Aula 2 de pratica oral

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Prática Oral em Língua Inglesa I
Sarah Barbieri Vieira
Aula 2
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In this class...
1. An Overview of the Speaking Skill and its Relationship to Listening 
Bottom-up and Top-down Processes
The Speaking Skill
Factors Hindering Adult EFL Learners’ Speaking Development 
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Bottom-up processing of information is a model that assumes that listening is a process of decoding the sounds that one hears in a linear fashion, from the smallest meaningful units (called phonemes) to complex texts. 
 
Top-down processing of information suggests that the listener actively (re)constructs the original meaning of the speaker using incoming sounds as clues. The listener uses prior knowledge of the context and situation within which the listening takes place to make sense of what he/she hears. Context of the situation includes such things as prior knowledge of the topic at hand, the speaker or speakers and their relationship to the situation and with each other, and prior events.
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Listening Proficiency
Grammatical competence enables learners to use and understand the structures and rules of the English language accurately and fluently. Grammatical competence asks: Which words should I use in this context? How do I know what attitude the other person is expressing?
Discourse competence refers to the large repertoire of vocabulary, structures and discourse markers to express and understand ideas, time relationship, as well as cause, contrast and emphasis that speakers should learn to take turns in conversation. Discourse competence asks: how are words, phrases and sentences put together to create conversations, speeches, email messages, lectures, and the like?
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Listening Proficiency
Understanding the sociolinguistic side of language helps learners to know what comments are appropriate, how to ask questions during interaction, and how to answer and behave nonverbally according to the purpose of the conversation or talk. Which words and phrases fit into this setting and this topic? How can I express a specific attitude (courtesy, authority, friendliness, respect)? How do I know what attitude another person is expressing?
Strategic competence is the ability to compensate for lack of linguistic, sociolinguistic and discourse rule knowledge. Strategic competence asks: How do I know when I have misunderstood or when someone has misunderstood me? 
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There are three kinds of speaking situations in which we can take part: interactive, partially interactive and non-interactive.
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Interactive situations include face-to-face conversations, telephone calls, in which the interlocutors are alternately listening and speaking and, therefore, have the chance to ask for clarification, repetition, or even slower speech from the other participant.
Partially Interactive situations include speeches to a live audience in which the audience can not interrupt the speaker. Nevertheless, the speaker can see the audience and judge from people’s facial expressions, reactions and body language whether he/she is being understood.
Non-interactive situations include recording a speech for a radio, internet or TV broadcast, or even classes for distance learning education, in which the speaker does not have real-time audience feedback.
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Factors Hindering Adult EFL Learners’ Speaking Development 
Cultural factors derive form learners’ experiences and the expectations created by the possible mismatches that can occur between interlocutors from different cultures or cultural backgrounds. From a pragmatic perspective, language is a form of social action because interaction occurs in the context of interpersonal exchange, and, as a consequence, meaning is socially regulated. In other words, “shared values and beliefs create the traditions and social structures that bind a community together and are expressed in their language” (Carrasquillo, 1994). 
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The linguistic facts that inhibit the use of spoken language include difficulties in transferring from the learner’s first language to the sounds, rhythms, and stress patterns of English (e.g., English tenses) and how these may be different from their own language, difficulties with the native speaker pronunciation, a lack of familiarity with the cultural or social knowledge required to process meaning. 
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Psychological and affective factors include culture shock, previous negative social experiences, lack of motivation, learners’ anxiety or shyness and even the fear of making mistakes in front of others or saying something stupid, silly or incomprehensible especially if their previous learning or social experiences were negative. Leaners in general are reluctant to be judged by hearers and also afraid of making fools of themselves in front of other people.
 On the other hand, motivation is a key factor in determining learners’ attitudes toward communication. Motivation refers to the combination of effort together with the desire to achieve the goal of learning how to communicate because of the satisfaction and reward experienced in this activity. 
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Bibliography
BROWN, H. D. Teaching by Principles: an interactive approach to language learning. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents, 1994.
CANALE, M.; SWAIN, M. Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing. Applied Linguistics 1, 1-47, 1980.
NUNAN, D. Second Language Teaching and Learning. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1998.
SCARCELLA, R. C.; OXFORD, R. L. The Tapestry of Language Learning: the individual in the communicative classroom. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1992.
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Prática Oral em Língua Inglesa I
Sarah Barbieri Vieira
Atividade 2
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What can you do to improve your English speaking skills?
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How to Improve your English Speaking Skills
Practice where you can, when you can. Any practice is good – whether you speak to someone who is a native English speaker or not.  
It’s important to build your confidence. If possible, use simple English sentence structure that you know is correct, so that you can concentrate on getting your message across.
 
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Try NOT to translate into and from your own language. This takes too much time and will make you more hesitant. If you forget a word, do what native English speakers do all the time, and say things that ‘fill’ the conversation. This is better than keeping completely silent. Try using hum, or err, if you forget the word.
Try to relax when you speak – you’ll find your mouth does most of the pronunciation work for you. When you speak English at normal speed, you’ll discover that many of the pronunciation skills, such as linking between words, will happen automatically.
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Try to experiment with the English you know. Use words and phrases you know in new situations. Native English speakers are more likely to correct you if you use the wrong word than if you use the wrong grammar. Experimenting with vocabulary is a really good way of getting feedback.
Try to respond to what people say to you. You can often get clues to what people think by looking at their body language. Respond to them in a natural way.
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Try to become less hesitant and more confident. Don’t be shy to speak – the more you do it, the more confident you’ll become.
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