen to the silent messages and</p><p>read the invisible words. US culture, with its long tradition of rhetoric, values verbal messages</p><p>greatly. Other cultures are more sensitive to non-verbal means of communication, such as:</p><p>•	 Body posture;</p><p>•	 Hand gestures;</p><p>•	 Facial expressions;</p><p>•	 Eye contact;</p><p>•	 How close people stand to each other.</p><p>•</p><p>Misunderstandings and blunders result from failing to recognize and understand many</p><p>forms of non-verbal communication. Going back to our opening scenario, the businesswoman</p><p>remembers the nods and smiles. But what did they mean in the context of that business</p><p>meeting? Not what the American businesswoman thought. They meant disagreement,</p><p>displeasure, uncertainty. The lesson to be learnt here is that similar gestures and facial</p><p>expressions are often used differently across cultures. The meaning of a smile is not universal.</p><p>Neither is a frown. So, avoid misunderstandings in communicating across cultures:</p><p>Be conscious of body language and non-verbal messages</p><p>56</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>What message is communicated in the smiles, frowns, head movements or silence?</p><p>Watch eye contact</p><p>Reserve judgment on the correct amount of eye-contact. Some cultures encourage plenty,</p><p>others frown upon it. You may have to adjust the amount of eye contact according to the status</p><p>of the person you’re talking to.</p><p>Listen without interrupting</p><p>Americans are often considered too talkative. People from other cultures may interpret</p><p>many interruptions as disrespectful.</p><p>Summarize what you hear often</p><p>Keeping in mind point #3, clarify what you think you have heard, rephrasing as simply as</p><p>possible.</p><p>Speak slowly, enunciate and avoid idioms</p><p>Only 5% of the world population speaks English as a first language. You may be doing</p><p>business with a person who speaks fluent English but who has difficulty understanding your</p><p>accent, the idioms, jargon or slang you use. Remember, the simpler the English, the better.</p><p>Source: http://www.frugalmarketing.com/dtb/xcultcomm.shtml</p><p>Annex 2</p><p>Motivating Learners: Understanding Language Acquisition</p><p>To become engaged learners, students need to understand that learning a language is</p><p>not the same as learning about  a language. When students think of the language as a school</p><p>subject like any other, they may learn a great deal about its vocabulary, grammar, and sentence</p><p>and discourse structure, but the language will not become a true medium of communication</p><p>for them and won’t engage them very deeply. Students need to understand that learning a</p><p>language means becoming able to use it to comprehend, communicate, and think – as they do</p><p>in their first language.</p><p>Students also need to recognize that language learning takes place in stages. Interpretive</p><p>skills (listening, reading) develop much more quickly than expressive skills (speaking, writing),</p><p>and the ability that students covet most -- the ability to speak the second language fluently --</p><p>requires the longest period of growth.</p><p>All language learners have to work through a sequence of «approximate» versions called</p><p>interlanguages (ILs), each of which represents a level of understanding of the target language.</p><p>Understanding the features of ILs can help teachers and learners understand and monitor the</p><p>language learning process.</p><p>Uniqueness:  ILs vary significantly from learner to learner in the early stages of language</p><p>learning. Learners impose rules of their own on the oral and written input they receive. Each</p><p>learner does this differently, combining emerging understanding of the rules of the new</p><p>language with ideas derived from the first language and other information that comes from their</p><p>individual situations and backgrounds.</p><p>Systematicity: As learners begin to develop proficiency in a language, they make errors in</p><p>systematic ways. For example, once students learn the inflections for a single class of verbs, they</p><p>may apply them to all classes indiscriminately. These errors are based on systematic assumptions,</p><p>or false rules, about the language. When students become aware of this aspect of their language</p><p>skill development, they often appreciate and even ask for overt error correction from the</p><p>instructor.</p><p>Fossilization: Some false rules become more firmly imprinted on the IL than others and are</p><p>harder for learners to overcome. Fossilization results when these false rules become permanent</p><p>features of a learner’s use of the language.</p><p>Convergence: As learners’ rules come to approximate more closely those of the language</p><p>they are learning, convergence sets in. This means that learners who come from different native</p><p>language backgrounds make similar assumptions and formulate similar hypotheses about the</p><p>rules of the new language, and therefore make similar errors.</p><p>Instructors can help students understand the process of language skill development in</p><p>several ways.</p><p>(a) Focus on interlanguage as a natural part of language learning; remind them that they</p><p>learned their first language this way.</p><p>57</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>(b) Point out that the systematic nature of interlanguage can help students understand why</p><p>they make errors. They can often predict when they will make errors and what types of errors</p><p>they will make.</p><p>(c) Keep the overall focus of the classroom on communication, not error correction.</p><p>Use overt correction only in structured output activities. (See Planning a Lesson for more on</p><p>structured output.)</p><p>(d) Teach students that mistakes are learning opportunities. When their errors interfere with</p><p>their ability to communicate, they must develop strategies for handling the misunderstanding</p><p>that results.</p><p>If you maintain the attitude that mistakes are a natural part of learning, you will create a</p><p>supportive environment where students are willing to try to use the language even though their</p><p>mastery of forms is imperfect.</p><p>Source: http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/motivating/acquisition.htm</p><p>Annex 3</p><p>The Audio-Lingual Method</p><p>1. The Audio-Lingual Method</p><p>(1)    is an oral-based approach.</p><p>(2)     drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns.</p><p>(3)     has a strong theoretical base in linguistics and psychology.</p><p>2. How has the behavioral psychology influenced the Audio-Lingual Method?</p><p>(1) It was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the</p><p>target language was through conditioning—helping learners to respond</p><p>correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement.</p><p>(2) Learners could overcome the habits of their native language and form</p><p>the new habits required to be target</p><p>. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46</p><p>Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47</p><p>References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49</p><p>Learning Activities - AA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53</p><p>8</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>APPENDIX</p><p>Annex 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55</p><p>Annex 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56</p><p>Annex 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57</p><p>Annex 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61</p><p>Annex 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62</p><p>Annex 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64</p><p>Annex 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66</p><p>9</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>By way of presentation</p><p>Welcome back to a new school term! During this term you will be introduced to a new</p><p>field of study, one which is of the utmost importance to yourself as an English learner and a</p><p>prospective English Language Teacher: Applied Linguistics. Through the next units you will read</p><p>about this subfield of Linguistics mainly as connected to foreign/second language teaching. The</p><p>readings are complemented with a number of varied activities and practical examples aimed</p><p>to combine theory and practice. In the 'clues', 'glossaries', and 'learn more' sections you will</p><p>find additional explanation and guidelines, and the references offer you a selection of reliable,</p><p>useful sources of material to expand your knowledge I am sure you will profit from every lesson</p><p>and agree to the importance of this tool to your learning and teaching. I invite you to read and</p><p>study and carefully complete all the activities proposed for each of the four units of this 90-hour</p><p>course. Hope you enjoy this course. Happy learning!</p><p>The objectives for this course are:</p><p>•	 Provide the student with an insight into the scope, means and purposes of Applied</p><p>Linguistics.</p><p>•	 Provide the student with a discussion of the concepts of learning and teaching.</p><p>•	 Provide the student with an overview of major approaches and methods to foreign</p><p>language teaching.</p><p>•	 Provide the student with the opportunities to apply those concepts and teaching</p><p>approaches and methods.</p><p>•	 Provide the student with a discussion of language learning assessment.</p><p>•	 Provide the student with an actual sample a communicative lesson aiming to</p><p>demonstrate the applicability and usefulness of the Applied Linguistics concepts, teaching</p><p>approaches and methods.</p><p>After completing the readings and activities proposed here, the student/prospective</p><p>teacher is expected to</p><p>•	 Have a better understanding of the concepts, scope, means and purposes of Applied</p><p>Linguistics.</p><p>•	 Have a better understanding of the impact of developing the various competencies</p><p>involved in foreign language learning.</p><p>•	 Have a better understanding of the implications of learning and teaching.</p><p>•	 Have a better understanding of the cultural implications of foreign language teaching and</p><p>learning.</p><p>•	 Be able to make better informed decisions concerning approaches, methods, activities,</p><p>procedures to adopt for their English classes.</p><p>•	 Have a better understanding of the communicative approach and its implications –</p><p>advantages and disadvantages to teaching English as a foreign/second language.</p><p>•	 As a teacher, manage to design meaningful reading comprehension, speaking and writing</p><p>activities, or select such activities from reliable sources to meet the objectives of teenager</p><p>and young adult foreign language learners.</p><p>•	 As a teacher, manage to design appropriate, valid and timely assessment questions</p><p>and activities compliant to the teaching methodology selected, the content and the</p><p>objectives of the course.</p><p>The Author</p><p>11</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>UNIT 1</p><p>What is applied linguistics?</p><p>1.1 Background</p><p>Applied Linguistics (term derived from the American language teaching program</p><p>developed during and after the Second World War and based on Leonard Bloomfield’s Outline</p><p>Guide for the Practical Study of Foreign Languages (1942) has been defined in many ways, not</p><p>always satisfying. The term ‘applied’ implies a relation with some type of support theory, in this</p><p>case, Theoretical Linguistics.</p><p>The Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language defines Applied Linguistics as</p><p>linguistics applied to the study and improvement of language teaching and learning, language</p><p>planning, intergroup communication, speech therapy and speech impairment management,</p><p>communication systems, translation and interpretation and lexicology.</p><p>Despite the controversy arising from the various attempts to define Applied Linguistics,</p><p>most studies in this field so far concentrate on language teaching and learning, including the</p><p>learning process and learning results.</p><p>Applied linguistics is often said to be concerned with solving or at least</p><p>ameliorating social problems involving language. The problems applied</p><p>linguistics concerns itself with are likely to be: How can we teach languages</p><p>better? How can we diagnose speech pathologies better? How can we improve</p><p>the training of translators and interpreters? How can we write a valid language</p><p>examination? How can we evaluate a school bilingual program? How can we</p><p>determine the literacy levels of a whole population? How can we helpfully</p><p>discuss the language of a text? (DAVIES & ELDER, 2004, p.1)</p><p>As you can see, Applied Linguistics accounts for a number of issues, all of them involving</p><p>language, so to those questions I would add: How can foreign language users achieve proper</p><p>interaction? What level of competence should we expect from foreign language learners? How</p><p>does the choice of methodology impact actual language learning?</p><p>Applied linguistics  is an area of work that deals with language use in</p><p>professional settings, translation, speech pathology, literacy, and language</p><p>education; and it is not merely the application of linguistic knowledge to</p><p>such settings but is a semiautonomous and interdisciplinary domain of work</p><p>that draws on but is not dependent on areas such as sociology, education,</p><p>anthropology, cultural studies, and psychology. (PENNYCOOK,2001, s/p)</p><p>Pennycook somehow repeats Davies and Elder (2004) and other authors like Moita Lopes</p><p>(1996) view of Applied Linguistics, and clearly stresses its interdisciplinary nature – which renders</p><p>it as not entirely autonomous, but combined to other fields of study.</p><p>As you go on reading and learning about this field of study, you will see that authors agree</p><p>in one point, that is, that Applied Linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of investigation – just as</p><p>Pennycook had pointed - which offers the necessary theoretical and descriptive foundations for</p><p>the investigation and solution of language-related problems, mainly those concerning language</p><p>teaching and learning. It also tries to understand and explain how communication is actually</p><p>carried out in real life, while</p><p>language speakers.</p><p>3. Define a backward build-up drill (expansion drill). State its purpose and</p><p>advantages.</p><p>(1) Definition: The teacher breaks down a line into several parts. The students</p><p>repeat a part of the sentence, usually the last phrase of the line. Then,</p><p>following the teacher›s cue, the students expand what they are repeating</p><p>part by part until they are able to repeat the entire line. The teacher begins</p><p>with the part at the end of the sentence (and works backward from there) to</p><p>keep the intonation of the line as natural as possible. This also directs more</p><p>student attention to the end of the sentence, where new information typically</p><p>occurs.</p><p>(2) Purpose: The purpose of this drill is to break down the troublesome sentence</p><p>into smaller parts.</p><p>(3) Advantages:</p><p>(a)  The teacher is able to give the students help in producing the troublesome line.</p><p>(b) Having worked on the line in small pieces, the students are also able to take note</p><p>of where each word or phrase begins and ends in the sentence.</p><p>4. Define a repetition drill.</p><p>Students are asked to listen carefully to the teacher’s model, and then they have to repeat</p><p>and attempt to mimic the model as accurately and as quickly as possible.</p><p>5. Define a chain drill. State its advantages.</p><p>(1) Definition: The chain of conversation that forms around the room as students, one-by-</p><p>one, ask and answer questions of each other. The teacher begins the chain by greeting a</p><p>particular student, or asking him a question. That student responds, and then turns to the</p><p>student sitting next to him.</p><p>58</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>(2)     Advantages:</p><p>(A) A chain drill gives students an opportunity to say the lines individually.</p><p>(B) The teacher listens and can tell which students are struggling and will need more practice.</p><p>(C) A chain drill also lets students use the expressions in communication with someone else,</p><p>even though the communication is very limited.</p><p>6. Define a single-slot substitution drill. State its purpose.</p><p>(1) Definition: The teacher says a line, usually from the dialog. Next, the teacher</p><p>says a word or a phrase—called the cue. The students repeat the line the</p><p>teacher has given them, substituting the cue into the line in its proper place.</p><p>(2) Purpose: The major purpose of this drill is to give the students practice in</p><p>finding and filling in the slots of a sentence.</p><p>7. Define a multiple-slot substitution drill. State its purpose.</p><p>This drill is similar to the single-slot substitution drill. The difference is that the teacher gives</p><p>cue phrases, one at a time, that fit into different slots in the dialog line. The students must</p><p>recognize what part of speech each cue is, or at least, where it fits into the sentence, and</p><p>make any other changes, such as subject-verb agreement. They then say the line, fitting the</p><p>cue phrase into the line where it belongs.</p><p>8. Define transformation drill.</p><p>Students are asked to change one type of sentence into another—an affirmative sentence</p><p>into a negative or an active sentence into a passive.</p><p>9. Define Question-and-answer drill.</p><p>This drill gives students practice with answering questions. The students should answer the</p><p>teacher’s questions very quickly.</p><p>10. Define contrastive analysis.</p><p>Contrastive analysis is the comparison of two languages (a comparison</p><p>between the students› native language and the language they are studying).</p><p>11. What is the importance of contrastive analysis in the Audio-Lingual</p><p>Method?</p><p>It helps the teacher to locate the places where s/he anticipates her/his students will have</p><p>trouble. Also, a contrastive analysis between the students’ native language and the target</p><p>language will reveal where a teacher should expect the most interference.</p><p>12. State the main principles of the Audio-Lingual Method.</p><p>1. Language forms do not occur by themselves; they occur most naturally within a</p><p>context.</p><p>2. One of the language teacher›s major roles is that of a model of the target language.</p><p>3. Language learning is a process of habit formation.</p><p>4. It is important to prevent learners from making errors. Errors lead to the formation of</p><p>bad habits.</p><p>5. Positive reinforcement helps the students to develop correct habits.</p><p>6. Students should ‹overlearn,› i.e. learn to answer automatically without stopping to</p><p>think.</p><p>7. Students should acquire the structural patterns; students will learn vocabulary</p><p>afterward.</p><p>8. The learning of a foreign language should be the same as the acquisition of the native</p><p>language.</p><p>9. Speech is more basic to language than the written form. The ‹natural order’  of skill</p><p>acquisition is: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.</p><p>10. Language cannot be separated from culture. Culture is the everyday behavior of the</p><p>people who use the target language.</p><p>59</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>13. What are the goals of teachers who use the Audio-Lingual Method?</p><p>(1) Teachers want their students to be able to use the target language communicatively.</p><p>(2) Students need to overlearn the target language.</p><p>(3) Students need to learn to use the target language automatically without stopping to think.</p><p>(4) Students achieve this by forming new habits in the target language and overcoming the</p><p>old habits of their native language.</p><p>14. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?</p><p>(1) The teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing and controlling the language behavior</p><p>of her students.</p><p>(2) The teacher is also responsible for providing students with a good model for imitation.</p><p>(3) Students are imitators of the teacher›s model or the tapes the teacher supplies of model</p><p>speakers.</p><p>(4) Students follow the teacher›s directions and respond as accurately and as rapidly as possible.</p><p>15. What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?</p><p>(1)    New vocabulary and structural patterns are presented through dialogs.</p><p>(2)    The dialogs are learned through imitation and repetition.</p><p>(3)    Drills are conducted based upon the patterns present in the dialog.</p><p>(4)    Students› successful responses are positively reinforced.</p><p>(5)    Grammar is induced from the examples given; explicit grammar rules are not provided.</p><p>(6)    Cultural information is contextualized in the dialogs or presented by the teacher.</p><p>(7)    Students’ reading and written work is based upon the oral work they did earlier.</p><p>16. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-</p><p>student interaction?</p><p>There is student-to-student interaction in chain drills or when students take different</p><p>roles in dialogs, but this interaction is teacher-directed. Most of the interaction is between</p><p>teacher and students and is initiated by the teacher.</p><p>17. How is the language viewed? How is the culture viewed?</p><p>(1)    Every language is seen as having its own unique system.</p><p>(2)       The system is comprised of several different levels: phonological, morphological, and</p><p>syntactic. Each level has its own distinctive patterns.</p><p>(3)    Everyday speech is emphasized in the Audio-Lingual Method.</p><p>(4)       The level of complexity of the speech is graded, however, so that beginning students</p><p>are presented with only simple patterns.</p><p>(5)    Culture consists of the everyday behavior and lifestyle of the target language speakers.</p><p>18. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?</p><p>(1) Vocabulary is kept to a minimum while the students are mastering the sound system</p><p>and grammatical patterns.</p><p>(2) A grammatical pattern is not the same as a sentence. For instance, underlying the</p><p>following three sentences is the same grammatical pattern: Meg called, The Blue Jays won,</p><p>The team practiced.</p><p>(3) The natural order of skills presentation is adhered to: listening, speaking, reading, and</p><p>writing.</p><p>(4) The oral/aural skills receive most of the attention.</p><p>(5) What students write they have first been introduced to orally.</p><p>(6) Pronunciation is taught from the beginning, often by students working in language</p><p>laboratories on discriminating between members of minimal pairs.</p><p>19. What is the role of the students› native language?</p><p>(1)  The habits of the students’  native language are thought to interfere with the</p><p>students’ attempts to master the target language. Therefore, the target language is used in</p><p>the classroom, not the students’ native language.</p><p>(2) A contrastive analysis between the students’ native language and the target language</p><p>will reveal where a teacher should expect the most interference.</p><p>60</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>20. How is evaluation accomplished?</p><p>It would be discrete-point in nature, that is, each question on the test would focus on only</p><p>one point of the language at a time. Students might be asked to distinguish between words</p><p>in a minimal pair, for example, or to supply an appropriate verb form in a sentence.</p><p>21. How does the teacher respond to student errors?</p><p>Student errors are to be avoided if at all possible through the teacher›s awareness of where</p><p>the students will have difficulty and restriction of what they are taught to say.</p><p>22. What are the main techniques associated with the Audio-Lingual Method?</p><p>23. Discuss ……… as a technique of the Audio-Lingual Method.</p><p>1) Dialog memorization</p><p>a) Dialogs or short conversations between two people are often used to begin a new lesson.</p><p>b) Students memorize the dialog through mimicry.</p><p>c) In the Audio-Lingual Method, certain sentence patterns and grammar points are</p><p>included within the dialog.</p><p>d) These patterns and points are later practiced in drills based on the lines of the dialog.</p><p>2) Backward build-up (expansion) drill (see question No. 3)</p><p>3) Repetition drill (see question No. 4)</p><p>4) Chain drill (see question No. 5)</p><p>5) Single-slot substitution drill (see question No. 6)</p><p>6) Multiple-slot substitution drill (see question No. 7)</p><p>7) Transformation drill (see question No. 8)</p><p>8) Question-and-answer drill (see question No. 9)</p><p>9) Use of minimal pairs</p><p>The teacher works with pairs of words which differ in only one sound; for example, ‘ship/</p><p>sheep.’ Students are first asked to perceive the difference between the two words and later</p><p>to be able to say the two words. The teacher selects the sounds to work on after s/he has</p><p>done a contrastive analysis.</p><p>10) Complete the dialog</p><p>Selected words are erased from a dialog students have learned. Students complete the</p><p>dialog by filling the blanks with the missing words.</p><p>11) Grammar game</p><p>Games are used in the Audio-Lingual Method. The games are designed to get students</p><p>to practice a grammar point within a context. Students are able to express themselves,</p><p>although it is rather limited in this game. There is also a lot of repetition in this game.</p><p>24. Highlights of the Audio-Lingual Method.</p><p>(1) Language acquisition results from habit formation.</p><p>(2) The habits of the native language will interfere with target language learning.</p><p>(3) The commission of errors should be prevented as much as possible.</p><p>(4) The major focus should be on the structural patterns of the target language.</p><p>(5) A dialog is a useful way to introduce new material.</p><p>(6) A dialog should be memorized through mimicry of the teacher›s model.</p><p>(7) Structure drills are valuable pedagogical activities.</p><p>(8) Working on pronunciation through minimal-pair drills is a worthwhile activity.</p><p>61</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>Annex 4</p><p>Teaching Reading: Strategies for Developing Reading Skills</p><p>Using Reading Strategies</p><p>Language instructors are often frustrated by the fact that students do not automatically</p><p>transfer the strategies they use when reading in their native language to reading in a language</p><p>they are learning. Instead, they seem to think reading means starting at the beginning and going</p><p>word by word, stopping to look up every unknown vocabulary item, until they reach the end.</p><p>When they do this, students are relying exclusively on their linguistic knowledge, a bottom-</p><p>up strategy. One of the most important functions of the language instructor, then, is to help</p><p>students move past this idea and use top-down strategies as they do in their native language.</p><p>Effective language instructors show students how they can adjust their reading behavior</p><p>to deal with a variety of situations, types of input, and reading purposes. They help students</p><p>develop a set of reading strategies and match appropriate strategies to each reading situation.</p><p>Strategies that can help students read more quickly and effectively include</p><p>•	 Previewing: reviewing titles, section headings, and photo captions to get a sense of the</p><p>structure and content of a reading selection;</p><p>•	 Predicting: using knowledge of the subject matter to make predictions about content and</p><p>vocabulary and check comprehension; using knowledge of the text type and purpose to</p><p>make predictions about discourse structure; using knowledge about the author to make</p><p>predictions about writing style, vocabulary, and content;</p><p>•	 Skimming and scanning: using a quick survey of the text to get the main idea, identify text</p><p>structure, confirm or question predictions;</p><p>•	 Guessing from context: using prior knowledge of the subject and the ideas in the text as</p><p>clues to the meanings of unknown words, instead of stopping to look them up;</p><p>•	 Paraphrasing: stopping at the end of a section to check comprehension by restating the</p><p>information and ideas in the text.</p><p>•	 Instructors can help students learn when and how to use reading strategies in several ways.</p><p>•	 By modeling the strategies aloud, talking through the processes of previewing, predicting,</p><p>skimming and scanning, and paraphrasing. This shows students how the strategies work</p><p>and how much they can know about a text before they begin to read word by word.</p><p>•	 By allowing time in class for group and individual previewing and predicting activities as</p><p>preparation for in-class or out-of-class reading. Allocating class time to these activities</p><p>indicates their importance and value.</p><p>•	 By using cloze (fill in the blank) exercises to review vocabulary items. This helps students</p><p>learn to guess meaning from context.</p><p>•	 By encouraging students to talk about what strategies they think will help them approach</p><p>a reading assignment, and then talking after reading about what strategies they actually</p><p>used. This helps students develop flexibility in their choice of strategies.</p><p>When language learners use reading strategies, they find that they can control the reading</p><p>experience, and they gain confidence in their ability to read the language.</p><p>Reading to Learn</p><p>Reading is an essential part of language instruction at every level because it supports</p><p>learning in multiple ways.</p><p>•	 Reading to learn the language: Reading material is language input. By giving students</p><p>a variety of materials to read, instructors provide multiple opportunities for students to</p><p>absorb vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and discourse structure as they occur in</p><p>authentic contexts. Students thus gain a more complete picture of the ways in which the</p><p>elements of the language work together to convey meaning.</p><p>•	 Reading for content information: Students’ purpose for reading in their native language</p><p>is often to obtain information about a subject they are studying, and this purpose can be</p><p>useful in the language learning classroom as well. Reading for content information in the</p><p>language classroom gives students both authentic reading material and an authentic</p><p>purpose for reading.</p><p>•	 Reading for cultural knowledge and awareness: Reading everyday materials that are</p><p>62</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>designed for native speakers can give students insight into the lifestyles and worldviews of</p><p>the people whose language they are studying. When students have access to newspapers,</p><p>magazines, and Web sites, they are exposed to culture in all its variety, and monolithic</p><p>cultural stereotypes begin to break down.</p><p>When reading to learn, students need to follow four basic steps:</p><p>1. Figure out the purpose for reading. Activate background knowledge of the topic in order</p><p>to predict or anticipate content and identify appropriate reading strategies.</p><p>2. Attend to the parts of the text that are relevant to the identified purpose and ignore the</p><p>rest. This selectivity enables students to focus on specific items in the input and reduces</p><p>the amount of information they have to hold in short-term memory.</p><p>3. Select strategies that are appropriate to the reading task and use them flexibly and</p><p>interactively. Students’ comprehension improves and their confidence increases when</p><p>they use top-down and bottom-up skills simultaneously to construct meaning.</p><p>4. Check comprehension while reading and when the reading task is completed. Monitoring</p><p>comprehension helps students detect inconsistencies and comprehension failures,</p><p>helping them learn to use alternate strategies.</p><p>Source: http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/reading/stratread.htm</p><p>Annex 5</p><p>English for Specific Purposes: What does it mean? Why is it different?</p><p>Laurence Anthony</p><p>Dept. of Information and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering</p><p>Okayama University of Science, 1-1 Ridai-cho, Okayama 700, Japan</p><p>anthony ‘at’ ice.ous.ac.jp</p><p>1. Growth of ESP</p><p>From the early 1960’s, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has grown to become one</p><p>of the most prominent areas of EFL teaching today. Its development is reflected in the</p><p>increasing number of universities offering an MA in ESP (e.g. The University of Birmingham,</p><p>and Aston University in the UK) and in the number of ESP courses offered to overseas</p><p>students in English speaking countries. There is now a well-established international journal</p><p>dedicated to ESP discussion, “English for Specific Purposes: An international journal”, and</p><p>the ESP SIG groups of the IATEFL and TESOL are always active at their national conferences.</p><p>In Japan too, the ESP movement has shown a slow but definite growth over the past few years. In</p><p>particular, increased interest has been spurred as a result of the Mombusho’s decision in 1994 to</p><p>largely hand over control of university curriculums to the universities themselves. This has led to</p><p>a rapid growth in English courses aimed at specific disciplines, e.g. English for Chemists, in place</p><p>of the more traditional ‘General English’ courses. The ESP community in Japan has also become</p><p>more defined, with the JACET ESP SIG set up in 1996 (currently with 28 members) and the JALT</p><p>N-SIG to be formed shortly. Finally, on November 8th this year the ESP community came together</p><p>as a whole at the first Japan Conference on English for Specific Purposes, held on the campus of</p><p>Aizu University, Fukushima Prefecture.</p><p>2. What is ESP?</p><p>As described above, ESP has had a relatively long time to mature and so we would</p><p>expect the ESP community to have a clear idea about what ESP means. Strangely, however,</p><p>this does not seem to be the case. In October this year, for example, a very heated debate</p><p>took place on the TESP-L e-mail discussion list about whether or not English for Academic</p><p>Purposes (EAP) could be considered part of ESP in general. At the Japan Conference on ESP</p><p>also, clear differences in how people interpreted the meaning of ESP could be seen. Some</p><p>people described ESP as simply being the teaching of English for any purpose that could</p><p>63</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>be specified. Others, however, were more precise, describing it as the teaching of English</p><p>used in academic studies or the teaching of English for vocational or professional purposes.</p><p>At the conference, guests were honored to have as the main speaker, Tony Dudley-Evans, co-</p><p>editor of the ESP Journal mentioned above. Very aware of the current confusion amongst the</p><p>ESP community in Japan, Dudley-Evans set out in his one hour speech to clarify the meaning of</p><p>ESP, giving an extended definition of ESP in terms of ‘absolute’ and ‘variable’ characteristics (see</p><p>below).</p><p>Definition of ESP (Dudley-Evans, 1997)</p><p>Absolute Characteristics</p><p>1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners</p><p>2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves</p><p>3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis,</p><p>register, study skills, discourse and genre.</p><p>Variable Characteristics</p><p>1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines</p><p>2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of General</p><p>English</p><p>3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a</p><p>professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level</p><p>4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students.</p><p>5. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems</p><p>The definition Dudley-Evans offers is clearly influenced by that of Strevens (1988), although</p><p>he has improved it substantially by removing the absolute characteristic that ESP is “in contrast</p><p>with ‘General English’” (Johns et al., 1991: 298), and has included more variable characteristics.</p><p>The division of ESP into absolute and variable characteristics, in particular, is very helpful</p><p>in resolving arguments about what is and is not ESP. From the definition, we can see that ESP</p><p>can but is not necessarily concerned with a specific discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at</p><p>a certain age group or ability range. ESP should be seen simple as an ‘approach’ to teaching, or</p><p>what Dudley-Evans describes as an ‘attitude of mind’. This is a similar conclusion to that made</p><p>by Hutchinson et al. (1987:19) who state, “ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all</p><p>decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning”.</p><p>3. Is ESP different to General English?</p><p>If we agree with this definition,, we begin to see how broad ESP really is. In fact, one may</p><p>ask ‘What is the difference between the ESP and General English approach?’ Hutchinson et al.</p><p>(1987:53) answer this quite simply, “in theory nothing, in practice a great deal”. When their book</p><p>was written, of course, the last statement was quite true. At the time, teachers of General English</p><p>courses, while acknowledging that students had a specific purpose for studying English, would</p><p>rarely conduct a needs analysis to find out what was necessary to actually achieve it. Teachers</p><p>nowadays, however, are much more aware of the importance of needs analysis, and certainly</p><p>materials writers think very carefully about the goals of learners at all stages of materials</p><p>production. Perhaps this demonstrates the influence that the ESP approach has had on English</p><p>teaching in general. Clearly the line between where General English courses stop and ESP</p><p>courses start has become very vague indeed.</p><p>Rather ironically, while many General English teachers can be described as using an ESP</p><p>approach, basing their syllabi on a learner needs analysis and their own specialist knowledge of</p><p>using English for real communication, it is the majority of so-called ESP teachers that are using an</p><p>approach furthest from that described above. Instead of conducting interviews with specialists</p><p>in the field, analyzing the language that is required in the profession, or even conducting</p><p>students’ needs analysis, many ESP teachers have become slaves of the published textbooks</p><p>available, unable to evaluate their suitability based on personal experience, and unwilling to do</p><p>the necessary analysis of difficult specialist texts to verify their contents.</p><p>64</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>4. The Future of ESP</p><p>If the ESP community hopes to grow and flourish in the future, it is vital that the community</p><p>as a whole understands what ESP actually represents. Only then, can new members join with</p><p>confidence, and existing members carry on the practices which have brought ESP to the position</p><p>it has in EFL teaching</p><p>today. In Japan in particular, ESP is still in its infancy and so now is the ideal</p><p>time to form such a consensus. Perhaps this can stem from the Dudley-Evans’ definition given in</p><p>this article but I suspect a more rigorous version will be coming soon, in his book on ESP to be</p><p>published in 1998. Of course, interested parties are also strongly urged to attend the next Japan</p><p>Conference on ESP, which is certain to focus again on this topic.</p><p>5. References</p><p>Dudley-Evans, Tony (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A multi-</p><p>disciplinary approach. Cambridge University Press. (Forthcoming)</p><p>Hutchinson, Tom & Waters, Alan (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learner-centered</p><p>approach. Cambridge University Press.</p><p>Johns, Ann M. & Dudley-Evans, Tony (1991). English for Specific Purposes: International in</p><p>Scope, Specific in Purpose. TESOL Quarterly 25:2, 297-314.</p><p>Strevens, P. (1988). ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal. In M. Tickoo (Ed.), ESP: State of the</p><p>art (1-13). SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.</p><p>Source: http://www.antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp/abstracts/ESParticle.html</p><p>Annex 6</p><p>Writing and English as a Second Language</p><p>Strategies for helping English Language Learners throughout the writing process.</p><p>THE WRITING PROCESS AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS</p><p>The process approach to writing is ideally suited to the second language learner since</p><p>listening, speaking, and reading can be so naturally integrated with it.</p><p>Pre-writing</p><p>Pre-writing is essential for the writer whose first language is not English. Especially at the</p><p>lower levels of proficiency, students have a limited lexicon and therefore often have difficulty</p><p>expressing their ideas. Therefore, teachers or other students may need to assist second language</p><p>students to generate vocabulary and grammatical structures relevant to the topic. Models and</p><p>samples are often helpful.</p><p>•	 Brainstorming — depending on the students’ level of language, the writing down of ideas</p><p>can be done by the teacher or by native English speaking students; the teacher may need to</p><p>provide some guidance by asking questions to elicit vocabulary and structures associated</p><p>with the selected topic.</p><p>•	 Word banks generated by the students or as assigned by the teacher</p><p>•	 Drawing and sketching — enable students to illustrate ideas for which they do not have the</p><p>language</p><p>•	 Discussion with native English-speaking peers or with the teacher</p><p>•	 Note-taking (often with the use of charts)</p><p>•	 Graphic organizers for eliciting, organizing and developing background knowledge</p><p>•	 Dictations — give learners some alternative models for addressing a writing task</p><p>•	 Researching and gather data by viewing videos, reading, talking, interviewing, and</p><p>searching reference books or internet</p><p>65</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>Drafting</p><p>At the drafting stage students write their ideas down using some of the notes, language,</p><p>and structures generated during the pre-writing activities. Second language students especially</p><p>need to be aware that their first draft does not have to be perfect and that the purpose of this</p><p>activity is to get words on paper. Spelling will often not be accurate and there may be many</p><p>grammatical errors. Some students may also insert words in their native language.</p><p>•	 Using notes taken during pre-writing activities — provides students with a starting point</p><p>and a skeleton of ideas; especially useful for second language learners whose ideas are</p><p>restricted by their limited vocabulary</p><p>•	 Sentence completions — may address the different ways to begin or end a paragraph or a</p><p>story or may focus on vocabulary needed to describe or narrate a story</p><p>•	 Journal writing — allows students to take risks and experiment with language; it can</p><p>provide a starting point for a longer writing assignment</p><p>Revising/editing</p><p>Second language learners will also need assistance during the revising/editing stage from</p><p>teachers and from other students. Changes in writing will need to address word usage and</p><p>clarification of ideas, as well as grammatical accuracy, punctuation, spelling and capitalization. It</p><p>is important to remember that second language students may have difficulty recognizing their</p><p>own errors or the errors of their peers. A self-assessment checklist may help them monitor their</p><p>own writing. However, care should be taken with peer editing groups. In addition, it is important</p><p>that correction be done in a comfortable environment.</p><p>•	 Peer or group reviews of mixed ELLs and native English speakers</p><p>•	 Language expansion and sentence combining activities — enable students to move beyond</p><p>subject/verb/object format by encouraging students to combine two or three different</p><p>statements in various ways to make their sentences more complex</p><p>•	 Rearranging words within sentences</p><p>•	 Using dictionaries, including personal dictionaries, and other resource materials such as</p><p>grammar books and textbooks</p><p>Word processing</p><p>Second language learners should be encouraged to use word processing programs</p><p>throughout the writing process. The programs facilitate the process and are especially helpful</p><p>with the composing, revising, and editing stages because they do not require students to</p><p>rewrite their work. They help students format their work and produce copies which are clearly</p><p>legible and professional looking. These programs are especially helpful for students who are</p><p>accustomed to a different alphabet (i.e. Chinese, Russian) and are only beginning to learn to</p><p>write using the romanized alphabet for English.</p><p>Translating</p><p>Translating is the  least useful strategy  for writing in a second language. There is often</p><p>a wide discrepancy between what students can express in their first language and what</p><p>their limited foreign language lexicon enables them to do. They frequently resort to using a</p><p>dictionary to look up every word and end up with a literal translation that may be completely</p><p>incomprehensible and even embarrassing.</p><p>RELATING STRATEGIES TO PROFICIENCY</p><p>How well English Language Learners can write is directly related to their level of English</p><p>language proficiency in writing. It is important to note that language learners often make</p><p>mistakes in vocabulary and grammar. As they take risks and experiment, their accuracy level</p><p>may be negatively affected. It is important to realize that this is a normal part of the language</p><p>development process. If too much attention is placed on accuracy, students will not progress.</p><p>The following table indicates what students can do at each level of proficiency.</p><p>66</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>Proficiency Level Description Strategies/Activities</p><p>Novice Students can copy words and phrases and</p><p>write them from memory. They can identify,</p><p>list, and label. They can write one of more</p><p>familiar phrases, statements, or questions</p><p>in context.</p><p>Simple descriptions to accompany</p><p>visuals; paragraph completion,</p><p>cloze passages, dictations, filling-</p><p>in forms, poetry, organization of</p><p>information on graphic organizers</p><p>Intermediate Students can create statements and</p><p>questions well enough to meet practical</p><p>needs and limited social demands. They</p><p>can write short messages, notes, letters,</p><p>paragraphs, and short compositions and</p><p>can take simple notes. They can compose</p><p>a series of related sentences that describe</p><p>or compare. They can narrate a sequence</p><p>of events and write one or more sentences</p><p>that classify, summarize, or predict.</p><p>Descriptions with visuals, cloze</p><p>passages, sentence combining,</p><p>elaboration, guided descriptions</p><p>and narrations, compositions based</p><p>on interviews, journals</p><p>Advanced Students can write social and more formal</p><p>correspondence, discourse of several</p><p>paragraphs, cohesive summaries with</p><p>some details, and narrative and descriptive</p><p>passages. They can take notes. They can</p><p>express feelings and preferences and give</p><p>supporting details. They can develop an</p><p>organized composition, report, or article of</p><p>more than one paragraph. They can explain</p><p>their point of view simply.</p><p>Detailed descriptions, sentence</p><p>combining, elaboration, guided</p><p>descriptions and narrations,</p><p>compositions with rewrites, free</p><p>compositions, dialogue journals</p><p>Source: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/672</p><p>Annex 7</p><p>Key to exercises in Unit 4</p><p>Text organization</p><p>a. Take out from the text discourse markers that carry the ideas of:</p><p>Place - in jail, on the border, in Santa Maria, Tacaremba, in the van, in two small cells, in a cell</p><p>duration of time - when</p><p>addition - and</p><p>purpose - so that</p><p>cause – because</p><p>alternative - perhaps</p><p>Guided writing</p><p>October 22, 1998.</p><p>Dear Ms. Monte.</p><p>In reply to your letter of October 20, I’m writing to let you know that we have contacted</p><p>Emílio Gonzáles, the Director General of Tacaremban Security. He has arranged for me to visit the</p><p>prison where you are being held on Monday of next week. At that time, I will give you a list of</p><p>lawyers.</p><p>67</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>We shall also try to notify your family.</p><p>We understand your concern and will do our best to assure you of a fair trial.</p><p>Very truly yours,</p><p>Grant Moore Zimmer.</p><p>Consul.</p><p>American Embassy. Tacaremba.</p><p>b. Rewrite these sentences in the simple present.</p><p>1. We know nothing about this cocaine.</p><p>2. The man seems to be so nice.</p><p>3. They don’t believe me.</p><p>4. He explains to the police that we had nothing to do with that smuggling.</p><p>5. The van that we are riding in is driven by a Canadian.</p><p>c. Match the columns…</p><p>1. a small truck __6__ hitchhiking</p><p>2. authority __1__ van</p><p>3. dope smuggling ring __5__ concealed</p><p>4. on behalf of __2__ official.</p><p>5. hidden __8__ scared</p><p>6. asking for a ride __3__ people who smuggle drugs</p><p>7. confessed __4_ for</p><p>8. frightened __7__ admitted</p><p>d. 1. The van driver was a smuggler.</p><p>2. He was used to smuggling cocaine.</p><p>3. The police questioned them for hours: “Did you smuggle that cocaine?”</p><p>4. Colombians are famous for smuggling drugs.</p><p>5. He smuggled drugs for years. Although illegal, that activity made him a rich man.</p><p>e. A cocaine smuggler is a person who smuggles cocaine.</p><p>Hitchhikers are travelers who hitchhike.</p><p>Prisoners are criminals who are put in jail.</p><p>A policeman is an officer who arrests people.</p><p>An ambassador is a diplomat who represents his country abroad.</p><p>f. The couple in jail said: “Smuggling is a crime that/which we did not commit.”</p><p>A kidnapper is a person who takes people as hostages.</p><p>The American couple say that they didn’t know the friend with whom they were</p><p>travelling was a criminal.</p><p>Tourists are now used to visiting the jail where the smugglers were kept.</p><p>The van that we were riding in was driven by a Canadian man.</p><p>Springtime is the time when most tourists go to Tacaremba.</p><p>Text comprehension</p><p>In paragraph 1 Ms. Monte describes the situation in detail. ( 2 )</p><p>In paragraph 2 she explains the reasons for the arrest of the Americans. ( 1 )</p><p>In paragraph 3 the sender asks the Embassy authorities for help. ( 4 )</p><p>In paragraph 4 the sender describes where they are arrested. ( 3 )</p><p>Nicole asks the authorities to inform her family about their condition.( 4 )</p><p>the American lady explains how the suspects met the driver of the van. (1 )</p><p>Mr. Monte’s wife introduces the subject. ( 1 )</p><p>68</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>Applicability</p><p>Diplomacy and international relations Diplomacy and international law</p><p>Diplomacy and territory Diplomacy and environment</p><p>Diplomacy and population</p><p>Diplomacy and crime</p><p>Diplomacy and commerce</p><p>Diplomacy and technology</p><p>Diplomacy and science</p><p>Diplomacy and propaganda</p><p>69</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>visual</p><p>students</p><p>_PictureBullets</p><p>By way of presentation</p><p>UNIT 1</p><p>What is applied linguistics?</p><p>1.1 Background</p><p>1.2 The Object of Teaching and Learning: Language</p><p>References</p><p>UNIT 2</p><p>What does it mean to learn a foreign language?</p><p>2.1 The Learning Process: Core Concepts</p><p>2.2 Learning Styles</p><p>2.3 Learning Difficulties</p><p>2.4 Your new self</p><p>References</p><p>UNIT 3</p><p>What does it take to teach a foreign language?</p><p>3.1 Approaching Language Teaching</p><p>3.2 Learning assessment</p><p>References</p><p>UNIT 4</p><p>How is the foregoing material applicable to the classroom?</p><p>4.1 Sample unit</p><p>4.2 General task</p><p>References</p><p>Summary</p><p>References</p><p>Learning Activities - AA</p><p>APPENDIX</p><p>Annex 1</p><p>Annex 2</p><p>Annex 3</p><p>Annex 4</p><p>Annex 5</p><p>Annex 6</p><p>Annex 7</p><p>identifying difficult contexts and challenging issues.</p><p>Particularly in Brazil, Applied Linguistics developed to include case studies on the language</p><p>learning process, error analysis and foreign language reading aimed both at understanding the</p><p>teaching/learning process and modifying the conditions of the language classroom to achieve</p><p>the objectives proposed. To accomplish this task the teachers are expected to have some good</p><p>knowledge of language theories and language teaching approaches as well so that they can</p><p>develop extensive and in-depth research on the language learning process, foreign language</p><p>learning and learning results in actual formal contexts, that is, the classroom.</p><p>CLUE</p><p>All cartoons and figures</p><p>from the Web used</p><p>in this textbook are</p><p>copyright-free, allowed</p><p>for free download and</p><p>use.</p><p>TASK</p><p>Read Chapter 1: Afinal,</p><p>o que é Linguística</p><p>Aplicada? In MOITA</p><p>LOPES, L.P. da Oficina</p><p>de Linguística Aplicada:</p><p>A natureza social</p><p>e educacional dos</p><p>processos de ensino/</p><p>aprendizagem.</p><p>Campinas, SP: Mercado</p><p>das Letras, 1996.</p><p>and</p><p>CELANI, M.A.A. Afinal</p><p>o que é Linguística</p><p>Aplicada? In:</p><p>PASCHOAL, M.S.Z. &</p><p>CELANI, M.A.A. (org.)</p><p>Linguística Aplicada:</p><p>da aplicação de</p><p>linguística à linguística</p><p>transdisciplinar. São</p><p>Paulo: EDUC.</p><p>List the main points of</p><p>agreement between</p><p>those authors.</p><p>12</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>Outside the field of language teaching and learning, Applied Linguistics is also concerned</p><p>with problems of translation and interpretation; bilingualism and multilingualism; computer-</p><p>mediated communication; conversation analysis; corpus linguistics; critical discourse analysis;</p><p>discourse analysis and pragmatics; forensic linguistics; language assessment; language for</p><p>special purposes; lexicography; literacy; multimodal communication; rhetoric and stylistics.</p><p>According to Brown, K. (2005), teaching is still a major concern of Applied Linguistics in</p><p>various parts of the world, where applied linguists approach issues like speech pathologies</p><p>and the levels of literacy of social groups, language processing and communicative differences</p><p>between social/cultural groups.</p><p>Simply put, and for the purposes of this course, we will accept that Applied Linguistics is a</p><p>subdivision of Linguistics which developed into an independent interdisciplinary field of science.</p><p>It is of particular interest to language teachers in what concerns the implications of foreign/</p><p>second language teaching and foreign/second language learning/acquisition and the solution of</p><p>language-related problems in specific situations of the real world.</p><p>Some authors make a clear distinction between Applied Linguistics and Linguistics-Applied</p><p>studies. Among those, Davies & Elder (2004) understand that Applied Linguistics engages</p><p>in trying to explain social issues concerning the use of language, while the aim of Linguistics-</p><p>Applied studies is more abstract to explain and test theories on language.</p><p>In this course we will not engage in theoretical discussions about what Applied Linguistics</p><p>is or is not; on theoretical controversies arising from the viewpoints of different authors, but yet</p><p>on what most directly interests you as a student and a prospective English teacher. From now on,</p><p>that is how I intend to address you – as a prospective English teacher, as you are taking a Curso de</p><p>Letras. By the way, let’s start by asking: How would you introduce yourself to an American, saying</p><p>that you are ‘um (a) aluno (a) do Curso de Letras’? So, the next sections will offer you insights</p><p>on the many aspects that I find useful for you to develop as a proficient learner and a teacher</p><p>prepared to offer the best English teaching job when you start performing your classroom</p><p>activities. My purpose is to make this course as much resourceful and helpful as possible for you</p><p>to meet your needs and goals.</p><p>Let me remind you that learning to be a teacher depends equally, among others, on</p><p>developing your knowledge of English syntax, phonology, morphology and semantics, and</p><p>your understanding of the culture underlying the English language. Then remember to refer to</p><p>the other textbooks provided for your course – Anglo-American Culture, Morfologia da Língua</p><p>Inglesa, Fonologia da Língua Inglesa, Introdução à Línguística, Gramática da Língua Inglesa - as they</p><p>will be very helpful in many ways.</p><p>1.2 The Object of Teaching and</p><p>Learning: Language</p><p>In this section you will learn about a number of core concepts which support the concerns</p><p>of Applied Linguistics towards language teaching and learning, mainly foreign or second</p><p>language teaching and learning. The first question proposed by Davies & Elder- How can we</p><p>teach languages better? - as seen on page 07 above, somehow summarizes the focus of this</p><p>discipline and triggers the descriptions you will find in the next section on language concepts.</p><p>Let us start with a discussion of what language is. Considering that language is the sole</p><p>object of our work as teachers, the more we understand what it is, how it works, the easier it is</p><p>for us to do our job. A classical and primary definition of language goes that language is a mental</p><p>faculty which allows human beings to engage in linguistic behavior to acquire, produce and</p><p>understand utterances; a learned symbolic, flexible communication system.</p><p>Language – the linguistic code – the most representative of the forms of communication,</p><p>exclusive to human beings, is by nature chaotic in what it reveals the cultural, ethics, moral,</p><p>social, religious, political and institutional standards of diverse human groups. Through language</p><p>human beings express their emotions, feelings, viewpoints and share them with others. A</p><p>language reflects the culture of a community, and yet this same culture mirrors the language</p><p>of that community. This means that social life is permeated by language at every level, from the</p><p>most common to the most complex and significant activities.</p><p>CLUE</p><p>The following</p><p>abbreviations are</p><p>largely found in</p><p>the literature and</p><p>very useful to you:</p><p>ESL (English as a</p><p>second language), ESOL</p><p>(English for speakers</p><p>of other languages),</p><p>and EFL (English as a</p><p>foreign language)</p><p>all refer to the use</p><p>or study of English</p><p>by speakers of other</p><p>languages.</p><p>More recently, this</p><p>new abbreviation has</p><p>been added to the list</p><p>above: EIL (English</p><p>as International</p><p>Language),</p><p>identifying English</p><p>as an intercultural,</p><p>multicultural,</p><p>intervarietal form of</p><p>language that allows</p><p>wider communication</p><p>between nations and</p><p>region inside nations,</p><p>and is the language</p><p>currently used for</p><p>science, technology</p><p>and international trade.</p><p>ELT (English</p><p>language teaching),</p><p>TESL (teaching English</p><p>as a second</p><p>language), TESOL</p><p>(teaching</p><p>English to speakers of</p><p>other</p><p>languages),</p><p>and TEFL (teaching</p><p>English as a foreign</p><p>language)</p><p>13</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>Among the various fields of human knowledge, the linguistic code stands as the most</p><p>important carrier of information, the most forceful social/political interaction tool, the most</p><p>effective means for the disclosure of technology and science advancements, the core tool in</p><p>education. Without language you would not have the literature or theater you enjoy so much.</p><p>The linguistic code combines linguistic items organized in three levels: semantic, syntactic and</p><p>phonological, and which is used by human beings only.</p><p>Here is how some authors define language:</p><p>G. Trager (1949) states that a language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by specific</p><p>social groups to interact according to their particular culture. The arbitrariness of language, as</p><p>Trager states, stands for the belief that there is no natural reason why a particular sign should be</p><p>attached to a particular concept. For example, there is no natural reason for an r (the letter) to be</p><p>attached to the sound /r/, as in rat. Linguistic signs are imposed on real life sounds and concepts:</p><p>a real ball could</p><p>have been identified by any other word but ball. A baby who is about to start</p><p>speaking would call a ball ‘apple’ or ‘shoe’ if all the people around him would always refer to the</p><p>ball as ‘apple’ or ‘shoe’. There is no logical reason for the round object used in soccer games, the</p><p>ball, to have been assigned the word ‘ball’ to name it.</p><p>This reminds us of Shakespeare’s “What’s in a name? That which we call a rose by any other</p><p>name would smell as sweet” which has been interpreted as indicating that the names of things</p><p>do not really matter; what matters is what things are; names are merely arbitrary.</p><p>Michael Haliday (1973) views language as a source of open-ended options for linguistic</p><p>behavior that are available to the individual as a member of the society. He says that the cultural</p><p>context creates an environment for the selection of such options, and defines those options.</p><p>Finally, the context of situation provides the conditions for the speaker’s choice among those</p><p>options. Halliday clearly indicates the functional and creative nature of language – an open-</p><p>ended set of options. Comprising extensive vocabulary and rules of grammar combined, a</p><p>language allows the user to as much creative and productive as he wants and needs. Although</p><p>limited by a close set of rules, any language allows the user to make an infinite number of</p><p>combinations of words to express feelings, emotions, perceptions, ideas, and talk about</p><p>everything they want to. The more you know about a language, the more vocabulary you have,</p><p>the more creative and productive you can be.</p><p>Sapir (1921) acknowledges language is a purely human and non-instinctive; a tool for</p><p>communication that makes use of voluntarily produced symbols. ‘Purely human’ reminds you</p><p>that only human beings can make use of language; animals are out. Forget about parrots. They</p><p>cannot be linguistically creative, they do not increase their language production by themselves.</p><p>All they do is repeat a small number of frozen words or short phrases they hear. Sapir also</p><p>acknowledged language as being a product that is mainly cultural or social, and which as such is</p><p>to be understood.</p><p>Saussure (1916) stresses the social nature of language made possible from a typically</p><p>human faculty, that is, our inherent ability to produce and creatively combine a set of meaningful</p><p>sounds, hold a grammatical system existing in everyone’s mind and in the minds of groups of</p><p>individuals. As he puts it, this human faculty only makes sense as a tool shared by a group of</p><p>people, for it would be of no use for the individual alone. Here we find a most valuable argument</p><p>for our understanding of the importance of learning and teaching a language.</p><p>“Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but</p><p>is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of</p><p>humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground.” (WALT WHITMAN, 1892, p. 4)</p><p>I would summarize by saying that language is as much a part of human beings as are their</p><p>mind, heart and soul, a tool both for self expression and communication.</p><p>It is also interesting to learn about some specific types or typical forms of language. Let us</p><p>go back to our own Brazilian history and think about those large vessels navigating the ocean</p><p>from Africa, filled with hundreds of African slaves from different regions, speaking different</p><p>languages. Those slaves had to stay together for months inside those ships. How could they</p><p>communicate? Under those conditions, human beings start creating some kind of hybrid</p><p>language by combining a limited amount of vocabulary and grammar derived from the various</p><p>languages around them. Initially a mumbo jumbo – an unintelligible mix of vocabulary and</p><p>grammar -, this strange combination develops into a code called pidgin allowing those people</p><p>to communicate to some extent. Supposing that the same group of people finally settle in</p><p>a community, such pidgin may, over the generations, develop into a creole, then the native</p><p>language of that community. In general, creoles include traces of languages like Spanish, French,</p><p>GLOSSARY</p><p>CORPUS LINGUISTICS:</p><p>The study of language</p><p>based on real world</p><p>samples from which</p><p>a set of rules on that</p><p>particular language</p><p>is derived. Before the</p><p>computer was available</p><p>to linguists, researchers</p><p>used to interview a</p><p>group of pre-selected</p><p>people to collect</p><p>language samples;</p><p>the interviews were</p><p>recorded on tape. The</p><p>advent of the computer</p><p>allowed for a larger,</p><p>automated collection</p><p>of real life samples.</p><p>INTERDISCIPLINARY:</p><p>What is said of: 1.</p><p>a discipline which</p><p>combines concepts,</p><p>approaches and</p><p>views from other</p><p>two or more fields</p><p>of study; 2. Research</p><p>using methods and</p><p>insights from various</p><p>established fields of</p><p>study.</p><p>LINGUISTICS -</p><p>Linguistics is the</p><p>science of human</p><p>language.</p><p>LEXICOGRAPHY:</p><p>Editing or making</p><p>of dictionaries; the</p><p>principles and practices</p><p>guiding dictionary</p><p>making.</p><p>LITERACY: Ability to</p><p>read and write about</p><p>printed material</p><p>coherently and</p><p>critically.</p><p>STYLISTICS: The study</p><p>of the use of language</p><p>style elements, like</p><p>metaphors in specific</p><p>contexts; the study</p><p>and interpretation of</p><p>texts from a linguistic</p><p>perspective.</p><p>14</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>English or Portuguese – colonial European languages – combined with vocabulary and grammar</p><p>of the colonized people. Most creoles have now disappeared, but some survive, for example, in</p><p>the Caribbean and Western Africa. In the island nation of Haiti, a French-African pidgin became</p><p>the creole language.</p><p>As a foreign language speaker you are not expected to produce a mumbo jumbo type of</p><p>language or discourse, or else you will not make yourself understood, and as a teacher, you will</p><p>have to provide your students with some coherent language.</p><p>Finally, let us have a quick look at dialects. A dialect is a variant of a language. Within your</p><p>broader language community, that is, your country, you find a variety of regional speeches</p><p>marked by the diversity of vocabulary, that is words that are typical of a specific area, or words</p><p>that are attached different meanings depending on the region they are used. Dialects of this</p><p>type are called regional dialects. Dialectal boundaries – called isoglosses (fronteiras dialetais) -</p><p>do not match political or geographic boundaries. Therefore, do not expect to find differences in</p><p>the pronunciation of the r in porta only because you have crossed the border between São Paulo</p><p>and Rio de Janeiro, for example. Isoglosses function somehow like the sound waves you see here:</p><p>the changes in language move slowly across geographic borders.</p><p>LEARN MORE</p><p>Foreign language</p><p>is understood as</p><p>language learned in</p><p>a community that</p><p>has another mother</p><p>tongue, and therefore</p><p>is not used for everyday</p><p>conversation by the</p><p>learners outside the</p><p>classroom, e.g., English</p><p>learned in Brazil.</p><p>Second language is</p><p>the language learned</p><p>by immigrants while</p><p>living in a foreign</p><p>country, where that</p><p>language is used in</p><p>everyday life, e.g.,</p><p>English learned in the</p><p>US by Brazilians living</p><p>there.</p><p>For a broader</p><p>understanding of</p><p>Corpus Linguistics,</p><p>you should refer to</p><p>this article by Daniel</p><p>Krieger: Corpus</p><p>Linguistics: What It</p><p>Is and How It Can Be</p><p>Applied to Teaching,</p><p>at http://iteslj.org/ The</p><p>Internet TESL Journal,</p><p>Vol. IX, No. 3, March</p><p>2003.</p><p>And for a better</p><p>understanding of what</p><p>Applied Linguistics is</p><p>about, read</p><p>http://www.filologia.</p><p>org.br/revista/40suple/</p><p>introdao_a_</p><p>linguistica%20.pdf</p><p>where you find this</p><p>article in Portuguese:</p><p>Introdução à</p><p>Linguística Aplicada</p><p>e sua utilidade para</p><p>as pesquisas em sala</p><p>de aula de língua</p><p>estrangeira, by Doris de</p><p>Almeida Soares.</p><p>On Error Analysis, refer</p><p>to Contribution of Error</p><p>Analysis to Foreign</p><p>Language Teaching, by</p><p>Vacide ERDOĞAN, at</p><p>*http://efd.mersin.edu.</p><p>tr/dergi/meuefd_2005_</p><p>001_002/pdf/</p><p>meuefd_2005_001_</p><p>002_0261-0270</p><p>_erdogan.pdf</p><p>Figure 01: Sound</p><p>waves</p><p>Source: Targethd.net, disponível em</p><p>http://targethd.net/2009/03/19/gadgets-</p><p>-fita-adesiva-sonora-voce-conhecia-isso/.</p><p>Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012.</p><p>►</p><p>Additionally, social dialects identify the linguistic status of speakers within a society.</p><p>In our own communities, we are aware of forms that are considered better or worse, words</p><p>and grammar forms that are used only by educated people, people who speak the standard</p><p>form of the language, people who did not receive much language education, people whose</p><p>pronunciation is typical of certain social groups. In the United States, particularly in Charleston,</p><p>South Carolina, r-less speech, that is, not pronouncing the r  in words like bear  and  court  is</p><p>associated with aristocratic, high-status groups, therefore a mark of linguistic prestige; in New</p><p>York City, however, the same r-less speech is typical of working-class, low-status people.</p><p>1.2.1 Competencies</p><p>The quotes above include such terms like society, culture, context of situation,</p><p>communication. In any foreign language setting language learning has one and only purpose:</p><p>enable the individuals to dive into a new culture and interact in contexts of situation which</p><p>may also be entirely new. To do so, language users have to develop their communicative</p><p>competence, or how language is used by members of a speech community to accomplish their</p><p>social interactional purposes. The diagram below shows elements comprising communicative</p><p>competence as viewed by Canale and Swain (1980).</p><p>According to Hymes (1972), communicative competence requires the speaker to have</p><p>proper control of the following interacting systems:</p><p>•	 grammatical - what is provided by the rules of the language</p><p>•	 psycholinguistic – whatever feasible through human information processing</p><p>•	 psycho-cultural - the social meaning or value of a given utterance</p><p>•	 probabilistic - what actually occurs during the interaction</p><p>15</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>In sum, to make it easier for you to understand it, you can say that communicative</p><p>competence involves the ‘Whs’ of communication: when to engage in a conversation, speak,</p><p>what to say or talk about, whom to talk to, when, where, in what manner, or how to say</p><p>something or be silent.</p><p>For proper interaction in contexts of situation which may be entirely new, the foreign</p><p>language speaker must develop their grammatical competence, cultural competence,</p><p>sociolinguistic competence, strategic competence all together contributing to what is called</p><p>communicative competence. It is the task of foreign language teachers to give their students</p><p>opportunities to develop these multiple competencies aimed to prepare them to properly</p><p>use their most important human communication tool. Let us then learn more about such</p><p>competencies.</p><p>One day an English grammar teacher was looking ill.</p><p>A student asked, “What’s the matter?”</p><p>“Tense,” answered the teacher, describing how he felt.</p><p>The student paused, then continued, “What was the matter? What has been the matter?</p><p>What might have been the matter... ?”</p><p>This joke, at this point used as merely motivational, is a good example of how simple</p><p>language, easy words put together may create interesting forms of misunderstanding.</p><p>TASK:</p><p>Identify what caused the misunderstanding in the previous conversation.</p><p>Grammatical competence involves the identification of the set of rules which governs a</p><p>person’s understanding of what is and is not correct and acceptable in the language they speak.</p><p>It therefore implies</p><p>•	 mastering the morphology, the vocabulary and the mechanics of pronunciation (letters,</p><p>syllables words), intonation and stress of a language, e.g.,</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>•	 recognizing a verb in a sentence and a subject independent of the syntactic configurations</p><p>in which they occur, e.g.,</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>LEARN MORE</p><p>This paper on</p><p>Diversidade e Unidade:</p><p>A Aventura Linguística</p><p>do Português, by Rosa</p><p>Virgínia Mattos e</p><p>Silva, provides a very</p><p>interesting analysis of</p><p>language variance. I</p><p>highly recommend its</p><p>reading as knowledge</p><p>of our own language</p><p>is a valuable support</p><p>for our learning of a</p><p>foreign language. It</p><p>is available at http://</p><p>cvc.instituto-camoes.</p><p>pt/hlp/biblioteca/</p><p>diversidade.pdf .</p><p>Another reading I do</p><p>recommend is this</p><p>book by Henriette</p><p>Walter, A aventura das</p><p>línguas no ocidente,</p><p>Mandarim, 1997, where</p><p>you will find useful,</p><p>curious, interesting</p><p>and sometimes</p><p>funny information</p><p>about languages like</p><p>Portuguese, French,</p><p>Italian, Spanish, Danish,</p><p>German, English, and</p><p>others.</p><p>TASK – 1</p><p>Research and list</p><p>10 examples of</p><p>pronunciation or use of</p><p>Portuguese vocabulary</p><p>representative of</p><p>different social groups</p><p>in your community.</p><p>2. Then refer to http://</p><p>en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</p><p>Regional_vocabularies_</p><p>of_American_English</p><p>read the page and</p><p>select 10 examples</p><p>from the various</p><p>regional words and</p><p>comment on them.</p><p>◄ Figure 02: Model of communicative</p><p>competence by Canale and Swain</p><p>Source: CANALE and SWAIN (1980).</p><p>16</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>•	 using proper agreement of two or more items: they agree if they are both marked for the</p><p>same grammatical distinction, e.g.,</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>•	 telling which of a set of non-adjacent words in a sentence go together and which do not, e.g.,</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>•	 identifying reference in a sentence, that is, what a specific word refers to, e.g.,</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>•	 identifying how one sentence relates to another semantically (e.g. different words or</p><p>arrangement, same meaning) or syntactically (e.g. different words, same structure), e.g.,</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>____________________________________________________________________________</p><p>TASK - 1</p><p>The previous marked items are all followed by e.g., but no actual examples were provided. Your task is to</p><p>provide two English examples for each of the five implications above.</p><p>TASK – 2</p><p>Identify and correct the grammar error in the cartoon (Figure 3) by providing two different forms of</p><p>asking the same thing.</p><p>2. What cultural aspects are shown in the cartoon?</p><p>Sociolinguistic competence, as the name implies, involves knowledge of the social</p><p>context, roles of the interlocutors, functions of the interactions in which the language is used</p><p>as well as the information shared in such interactions. It also involves recognizing instances of</p><p>code switching, that is, the concurrent use of more than one language variety (formal/informal</p><p>register) in conversation.</p><p>Formal  English is used in official documents, books,</p><p>news reports, articles, business letters or official speeches</p><p>while informal English is used in everyday conversations</p><p>and in personal letters. Despite this definition, it is not</p><p>always easy for foreigners to identify formal from informal</p><p>language. Reading different types of texts, watching movies</p><p>attentively, watching interviews with different types of</p><p>people and news reports on TV are tools the teacher may</p><p>recommend so that the language learner can observe and</p><p>retain various levels of register, which, in fact range from</p><p>informal to semi-informal and formal, as you can see in this</p><p>example taken from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/</p><p>resource/608/02/.</p><p>Formal (Written to</p><p>an unknown audience):  I am</p><p>applying for the receptionist position advertised in the local</p><p>paper. I am an excellent candidate for the job because of</p><p>my significant secretarial experience, good language skills,</p><p>and sense of organization.</p><p>Semi-formal (Written to a well-known individual):  I</p><p>am applying for the receptionist position that is currently</p><p>open in the company. As you are aware, I have worked</p><p>Figure 03: What</p><p>snapping can do!</p><p>Source: The Funny Times.</p><p>Disponível em</p><p>http://pewari.may.</p><p>be/2011/03/21/when-</p><p>-english-teachers-snap/.</p><p>Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012.</p><p>▼</p><p>17</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>as a temporary employee with your company in this position before. As such, I not only have</p><p>experience and knowledge of this position, but also already understand the company’s needs</p><p>and requirements for this job.</p><p>Informal (Incorrect): Hi! I read in the paper that ya’ll were looking for a receptionist. I think</p><p>that I am good for that job because I’ve done stuff like it in the past, am good with words, and am</p><p>incredibly well organized.</p><p>Many authors agree that the language user shows discourse competence if he approaches</p><p>language with both coherence and cohesion in “a large repertoire of structures and discourse</p><p>markers to express ideas, show relationships of time, and indicate cause, contrast and emphasis”</p><p>(SCARCELLA & OXFORD, 1992, p. 207).</p><p>According to H.P. Grice (1975), conversation is based on a cooperative principle by which</p><p>the interlocutors share specific goals and have already agreed ways of achieving them. This</p><p>‘agreement’ seems to be implicit in natural development of the conversation, and any successful</p><p>dialogue would depend on the interlocutors including these four elements:</p><p>•	 Quantity - say neither too little or too much than needed</p><p>•	 Relation – make sure what is said is relevant to the conversation</p><p>•	 Manner - be clear and coherent; avoid ambiguities and obscurities</p><p>•	 Quality – use enough evidence to support what you say and avoid whatever may be felt as</p><p>false, unimportant for the purpose of the conversation.</p><p>TASK</p><p>Identify which of these</p><p>utterances are formal</p><p>and which are informal.</p><p>1. I feel real good.</p><p>I feel really good.</p><p>2. As the final price</p><p>of ten dollars was</p><p>reasonable, I decided</p><p>to accept it.</p><p>It was, like, ten bucks,</p><p>so I said okay.</p><p>3. You can find out all</p><p>about the survey in</p><p>chapter 10.</p><p>Details of the survey</p><p>are to be found in</p><p>chapter 10.</p><p>The number of</p><p>infected patients is</p><p>increasing.</p><p>4. The number of</p><p>infected patients is</p><p>going up.</p><p>TASK</p><p>Both the cartoon on the figure 5 and</p><p>the text are good examples of language and</p><p>discourse misuse, filled with obscurities,</p><p>ambiguities, incoherence. Of course, it takes</p><p>some language and cultural knowledge for</p><p>the reader to identify the various types of</p><p>misuse in those authentic texts, which native</p><p>speakers do easily.</p><p>1. Pick up the grammar error in Lula’s text</p><p>and find what is ‘obscure’ or ambiguous</p><p>in the text.</p><p>2. Pick up five examples of misuse in Bush’s</p><p>text, including incoherence.</p><p>◄ Figure 04:Talking balloons</p><p>Source: Disponível em http://www.stcare.com/</p><p>serendipity/exercise.html. Acesso em: 02 abr.</p><p>2012.</p><p>Figure 05: Making progress</p><p>Fonte: www.simontaylor.com.br.</p><p>Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012.</p><p>►</p><p>18</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>Can the  English language survive after Bush? Here is a collection of George Bush’s</p><p>quotes:</p><p>•	 “The vast majority of our imports come from outside the country.”</p><p>•	 “If we don’t succeed, we run the risk of failure.”</p><p>•	 “One word sums up probably the responsibility of any Governor, and that one word is ‘ to be</p><p>prepared ‘.”</p><p>•	 “I have made good judgments in the past. I have made good judgments in the future.”</p><p>•	 “ The future will be better tomorrow.”</p><p>•	 “We have a firm commitment to NATO, we are a part of NATO. We have a firm commitment</p><p>to Europe. We are a part of Europe.”</p><p>•	 ” Public speaking is very easy.”</p><p>•	 “A low voter turnout is an indication of fewer people going to the polls.”</p><p>•	 ”We are ready for any unforeseen event that may or may not occur.”</p><p>•	 “For NASA, space is still a high priority.”</p><p>•	 “Quite frankly, teachers are the only profession that teach our children.”</p><p>•	 “It isn’t pollution that’s harming the environment. It’s the impurities in our air and water that</p><p>are doing it.”</p><p>•	 “It’s time for the human race to enter the solar system.”</p><p>(Email running on the Internet)</p><p>According to Canale and Swain (1980), strategic competence comprises a number of</p><p>verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that the speaker uses to offset his insufficient</p><p>competence or common performance variables. This means the various ways a speaker handles</p><p>language vocabulary, forms, or varieties to express his feelings, emotions, personal traits to</p><p>achieve his communicative goals. Choosing to be more or less emphatic, use formal or informal</p><p>language, polite expressions, metaphors, slang, gestures or facial expressions, pauses, all these</p><p>are strategic means of achieving communication.</p><p>For Duquette et al (1988) strategic competence is the ability to use communication</p><p>strategies to keep the communication channel open maintaining the interaction between</p><p>the interlocutors and the conversation according to the speaker’s intentions. Their definition</p><p>assumes that the speaker sets a communicative goal and modifies what they say depending on</p><p>what they intend to say.</p><p>All this is certainly not new to you, as any speaker, in any language, including yourself when</p><p>speaking Portuguese, uses similar strategies. In fact, some strategic strategies are to some extent</p><p>international. What is important here is to remember that when teaching, you have to make this</p><p>clear to your students so that they use them appropriately when conversing in English.</p><p>GLOSSARY</p><p>COHERENCE: The</p><p>quality or state of</p><p>cohering, especially</p><p>a logical, orderly,</p><p>and aesthetically</p><p>consistent relationship</p><p>of parts; logical or</p><p>natural connection</p><p>or consistency (www.</p><p>thefreedictionary.com).</p><p>COHESION: Proper use</p><p>of linguistic elements</p><p>to make a discourse</p><p>semantically coherent.</p><p>Figure 06: Following</p><p>cultural standards</p><p>Source: http://</p><p>pt.dreamstime.com/foto-</p><p>-de-stock-royalty-free-exe-</p><p>cutivos-na-reuni-ampatil-</p><p>deo-do-globo-do-mundo-</p><p>-nos-e-u--image5255005.</p><p>Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012.</p><p>►</p><p>19</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>Cultural competence or cross-cultural awareness involves understanding the life</p><p>and institutions, beliefs and values, everyday attitudes and feelings of the foreign society as</p><p>expressed by language and by paralinguistic features like dressing, gestures, facial expressions,</p><p>stance and movements. According to Tomalin and Stempleski (1996), for the purposes of</p><p>communication, cultural competence summarizes as having:</p><p>•	 awareness of one’s own culturally-induced behavior;</p><p>•	 awareness of the culturally-induced behavior of others;</p><p>•	 ability to explain one’s own cultural standpoint.</p><p>Foreign language teachers must be aware of the fact that teaching a language is teaching</p><p>a culture; values and presuppositions about the nature of life, about what is good and bad in</p><p>it, which are implicit in any normal use of a language; crosscultural communication requires</p><p>crosscultural understanding.</p><p>Let me remind you that another important aspect to remember is that the language</p><p>is generally accompanied by non-linguistic, or paralinguistic elements, that is, gestures,</p><p>movements, gestures, facial expressions which may be very different from those used in the</p><p>learner’s native language. In fact, the type and amount of those paralinguistic elements vary</p><p>from culture to culture, and you must be careful when using them with a foreign language. As a</p><p>teacher, remember that teaching communicatively requires observing such aspects as well.</p><p>Still another type of competence that would very much help foreign language users interact</p><p>in</p><p>a cross-cultural environment is pragmatic competence, that is, the ability to perceive and</p><p>understand speaker’s intended meaning, which many times is difficult when we use our own</p><p>native language. Metaphors, irony, ambiguities, puns (trocadilhos), neologisms, all these just add</p><p>to the difficulty in conversation, mainly for foreign speakers. It is the task of the language teacher</p><p>to find ways to minimize such difficulty by exposing the learner to as much real life language as</p><p>possible. You will read more about pragmatics in the next section.</p><p>Enjoy an interesting example of total miscommunication in this fictional conversation between</p><p>State Secretary Condolezza Rice and President George Bush in the Oval Office White House.</p><p>Hu is on First?</p><p>George: Condi! Nice to see you. What’s happening?</p><p>Condi: Sir, I have the report here about the new leader of China.</p><p>George: Great. Lay it on me.</p><p>Condi: Hu is the new leader of China.</p><p>George: That’s what I want to know.</p><p>Condi: That’s what I’m telling you.</p><p>George: That’s what I’m asking you. Who is the new leader of China?</p><p>Condi: Yes.</p><p>George: I mean the fellow’s name.</p><p>Condi: Hu.</p><p>George: The guy in China.</p><p>Condi: Hu.</p><p>George: The new leader of China</p><p>Condi: Hu.</p><p>George: The Chinaman!</p><p>Condi: Hu is leading China.</p><p>George: Now whaddya’ asking me for?</p><p>Condi: I’m telling you Hu is leading China.</p><p>George: Well, I’m asking you. Who is leading China?</p><p>Condi: That’s the man’s name.</p><p>George: That’s who’s name?</p><p>Condi: Yes.</p><p>George: Will you or will you not tell me the name of the new leader of China?</p><p>Condi: Yes, sir.</p><p>20</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>George: Yassir? Yassir Arafat is in China? I thought he was in the Middle East.</p><p>Condi: That’s correct.</p><p>George: Then who is in China?</p><p>Condi: Yes, sir.</p><p>George: Yassir is in China?</p><p>Condi: No, sir.</p><p>George: Then who is?</p><p>Condi: Yes, sir.</p><p>George: Yassir?</p><p>Condi: No, sir.</p><p>George: Look, Condi. I need to know the name of the new leader of China. Get me the</p><p>Secretary</p><p>General of the U.N. on the phone.</p><p>Condi: Kofi?</p><p>George: No, thanks.</p><p>Condi: You want Kofi?</p><p>George: No.</p><p>Condi: You don’t want Kofi.</p><p>George: No. But now that you mention it, I could use a glass of milk. And then get me the</p><p>U.N.</p><p>Condi: Yes, sir.</p><p>George: Not Ya ssir! The guy at the U.N.</p><p>Condi: Kofi?</p><p>George: Milk! Will you please make the call?</p><p>Condi: And call who?</p><p>George: Who is the guy at the U.N?</p><p>Condi: Hu is the guy in China.</p><p>George: Will you stay out of China?!</p><p>Condi: Yes, sir.</p><p>George: And stay out of the Middle East! Just get me the guy at the U.N.</p><p>Condi: Kofi.</p><p>George: All right! With cream and two sugars. Now get on the phone.</p><p>(Condi picks up the phone.) Condi: Rice, here.</p><p>George: Rice? Good idea. And a couple of egg rolls, too. Maybe we</p><p>should send some to the guy in China. And the Middle East. Can you get Chinese food in the</p><p>Middle East?</p><p>Source: Email circulating on the Internet</p><p>In the cartoon (FIG. 07) and in the text you have just read you may find interesting examples</p><p>taken from an English-speaking culture, namely, the American culture. Observe how one simple</p><p>cartoon offers a good amount of cultural information, and is therefore a rich source of teaching</p><p>material, starting from reading and understanding the text.</p><p>Figure 07: Culture tips</p><p>Source: The Funny Times.</p><p>Disponível em http://</p><p>www.funnytimes.com/.</p><p>Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012.</p><p>►</p><p>21</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>I bet that after learning about those concepts you are now asking yourself: Can language</p><p>teachers help the students develop all those types of competence? Is one type of competence</p><p>more important than another? Should the teacher give priority to one or more competences in</p><p>relation to the others? How does the choice of methodology impact the development of those</p><p>competencies? What level of competence should be expected from the learner?</p><p>You will find the answers by yourself after reading all the material selected for this course</p><p>and completing the activities proposed. Questions are good to make you think!</p><p>References</p><p>BLOOMFILED, Leonard. Outline Guide for the Practical Study of Foreign Languages, 1942.</p><p>BROWN, K. (Editor) Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. 2. ed. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005.</p><p>DAVIES, Alan & ELDER, Catherine ( Editors). The Handbook of Applied Linguistics, Blackwell</p><p>Publishing, 2004.</p><p>DUQUETTE, L. La créativité dans les pratiques communicatives’ in A. M. Boucher, A. M.</p><p>Duplantine, R. Leblanc, Pédagogie de la communication dans l’enseignement d’une</p><p>language étrangere. Bruxelles: De Boeck-Wesmael, 1988.</p><p>GRICE, H.P. ‘Logic and conversation’ In Cole, P. & Morgan, J. (eds.) Syntax and Semantics,</p><p>Volume 3. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41-58, 1975.</p><p>HALLIDAY, M.A.K. Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and</p><p>Meaning. London, Edward Arnold, 1978.</p><p>HYMES, D.H. ‘On Communicative Competence’ In: J.B. Pride and J. Holmes (eds) Sociolinguistics.</p><p>Selected Readings. Harmondsworth: Penguin, pp. 269-293.(Part 2),1972.</p><p>KRIEGER, Daniel Corpus Linguistics: What it is and how it can be applied to teaching,</p><p>available at The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. IX, No. 3, March 2003.</p><p>SAPIR, Edward Sapir Language. New York: Harcourt Brace, p.8, 1921.</p><p>SELINKER, L. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-241, 1972.</p><p>TRAGER, G. The Field of Linguistics. Norman, OK: Battenberg Press. 1949.</p><p>TASK 1</p><p>Read the text contained</p><p>in the cartoon above.</p><p>Identify the cultural</p><p>aspects and the</p><p>language items used to</p><p>indicate them. How do</p><p>those aspects compare</p><p>to the Brazilian culture?</p><p>2. Refer to http://www.</p><p>fujishima-h.ed.jp/</p><p>teacher/materials/</p><p>American%20Gestures.</p><p>pdf - American</p><p>Gestures: A Lesson for</p><p>Elementary Students.</p><p>Read it carefully then</p><p>make a list of the</p><p>gestures commonly</p><p>used by Americans and</p><p>compare them with the</p><p>gestures used in Brazil,</p><p>if any, for the same</p><p>contexts.</p><p>LEARN MORE</p><p>For a more detailed</p><p>understanding of</p><p>the role of culture</p><p>in foreign language</p><p>teaching and learning</p><p>refer to the textbook</p><p>on Anglo American</p><p>Culture, by Helena</p><p>Maria Gramiscelli</p><p>Magalhães, 2011.</p><p>GLOSSARY</p><p>UTTERANCE -</p><p>(enunciado) - A string</p><p>of words produced</p><p>on a particular event</p><p>of oral interaction;</p><p>a complete unit of</p><p>speech in conversation,</p><p>in general bounded by</p><p>silence.</p><p>23</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>UNIT 2</p><p>What does it mean to learn a</p><p>foreign language?</p><p>◄ Figure 08: The joy of</p><p>learning</p><p>Source: Sangrea.net. Dis-</p><p>ponível em http://inglesie-</p><p>sollosgrandes.blogspot.</p><p>com.br/2010_06_01_ar-</p><p>chive.html. Acesso em: 02</p><p>abr. 2012.</p><p>2.1 The Learning Process: Core</p><p>Concepts</p><p>A first distinction you must learn is the</p><p>one between learning and acquisition. In</p><p>the context of language learning, learning is</p><p>understood as the conscious, formal process</p><p>developed in the classroom which includes</p><p>grammar explanation, memorization of</p><p>rules and vocabulary, activities, tasks, and</p><p>exercises involving the four skills, and testing.</p><p>Acquisition is the informal, unconscious,</p><p>out-of-class process that involves the</p><p>actual exposure to language in real life</p><p>environments: English as a second language is</p><p>acquired by Brazilians who have not attended</p><p>English classes in Brazil and move to an</p><p>24</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>English speaking country where they do not</p><p>take English classes. However, you are going to</p><p>see in the material supplied for this course that</p><p>some authors do not apply this distinction</p><p>and use both acquisition and learning</p><p>interchangeably. In fact, this is quite the case</p><p>for other linguistic terms: selecting language</p><p>terms or statements to describe language</p><p>itself is sometimes difficult.</p><p>The language learning/acquisition process basically implies going through the stages of:</p><p>•	 retrieval of information.</p><p>•	 processing of information.</p><p>•	 transfer or encoding of information.</p><p>In doing so, the foreign/second language</p><p>learner develops some kind of intermediate,</p><p>self-contained,</p><p>specific form of language,</p><p>termed interlanguage, as proposed by</p><p>Larry Selinker (1972). This interlanguage</p><p>creates a language system with grammar</p><p>rules and vocabulary that, in general, do</p><p>not belong to either his native language</p><p>or the foreign/second language being</p><p>learned. What is created is then some kind</p><p>of third language marked by mechanisms of</p><p>transfer or interference (negative transfer),</p><p>overgeneralization, simplification, avoidance,</p><p>overuse and fossilization. These mechanisms</p><p>are all learning strategies that the learner uses</p><p>in an attempt to master the rules of the new</p><p>language.</p><p>Transfer occurs when a rule of the</p><p>native language is successfully used in the</p><p>foreign language, that is, it is acceptable</p><p>and also correct in that language, e.g., verb</p><p>agreement, like in Ele gosta (not Ele gosto)*</p><p>He likes (not He like). Interference (negative</p><p>transfer) occurs when the student selects a</p><p>rule from his native language which does</p><p>not apply to the foreign language, therefore</p><p>producing an ungrammatical sentence, e.g.,</p><p>* I like of oranges. Interference also occurs</p><p>when the learner uses the so called ‘false</p><p>friends’, that is, false cognates, words like</p><p>advocate or actual, for example, which he</p><p>erroneously believes to mean *advogado</p><p>or *atual, for their graphic or phonological</p><p>similarity with Portuguese words. The Hu</p><p>is on First? gives you a good example of</p><p>phonological interference leading to a lot</p><p>of misunderstanding. Overgeneralization</p><p>is the broad application of a specific rule of</p><p>the foreign language itself in situations in</p><p>which a native speaker would not, e.g., use</p><p>plural suffix s for all nouns, irrespective of</p><p>exceptions in English. Simplification implies</p><p>keeping general, simple forms of language,</p><p>like the adjectives good and nice, instead of</p><p>more specific which are applied in multiple</p><p>contexts; or child-like speech, somehow</p><p>indicating that the speaker has not yet</p><p>mastered proper target forms.   Avoidance</p><p>may occur in the form of structures removed</p><p>from the learner’s interlanguage when he</p><p>does not feel able to master them, or as a</p><p>pragmatic, communicative strategy. In this</p><p>case, it may happen because the speaker</p><p>finds that a specific word or sentence is too</p><p>difficult to use in certain circumstances or it</p><p>is too formal, or too informal for the context</p><p>of situation. Overuse indicates the recurrent,</p><p>repetitive use of some language forms instead</p><p>of other for fear of making errors when trying</p><p>newly learned forms. You yourself as a foreign</p><p>language user certainly tend to use words like</p><p>nice and good in a number of contexts. They</p><p>are easy and seem to fit well in those contexts,</p><p>for example, when answering questions</p><p>like How was your trip? However, you can</p><p>show better proficiency if you use more</p><p>specific terms, like comfortable, profitable,</p><p>pleasant, satisfying, etc. When in doubt as</p><p>to the adequacy of these words to answer that</p><p>question, you avoid using them in favour of</p><p>nice/good.</p><p>Concerning the process of foreign</p><p>learning, Selinker (1972) developed the</p><p>concept of fossilization, a mechanism by</p><p>which the learner seems to stop improving</p><p>his interlanguage and some rules, structures,</p><p>strategies and words are kept frozen in that</p><p>interlanguage no matter the amount of</p><p>instruction the learner receives. The language</p><p>fossilized can originate from either the native</p><p>language or the foreign language, including</p><p>errors or only correct forms.</p><p>All in all, as a prospective English</p><p>language teacher, you must be aware that</p><p>any or all of those mechanisms will be present</p><p>in the student’s interlanguage during the</p><p>process of learning, no matter which approach</p><p>and method is adopted to teaching. It is the</p><p>task of the teacher to identify them and help</p><p>the student minimize the errors/mistakes</p><p>and maximize their positive results. An error</p><p>occurs when the language user has not yet</p><p>mastered a rule, or because he has not yet</p><p>been taught that rule, therefore not being</p><p>competent to use it accordingly. An error</p><p>has to do with competence, that is, the</p><p>LEARN MORE</p><p>Metalanguage is the</p><p>language statements or</p><p>language symbols used to</p><p>describe language itself,</p><p>that is, use English senten-</p><p>ces or symbols to describe</p><p>the grammar, syntax,</p><p>semantics and phonology</p><p>of the English language.</p><p>25</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>more competent the language user is the</p><p>fewer errors he will make. A mistake occurs</p><p>notwithstanding the level of competence</p><p>of the speaker and is due to non linguistic</p><p>factors, like tiredness, distraction, etc. This</p><p>means that the speaker is competent enough</p><p>to correct his own mistake. A mistake has to</p><p>do with performance, that is, with the actual</p><p>use of language.</p><p>As far as the actual use of language</p><p>is concerned, Pragmatics is the sub-field</p><p>of Linguistics which develops the study of</p><p>language in use by observing how the context</p><p>of situation, the social and the cultural context</p><p>contribute as well to meaning in conversation.</p><p>Pragmatics investigates the implications</p><p>of language interaction and studies how</p><p>the transmission of meaning depends</p><p>not only on the linguistic competence of</p><p>the interlocutors, but also on a number of</p><p>other factors besides the above mentioned</p><p>contexts, like the manner, place and time of</p><p>the utterance, the status of the interlocutors</p><p>and the understanding of the speaker’s</p><p>intended meaning, as well as the causes of</p><p>miscommunication.</p><p>In the Appendix to this textbook you</p><p>find this excerpt attached as Annex 1 - When</p><p>“Yes” means “No” or “Maybe”-- Avoiding Cross-</p><p>Cultural Misunderstandings in Global Business</p><p>- which is an example of what may occur</p><p>in a cross-cultural interaction and provides</p><p>some advice on how to avoid cross-cultural</p><p>misunderstandings, in this case, in the critical</p><p>context of global business.</p><p>2.2 Learning Styles</p><p>In this next section we will describe</p><p>a set of learning styles and language</p><p>learning concepts which run across teaching</p><p>approaches and methodologies, together</p><p>with a discussion of said approaches and</p><p>methodologies. We will start by defining</p><p>learning in general.</p><p>Learning is a natural ability of human</p><p>beings, who are driven by curiosity, by an</p><p>internal drive to seek knowledge through</p><p>experiencing the surrounding world. It may</p><p>occur consciously or unconsciously. Sight,</p><p>hearing, touch smell and taste are the</p><p>tools human beings use to grasp concrete</p><p>information; our abstract ability allows us</p><p>to use our imagination, our intellect and</p><p>our intuition to identify hidden meanings,</p><p>discover subtle implications in messages,</p><p>develop imaginative contexts and grasp</p><p>novel ideas. Our mind then organizes the</p><p>◄ Figure 09: The knot</p><p>Source: Cartoon by Bill</p><p>Browning, from his we-</p><p>bpage:</p><p>http://www.mnispi.org/</p><p>cartoon/2001/index.htm.</p><p>Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012.</p><p>26</p><p>UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período</p><p>information randomly, spontaneously</p><p>sometimes, and orderly, in a linear sequence</p><p>otherwise. This type of learning is also termed</p><p>informal learning, somehow synonymous to</p><p>acquisition, or learning by natural exposition</p><p>to the real world.</p><p>Formal learning, on the other hand,</p><p>results from the implementation of</p><p>knowledge, skills or practices offered by</p><p>school instruction or study, which add to</p><p>our behavior, attitudes, viewpoints. In the</p><p>language classroom, the learning that arises</p><p>from explanations, exercises, tests, drills, case</p><p>studies, guided and free activities involving</p><p>the English grammar, semantics, phonology</p><p>and related culture. In this type of setting,</p><p>particularly in your language classroom,</p><p>you can identify a variety of learning styles.</p><p>In Figure 09 you find a student who is self-</p><p>identified as ‘Abstract-Sequential’. What does</p><p>that mean? This type of learner is research-</p><p>oriented, logical, systematic, usually viewed</p><p>as a nerd. Abstract learners tend to acquire</p><p>information through observation, thinking</p><p>and analysis while concrete learners demand</p><p>doing, feeling, acting,</p><p>therefore having some</p><p>kind of direct experience with the information</p><p>provided.</p><p>As a teacher, the more you identify your</p><p>students’ learning style the easier it is for</p><p>you to find the right activities to propose to</p><p>them. Among your students you will find, for</p><p>instance, active learners, those who enjoy</p><p>teamwork, retain and understand information</p><p>more quickly by discussing or applying it,</p><p>and reflective learners, who like to work</p><p>alone while thinking about the information</p><p>provided in class. These learners exercise their</p><p>receptive skills (listen and read) as a tool to</p><p>learn, contrary to active learners who feel they</p><p>have to be more productive, that is use their</p><p>productive skills (speak and write) to learn.</p><p>Sensing learners are distinct from</p><p>intuitive learners; they enjoy learning facts</p><p>– rules of grammar, and feel safe following</p><p>well-established rules. Intuitive learners, on</p><p>the other hand, prefer to discover possibilities</p><p>and relationships, for example, learning</p><p>grammar from intuition, by observing varied</p><p>occurrences in texts.</p><p>Other types of learners include visual</p><p>learners, those who learn better and faster</p><p>from what they see – pictures and diagrams</p><p>are helpful, written texts help them memorize</p><p>graphic forms; verbal learners are satisfied</p><p>with spoken explanations and written texts</p><p>for comprehension; active  learners, those</p><p>who make sense of an experience through the</p><p>immediate application of the new information;</p><p>reflective learners, who have to think and</p><p>reflect about the information received to</p><p>make sense out of it.</p><p>Are you really aware of the type of learner</p><p>that you are?</p><p>What are the implications of</p><p>understanding these various learning styles</p><p>for your own learning and later for your</p><p>teaching?</p><p>Here it is:</p><p>•	 Identifying individual learning styles</p><p>facilitate your own learning and your</p><p>work as a teacher;</p><p>•	 No one teaching method will effectively</p><p>reach all learners;</p><p>•	 Different learning styles require different</p><p>teaching strategies.</p><p>Both as a learner and a teacher, one</p><p>thing that you must keep in mind is that</p><p>every person can learn one way or another</p><p>and that what is sometimes felt as unlearning</p><p>is only a human learning strategy, a</p><p>mental, unconscious process, some form of</p><p>selecting, discarding unwanted, unnecessary,</p><p>unimportant information that all of us go</p><p>through to organize information in our mind.</p><p>Also as an English learner you may have felt</p><p>sometimes that the pace of your learning</p><p>seems to have slowed down, that you do not</p><p>understand or remember some aspects of</p><p>language as easily as you used to. This is only</p><p>a natural part of the learning process. You are</p><p>not unlearning.</p><p>2.3 Learning Difficulties</p><p>The 1960s and early 1970s witnessed</p><p>the development of Contrastive Analysis, a</p><p>systematic study aimed to identify structural</p><p>differences and similarities between a native</p><p>and a foreign language. The idea behind</p><p>the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis was</p><p>to explain why some structures are more</p><p>difficult than others to learn. Following the</p><p>Behaviorist belief prevailing at the time, that</p><p>language learning depended basically on</p><p>habit formation, it seemed logical to conclude</p><p>that when a foreign structure or sound is</p><p>TASK</p><p>Refer to ANNEX 2 -</p><p>Motivating Learners:</p><p>Understanding</p><p>Language Acquisition.</p><p>Read it and produce a</p><p>brief summary of the</p><p>main points of the text.</p><p>This task allows you to</p><p>exercise your listening</p><p>comprehension and</p><p>your writing skills.</p><p>27</p><p>Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos</p><p>similar to the native structure or sound it is</p><p>easier to master. On the other hand, diverse</p><p>structures or sounds are harder to acquire.</p><p>This position was defended by Robert Lado in</p><p>his Linguistics Across Cultures  (1957, p.21):</p><p>“Those elements which are similar to  [the</p><p>learner’s]  native language will be simple for</p><p>him, and those elements that are different</p><p>will be difficult”.  Following this statement,</p><p>teachers would create their lesson plans</p><p>accordingly, proposing specific teaching</p><p>strategies and tasks for those areas considered</p><p>more difficult, being able to preview possible</p><p>learners’ errors. However, it was soon clear</p><p>that many errors could not be anticipated and</p><p>that it was not entirely true that differences</p><p>between languages were the sole responsible</p><p>for learning difficulties. Anyway, Contrastive</p><p>Analysis, together with error analysis, provided</p><p>a valuable tool for subsequent proposals, like</p><p>the Audio-Lingual method.</p><p>In the Brazilian educational environment</p><p>it is still easy to find teachers who believe</p><p>some English structures are definitely difficult</p><p>to all learners, for example, phrasal verbs,</p><p>prepositions and the present perfect tense.</p><p>Teachers must remember that generalizations</p><p>of this type are dangerous and not real.</p><p>Moreover, many times those supposed</p><p>difficulties are determined a priori, reflecting</p><p>the teacher’s own difficulty to deal with such</p><p>items or find an appropriate teaching strategy.</p><p>Learning difficulties are individual: what is</p><p>difficult to one learner may be easy to another:</p><p>learning difficulties depend on a number</p><p>of factors and vary greatly from learner to</p><p>learner, from individual abilities to the teaching</p><p>methodology applied. Therefore, learning</p><p>difficulties must be addressed on an individual</p><p>basis.</p><p>2.4 Your new self</p><p>While you are mastering a foreign</p><p>language you are building a new self –</p><p>rebuilding your identity, giving a new</p><p>significance to yourself as an individual by</p><p>engaging in a new cultural environment,</p><p>however preserving your native identity. To</p><p>incorporate this new self, you have to retrain</p><p>your ears to receive, perceive and produce</p><p>new sounds as close as possible to the foreign</p><p>sounds being learned (listening/speaking),</p><p>graphic combinations (read and write) and</p><p>discourse strategies. A foreign language learner</p><p>has to be prepared to perform multiple roles</p><p>in different linguistic and cultural settings</p><p>and actually use that new self. Exercising the</p><p>foreign language promotes the alignment</p><p>between native and foreign concepts, ethics,</p><p>habits, discipline while developing the</p><p>intellectual abilities of the language user.</p><p>So, when you are learning a language</p><p>you are acquiring a new linguistic skill, while</p><p>growing, advancing as a social being. You</p><p>have this extraordinary chance to navigate</p><p>across the richness of the diverse worlds of</p><p>people’s dialects, idiolects – the speech of the</p><p>individual - and registers – language levels</p><p>of formality. You are sharing another culture,</p><p>trying to see the world through a different</p><p>linguistic experience, finding similarities in</p><p>the expected differences. In the end you</p><p>will find that learning a foreign language</p><p>gives you an opportunity to see that such</p><p>differences and similarities only contribute</p><p>to the overall quality of the individuals. As a</p><p>learner and prospective language teacher you</p><p>can profit from the knowledge of your own</p><p>native language and culture to compare and</p><p>contrast its strategies to those of the foreign</p><p>language and culture, and further your own</p><p>(and later your students’) understanding and</p><p>tolerance, that is, appreciation of diversity</p><p>and the ability to live and let others live</p><p>according to their principles. In conclusion,</p><p>you now see that learning a language is</p><p>more than merely mastering grammatical</p><p>structures, memorizing vocabulary, or training</p><p>pronunciation. None of these alone will make</p><p>you properly use a foreign language.</p><p>In the Brazilian context, for the purposes</p><p>established in the Parâmetros Curriculares</p><p>Nacionais de Língua Estrangeira and the</p><p>Conteúdo Básico Comum de Língua Estrangeira</p><p>do Ensino Fundamental do 6º ao 9º Ano, foreign</p><p>language learning means to provide the</p><p>learner with a chance to sharpen his curiosity,</p><p>develop his critical perception of his social</p><p>environment, exercise critical reasoning, get</p><p>rid of bias, realize that whatever perverted</p><p>view the language user may have of other</p>