FUNDAMENTOS CULTURAIS DA LITERAT. EM LÍNGUA INGL. conteúdo online 2017

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Lesson 1, introduction 
 
Objectives: 
1. Understand the arrival and the victory of the Catholic Church in England; 
2. Establish the importance of the Celtic Church, regarding Christianity, to ordinary people; 
3. Analyse Pagan and Christian elements in the epic poem “Beowulf”. 
 
When and how did Christianity first reach Britain? 
That is not an easy task to determine how or when Christianity first reached Britain, but it was certainly well 
before Christianity was accepted by the Roman Emperor Constantine /ˈkɑːnt.stᵊn.tiːn, -tain/ in the early fourth 
century AD. Christianity became firmly established across Britain in the last hundred years of Roman 
government. 
 
How were the Celts influenced by Christianity? 
The Celts were driven into the west and north of Britain by the Anglo-
Saxons. 
In the Celtic areas Christianity continued to spread, bringing paganism to 
an end. An interesting example of Christian influence is the number of 
place-names beginning or ending with llan, meaning the site of a small 
Celtic monastery /ˈmɑː.nə.ster.i/ around which a village or town grew. 
 
How Christianity was re-established in England? 
Pope Gregory the Great sent a monk, Augustine /ɑːˈɡʌs.tɪn, ˈɑː.ɡə.stɪn/ , 
to re-establish Christianity in England in 597. Augustine went to 
Canterbury /ˈkæn.t̬ɚ.ber.i/, the capital of the kingdom of Kent. He did so 
because the king’s wife, having been born in continental Europe, was 
already a Christian. It could be the opportunity to convert the people. 
 
Who was Augustine? 
In 601, Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was 
very successful because several ruling families in England accepted Christianity. Nevertheless, Augustine and 
his group of monks were not successful with ordinary people. That can be explained partly because Augustine 
was interested in establishing Christian authority, and that meant bringing rulers to the new faith. 
 
How did the Celtic Church contribute to the spread of Christianity? 
The Celtic Church brought Christianity to the ordinary people of Britain. The Celtic bishops left their 
monasteries of Wales, Ireland and Scotland, walking from village to village teaching Christian values. Although 
there were differences between Anglo-Saxons and Celts, these bishops seem to have been readily accepted in 
the Anglo-Saxon areas. 
 
What were the differences between the Roman and the Celtic Churches? 
The bishops from the Roman Church lived at the courts of the kings, which they made centers of Church 
power across England. The Celtic Church was interested in the ordinary people while the Roman Church was 
interested in authority and organization. The two churches reached a crisis when they disagreed over the date 
of Easter. In 603 at the Synod1 (meeting) of Whitby /ˈhwɪt.bi/ the king of Northumbria /nɔːrˈθʌm.bri.ə/ decided 
to support the Roman Church. The Celtic Church retreated as Rome extended its authority over all Christians, 
even in Celtic parts of the island. 
 
How did the church grow? 
The phenomenon of Christianization developed quickly throughout the country. By 660 only Sussex /ˈsʌs.ɪks/ 
and the Isle of Wight /waɪt/ resisted the new faith. Twenty years later, English teachers came back to the land 
from which the Anglo-Saxons originated, bringing Christianity to them. Saxon Kings helped the Church to grow, 
but the Church increased the power of kings as well. Bishops supported their kings, which made it harder for 
royal power to be questioned. Kings’ authority was guaranteed by “God’s approval”. Since uncertainty 
 
1 /ˈsɪn.əd/ a regular meeting of Church members for the discussion of religious matters 
surrounded the royal succession, any pretension /prɪˈten.tʃən, priː-/ over the throne could only be validated by 
means of Church approval. 
 
Do you know that an eldest son did not automatically become king? 
Any member of the royal family who had enough soldiers could be chosen to try the throne. In addition, at a 
time when one king might try to conquer a neighboring kingdom, he would probably have a son to whom he 
would like to pass this enlarged kingdom when he died. 
So, when King Offa /ˈɑː.fə/ (King of Mercia /ˈmɝː.ʃə/ from 757 until his death in July 796. Offa was a Christian 
king who came into conflict with the Church, particularly with the Archbishop of Canterbury) appointed his son 
as his successor, he guaranteed that this was done at a Christian ceremony led by a bishop. It was good 
political propaganda because it suggested that kings were chosen not only by people but also by God. 
 
How did the Church help to increase the power of the English State? 
The Church established monasteries, or minsters, for example Westminster /westˈmɪniti.stɚ/, which were 
places of learning and education. In these monasteries few men, who could read and write, had their 
knowledge increased. Alfred, the great king who ruled Wessex /ˈwes.ɪks/ from 871-899, was one of the kings 
who mostly took advantage of the influence of the Church. 
He used the literate men of the Church to help him to establish a law system, to educate the people and to 
register important matters. He started the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the most important source, together with 
Bede’s Ecclesiastical / ɪˌkliː.ziˈæs.tɪkᵊl/ History of the English People, to understand the period. 
 
Why was it so important to be educated? 
Laws were made on a large number of subjects during the following hundred years. 
 
When the eleventh century comes, royal authority was wider and deeper in England than in any other 
European country. 
 
The power of landlords, whose lands were given by the king, was increased because their names were 
officially registered. 
 
Peasants, who could not read or write, could lose their traditional rights over their land, because their rights 
were not accepted. 
 
What were the economic reasons for the Anglo-Saxon kings adhere to the Roman Church? 
Monasteries built in villages and towns grew around and increased local trade which led to human and cultural 
development. 
Many monks in England came from the Frankish /ˈfræŋ.kɪʃ/ lands (France and Germany). They were invited by 
English rulers who wished to benefit from closer Church and economic contact with Europe. Most of these 
bishops and monks seem to have come from European churches and monasteries through vital trade routes. 
Close contact with many parts of Europe was encouraged. Besides they all used Latin, the written language of 
Rome, and this led English to trade with the continent. Trade has grown with the help of increased literacy. 
Anglo-Saxon England became well known in Europe for its exports of woolen2 goods, cheese, hunting dogs, 
pottery and metal goods. It imported wine, fish, pepper, jewellery and wheel-made pottery. 
 
Who were the Vikings /ˈvaɪ.kɪŋz/? 
At the end of the 8th century, new raiders3 were attracted by the wealth of Britain: the Vikings. 
Vikings may have a controversial origin. The word Vikings probably means "pirates" or "the 
people of the sea inlets4", and they come from Norway and Denmark. 
They attacked the churches, the monasteries and the villages along the coast of Britain and 
Ireland to steal gold pieces from the sacred places. 
 
 
 
2 /ˈwʊl·ən/ made of wool 
3 Raider /ˈreɪ.dɚ/someone who enters a place illegally and usually violently, and steals from it 
4 Inlet /ˈɪn.let/ us a narrow strip of water that goes from a sea or lake into the land or between islands = enseada 
How did the Vikings settle in Britain? 
In 865 the Vikings invaded Britain once it was clear that the quarrelling Anglo-Saxon kingdoms could not keep 
them out. This time they came to conquer and to settle. The Vikings quickly accepted Christianity and did not 
disturb the local population. 
 
Whatwas the role of King Alfred? 
King Alfred from Wessex managed to unite the Saxons against the Vikings. After some serious defeats, Alfred 
won a decisive battle in 878 and eight years later he captured London. He sealed a pact with the Vikings: 
Viking rule was recognized in the east and north of England, in the rest of the country he was recognized as 
the king of England. During his struggle against the Danes5, he had built walled6 settlements to keep them out. 
 
These were called burghs /bɝːɡz/. They become prosperous market towns, and the word, now usually spelt 
borough7, is one of the commonest ending to place names, as well as the name of the unit of municipal 
/mjuːˈnɪs.ə.pəl/ or town administration today. 
 
How did the powerful Thor /θɔːr/ influence the English language? 
We are going to mention just part of the influence Anglo-Saxon culture had on modern English language. 
Some regions in England nowadays have names derived from their culture such as Sussex /ˈsʌs.ɪks/ (South 
Saxons) e Wessex /ˈwes.ɪks/ (West Saxons). Some affixes from the English language also come from these 
peoples, such as -ing and -ton. But we cannot deny that the closest influence is in the names of the days of the 
week: 
 
• Tyr /tɪər/ → Tuesday had this name in honor of the God of War and physical activities. 
• Odin /ˈoʊ.dɪn/ → Wednesday was named after Nordic /ˈnɔːr.dɪk/ Gods. 
• Thor → Thursday is the day of the powerful Anglo-Saxon God of Thundering. 
• Freya /freɪ.ə/ → Friday has its origin in the Nordic Goddess of love and healing Freya (or Freyja 
/freɪ.ə/). 
 
What’s Beowulf /ˈbeɪ.ə.wʊlf/, the poem? 
 
Beowulf is an exciting narrative full of action, monsters and heroic deeds. We can understand why J. R. R. 
Tolkien /ˈtɑːl.kiːn, ˈtoʊl.-/ inspired himself in Beowulf to write, in the 1950s, the trilogy /ˈtrɪl.ə.dʒi/ ‘The Lord of 
the Rings’ (1954-1955), books which were extremely popular in England. One of Beowulf characteristics which 
influenced Tolkien is its structure of an epic poem. 
 
Beowulf is the greatest piece of literature to come down to us from the Anglo-Saxons. Much that we would like 
to know about it is lost in the distant past and will probably never be discovered: 
Who wrote it? When? Where? Scholars have found enough evidence in the poem itself that it was composed 
by a single gifted poet some time during the seventh or eighth century. The existing manuscript of a later date 
is no doubt a copy of an earlier one. 
The author was perhaps a Christianized West Saxon who drew his story from old pagan legends brought over 
from the continent; or perhaps monks substituted Christian references for pagan ones when they copied the 
manuscript. The character of Beowulf seems to be a blending of a historical figure with various mythical heroes 
of an earlier day. 
 
Is the theme universal? 
The theme is universal - the age-old story of a great leader who saves or tries to save a people in great 
danger. The action takes place in Sweden and Denmark. The characters are all people of noble birth. Though 
persons of low rank are introduced into the poem, their individual names are not given. 
 
Why is Beowulf considered a hero? 
 
5 a person from Denmark 
6 /wɑːld/ surrounded by a wall 
7 /ˈbʌr.ə/ us /ˈbɝː.oʊ/ a town, or a division of a large town 
Beowulf is the hero of the story. Strong, fearless, an advocate of freedom and justice, he typifies the Anglo-
Saxon ideals of personal conduct. The villains are the firedrake, or dragon from the dark caves, and the 
cannibal-ogre /ˈkæn.ɪ.bᵊl ˈoʊ.ɡɚ/ Grendel and his mother who live in the miasma8 of swamps in the land of 
mists and cold nights. The tone of the poem is dark, melancholic, and austere9. In simple, direct, majestic 
verse, a literary legacy from the earliest writers of English poetry, an exciting story is told of adventure and 
heroism. /ˈher.oʊ.ɪ.zəm/ 
 
Which cultural elements can be found in Beowulf? 
In the story of Beowulf, there is a noticeable struggle between Christianity and Paganism, and the characters 
personal battle between the two. Throughout the story the characters display actions that lead towards 
Paganism and Christianity. Contrary to Pagan belief, Beowulf is seen as the epitome10 of good and beneficent 
/bəˈnef.ɪ.sənt/ to all of mankind. In Beowulf, the people showed their faith and love in God, however due to 
horrific events, paranoia caused them to look for a desperate help and turns to the Paganism. 
The pagan elements in the epic poem Beowulf are evident in the characters superhuman personifications. 
Beowulf is depicted as a superhero. Beowulf takes it upon himself to save the Danes from Grendel. In his 
battle with Grendel, Beowulf chooses not to use weapons; he relies on his super strength. During the fight, 
Beowulf's strength takes over, and Beowulf wrestles with Grendel until he is able to rip one of the monster's 
arms out of its socket11. 
 
Do you want to know more about the poem Beowulf and other cultural elements present in this story? 
 
Click HERE and enjoy it! 
 
 
 
 A little more from Beowulf and other cultural elements 
Here is an example taken from the poem in which Beowulf tears Grendel´s arms from its socket, and 
the mortally wounded Grendel crawls to his lair. 
 
Now Grendel found, who in former days 
So many a warrior had wantonly12 slain, 
In brutish lust, abandoned of God, 
That the frame of his body was breaking at last. 
Keen of courage, the kinsman13 of Hygelac /ˈhaɪ.dʒɪlek/ 
Held him grimly14 gripped in his hands. 
Loath15 was each to the other alive. 
The grisly16 monster got his death wound: 
A huge split opened under his shoulder; 
Crunched17 the socket, cracked the sinews18, 
Glory great was given to Beowulf. 
 
8 /miˈæz.mə/ literary an unpleasant fog that smells bad 
9 /ɑːˈstɪr/ very simple and without comfort or unnecessary things, especially because of severe limits on money or goods; plain and 
without decoration; very severe and unfriendly in manner 
10 /ɪˈpɪt.ə.mi/ us /-ˈpɪt-̬/ the epitome of sth the typical or highest example of a stated quality, as shown by a particular person or 
thing 
11 a part of the body into which another part fits 
12 /ˈwɑːntənli/ (formal) in a way that causes harm or damage deliberately and for no acceptable reason 
(old-fashioned, disapproving) in a way that is sexually immoral 
13 /ˈkɪnz.mən/ plural -men uk /-mən/ us formal or old use a man who belongs to the same family as someone else 
14 in a way that looks or sounds very serious 
15 /loʊθ/ be loath to do something to not want to do something because it will cause problems 
16 extremely unpleasant, especially because death or blood is involved 
17 /krʌntʃ/ to make a noise by chewing hard food 
18 /ˈsɪn.juː/ a tendon /ˈten.dən/ (= strong piece of tissue in the body connecting a muscle to a bone) 
But Grendel escaped with his gaping19 wound, 
O´er the dreary20 moor21 his dark den22 sought, 
Crawled to his lair. ´Twas23 clear to him then, 
The count of his hours to end had come, 
Done were his days. The Danes were glad, 
The hard fight was over, they had 
Cleared was the hall, ´twas cleansed /klenzd/ by the hero 
With keen heart and courage, who came from afar24. 
 
 
Other cultural elements: 
Beowulf is called the dispenser25 of treasure and ring-giver (the one who distributes richness). This 
emphasis on gold and richness present in the Germanic culture and which characterized the way the 
king praised his warriors goes against the preaching of the Catholic Church. 
The biblical elements in Beowulf concentrate more in the times of violence portrayed in The Old 
Testament than in the Christian ideals of The New Testament. Perhaps this may have been the monk’s 
way to try to join the two cultures. 
Grendel is describedas Cain(e)’s descendent. 
The sword found by Beowulf in the deep of the cavern and that kills Grendel’s mother holds an 
inscription which narrates how the giants race was destroyed in a biblical flood. 
After the death of Grendel and his mother, it is said that their souls are being waited in Hell by Satan. 
Beowulf’s funeral has a Christian discourse but it is structured as a Viking ceremony. 
source: 
MCDOWALL26, D. An illustrated history of Britain. England: Longman, 2004 
 
Next class: 
• Discussion of the central idea of Feudalism /ˈfjuː.dᵊl.ɪ.zspəspm/; 
• comments on the importance of the Magna Carta; /ˌmæɡ.nəˈkɑːr.t̬ə/ 
• analysis of the foundation of Parliament; 
• description of the figure of the knight; 
• perception of the cultural elements of the Canterbury Tales. 
Summary: 
• Understand the arrival and the victory of the Catholic Church in England; 
• establish the importance of the Celtic Church, regarding Christianity, to ordinary people; 
• analyze Pagan and Christian elements in the epic poem “Beowulf”. 
 
 
19 /ˈɡeɪ.pɪŋ/ A gaping hole or other opening is very large. 
20 /ˈdrɪər·i/ boring and making you feel sad 
21 /mʊər/ an open area in the countryside that is covered with rough grass and bushes 
22 /den/ the home of some kinds of wild animals 
23 /twɑːz/ 
24 /əˈfɑːr/ 
25 /dɪˈspen·sər/ a container or device that gives out measured amounts of something 
26 məkˈdaʊ.əl, məkˈdoʊ.əl 
Cleared was the hall, ´twas cleansed by the hero 
With keen heart and courage, who came from afar. 
Other cultural elements: 
Beowulf is called the dispenser of treasure and ring-giver( the one who distributes richness). This 
emphasis on gold and richness present in the Germanic culture and which characterized the way the 
king praised his warriors goes against the preaching of the Catholic Church. 
The biblical elements in Beowulf concentrate more in the times of violence portrayed in The Old 
Testament than in the Christian ideals of The New Testament. Perhaps this may have been the monk´s 
way to try to join the two cultures. 
Grendel is described as Caim´s descendent. 
The sword found by Beowulf in the deep of the cavern and that kills Grendel´s mother holds an 
inscription which narrates how the giants race was destroyed in a biblical flood. 
After the death of Grendel and his mother, it is said that their souls are being waited in Hell by Satan 
Beowulf´s funeral has a Christian discourse but it is structured as a Viking ceremony. 
Fonte: 
MCDOWALL, D. An illustrated history of Britain. England: Longman, 2004 
Lesson 2, Feudalism /ˈfju·dəlˌɪz·əm/, knights and pilgrimages1 
 
Goals: 
1. Discuss the central idea of Feudalism; 
2. understand the importance of the Magna Carta; /ˌmæɡ.nəˈkɑːr.t̬ə/ 
3. analyze the foundation of Parliament; 
4. describe the figure of the knight; 
5. recognize the cultural elements of The Canterbury Tales. 
 
How was England ruled by the Normans? 
To understand the issues of Feudalism, we have to understand the events which happened 
before. When William the Conqueror /ˈkɑŋ·kər·ər/ became king, things did not go well 
during his coronation. 
When people shouted ‘God Save the King’ the Norman guards at Westminster Abbey 
thought they were going to attack William. In their fear, they set fire to nearby houses and 
the coronation ceremony ended in disorder. 
 
How did the Norman army behave? 
The Norman Conquest did not last for too long. However, these were troubled times. Anglo-
Saxons promoted continuing revolutions against the Normans. Until 1070, every year new 
rebellions occurred. As a consequence, the Norman army, though small, marched from 
village to village; destroying places that they could not control. 
 
It was a true army of occupation for at least twenty years. In the north, between Durham 
/ˈdʌr.ᵊm/ and York, not a single house was left standing, and it took a century for the north to 
recover. 
 
Could the Saxon keep their lands? 
Few Saxons lords kept their lands and those who did belonged to a small group that had accepted William 
immediately. The other lords lost everything. By 1086 there were only two great landlords and only two bishops 
were Saxons. The Norman nobles owned the lands and after each after each suppressed rebellion there was 
more land to give away, William’s army included Norman and French land seekers. Over 4,000 Saxon 
landlords were replaced by 200 Norman ones. 
 
How was the land distributed? 
The way William ruled the land made him an outstanding example for kings in 
continental Europe. William gave parts of the land to his captain as a reward. They had 
small separate pieces of land in different parts of the country so that no noble could 
easily try to gather his fighting men to rebel against the king. Only larger estates given 
were the ones along the troublesome borders with Wales and Scotland. At the same 
time, he kept enough land for himself to ensure he was much stronger than his nobles. 
Half of the farmland of England was given to Norman nobles, a quarter to the Church, 
and kept a fifth himself. The king kept the Saxon system of sheriffs, and used these as a mediator 
/ˈmiː.di.eɪ.t̬ər/ to the local nobles. As a result, England was different from the rest of Europe because it had one 
powerful family, instead of a large number of powerful nobles. William, and the kings after him, thought of 
England as their personal property. 
 
What did Feudalism mean? 
The word 'feudalism' comes from the French word feu, which the Normans used to refer to land held in return 
for duty or service to a lord. The holding of the land was the basis of feudal society and its main purpose was 
 
1 /ˈpɪl·ɡrə·mɪdʒ/ pilgrimage a journey to a place that is important for religious reasons 
economic. The central idea was that all land was owned by the king but it was held by 
others, called 'vassals' /ˈvæs.əlz/, in return for services and goods. 
Large estates were given by the king to his main nobles in return for a promise to serve him 
in war for up to forty days. Part of the produce of the land had to be given to the king. The 
greater nobles gave part of their lands to lesser nobles, knights, and other ´freeman´. Some 
freemen paid for the land by doing military service, while others paid rent. The noble kept 
'serfs2' to work on his own land. These were not free to leave the estate, and were often a 
little better than slaves. 
 
What were the two basic principles to feudalism? 
The first one was that every man had a lord and the second was that every lord 
had land. The king was connected through this 'chain' of people to the lowest 
man in the country. At each level, a man had to promise loyalty and service to 
his lord. 
This promise was generally made with the lord sitting on his chair and his 
vassal3 kneeling before him, his hands placed between those of his lord. This 
was called 'homage' /ˈhɑː.mɪdʒ/, and has remained part of the coronation 
/ˌkɔr·əˈneɪ·ʃən, ˌkɑr-/ ceremony of British kings and queens until now. On the other hand, each lord had 
responsibilities to his vassals. He had to give them land and protection. 
 
What happened when a noble died? 
The king could benefit from the death of a noble. The noble’s son usually took over his estate but he had to 
receive permission from the king and make a special payment. If he was a child, the king would often take the 
produce of the estate until the boy was old enough to look after the estate himself. 
If all the noble’s family died, the land went back to the king who later, after using its wealth, would give it to 
another noble. If the king did not give the nobles land they would not fight for him. 
 
By 1086, the king sent a team of people all through England to makea complete economic survey. His men 
asked all kinds of questions at each settlement: How much land was there? Who owned it? How much was it 
worth? How many families, ploughs and sheep were there? The survey was most unpopular with the people, 
because they felt they could not escape from its findings. Information was gathered and kept in a Book called 
‘Doomsday’. The book still exists, and gives us an extraordinary amount of information about England at this 
time. 
 
What replaced the idea of Nationalism in the early Middle Ages? 
William controlled two large areas: Normandy4 /ˈnɔːr.mən.di/, which was given to him by his father, and 
England, which was won in war. Both were personal possessions and it did not matter to the rulers that the 
ordinary people of one place were English while those of another were French. 
 
To William the important difference between them was that as duke of Normandy he had to recognize the king 
of France as his lord, whereas in England he was king with no lord above him. 
 
What happened when William died in 1087? 
He left the Duchy [the territory of a duke or duchess; a dukedom] of Normandy to his elder son, Robert. He 
gave England to his second son, William, known as ‘Rufus’ /ˈruː.fəs/ (Latin for red) because he had red hair 
 
2 /sɜrf/ world history a member of a low social class of farm workers who cannot leave the land where they work and who are ruled 
by the owner of the land. 
3 /ˈvæs.əl/ in medieval Europe, a man who agreed to fight for a king or lord (= rich and powerful land owner) when needed, in 
exchange for land to live on. 
4 Normandy is one of the regions of France, roughly corresponding to the historical Duchy of Normandy. [duchy noun [ C ] /ˈdʌtʃ.i/ 
the area of land owned or ruled by a duke or duchess.] 
and face. When Robert went to fight the Muslims in the Holy Land, he left William II in charge of Normandy. 
After all, the management of Normandy and England was a family business. 
 
How was the process of succession /səkˈseʃ.ᵊn/ then? 
William Rufus died in a hunting accident in 1100, shot dead by an arrow. Henry5 was crowned king instead of 
Robert who was coming back to Normandy from the Holy Land. Robert became very angry and prepared to 
invade but it took him a year to organize an army. The Norman nobles in England had to choose between 
Henry and Robert. They chose Robert because he was in London, with the crown already on his head. 
Robert’s invasion was a failure and he accepted payment to return to Normandy. In 1106 Henry invaded 
Normandy and captured Robert. Normandy and England were reunited under one ruler. 
In 1120 Henry’s only son was drowned at sea. After fifteen, years Henry accepted her daughter, Matilda, would 
follow him. Henry had married Matilda to another great noble in France, Geoffrey /ˈdʒef.ri/ Plantagenet 
/plænˈtædʒ.ə.nɪt/. He hoped the family lands would be made larger by this marriage. 
He made all the nobles promise to accept Matilda when he died. But then Henry himself quarreled publicly with 
Matilda’s husband, and died soon after. 
There were two possible heirs to Henry: Matilda who was in Anjou /ɑːnˈʒuː/ and Henry’s nephew, Stephen of 
Blois /blɔɪs/, who was in Bologna. /bəˈloʊ.njə/ Stephen raced to England to claim the crown. 
The nobles chose Stephen, who seems to have been good at fighting but little else. Matilda invaded England 
four years later. 
Neither side could win and in 1153 Matilda and Stephen agreed that Stephen could keep the throne but only if 
Matilda’s son, Henry, could succeed him. 
Stephen died in 1154 and the family possessions of England and the lands in France were united under a king 
everyone accepted, Henry II. 
Henry II’s empire stretched from the Scottish border to the Pyrenees. /ˌpɪr.əˈniːz/ 
Although Henry recognized the king of France as the overlord of all his French lands, he actually controlled a 
greater area than the king of France. 
Richard and John fought against their father, they did their duty to the king of France, their feudal overlord. 
In 1189 Henry died a broken man, disappointed and defeated by his sons and by the king of France. 
Henry was followed by Richard, who has always been one of England’s most popular kings, although he spent 
hardly any time in England. His nickname Coeur de Lion /ˌkɝː.dəˈliː.ən/, “lionheart”, shows that his culture was 
French. He was everyone’s idea of the perfect feudal king. 
Richard was captured by the duke of Austria and demanded money to let him go. 
Shortly after, in 1199, Richard was killed in France. 
Richard was followed by his brother, John. John had already made himself unpopular with the nobles, the 
merchants and the Church. John was a greedy man. He took the noble’s lands, and taxed the merchant class 
at a higher level than ever before. 
In 1209 John quarreled with the pope over who would be the Archbishop of Canterbury but gave in, in 1214 
and accepted the pope’s choice. 
In 1215 John hoped to recapture Normandy but his nobles did not support him. John was forced to sign a new 
agreement. 
 
What was the Magna Carta? 
The Magna Carta, the Great Charter, was an important symbol of political freedom. The king promised all 
‘freeman’ protection from his officers, and the right to a fair and legal trial. 
At that time, most people were not free, and were serfs or experimented a different intermediate social status, 
such as artisans6. Hundreds of years later, Magna Carta was used by Parliament to protect itself from a 
powerful king. 
 
5 Henry I → (1068-1135) king of England (1100-35). The youngest of three sons of William I, he became king when his eldest brother 
William II died, because his other brother Robert was away on a Crusade. Henry improved the administrative system of the country 
and established a system by which judges travelled around the country deciding cases. 
6 Artisan /ˈɑː.tɪ.zæn/ us /ˈɑːr.tɪ̬-/ someone who does skilled work with their hands. 
In fact, Magna Carta gave no real freedom to the majority of people in England. The nobles /ˈnoʊ·bəlz/ who 
obliged King John to sign it did not defend people’s freedom: they wanted to prevent John from going beyond 
his rights as feudal lord. 
Was Magna Carta a clear sign of the collapse of English Feudalism? 
We have some reasons to believe so. First, feudal society was based on links between lord and vassal and at 
Runnymede /ˈrʌn.i.miːd/ the nobles were not acting as vassals but as a class. Secondly, they established a 
committee of twenty-four lords to make sure John would keep his promises. That was not a ‘feudal’ thing to do. 
Last, the nobles were acting in co-operation with the merchant class of towns. There were other signs that 
feudalism was changing. 
When the king went to war, the nobles refused to fight more than forty days. The king had to pay soldiers to 
fight for him. At the same time, lords preferred their vassals to pay them in money rather in services. Vassals 
were gradually beginning to change into tenants. Feudalism, the use of the land in return for service, was 
beginning to weaken. But it took three hundred years to disappear completely. 
 
How was the foundation of the English Parliament? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 King John signed Magna Carta under pressure and it quickly became clear that he was not going to keep 
the agreement. The nobles rebelled and pushed John out of the southeast. But John died and Civil War was 
avoided. 
Henry III was nine and he was controlled during sixteen years by the powerful nobles, and tied by the Magna 
Carta. At the age of twenty-five, he could rule by himself. Henry’s heavy spending to support wars in favor of 
the pope in Sicily /ˈsɪs.ᵊl.i/ and France and his foreigner advisers upset the nobles. Once again, they acted as 
a class and under the leadershipof Simon de /də, dɪ , di/ Montfort /ˈmɑːnt.fɚt/, took over the government and 
elected a council of nobles. 
De Montfort called it a parliament, or parlement, a French word meaning a ‘discussion meeting’. The nobles 
were supported by towns, which wished to be free of Henry’s heavy taxes. 
 
The Foundations to a Future Parliament 
King Henry III, the son of King John, began his reign in 1216. At first, he consulted with a small Council of 
important Lords, who were usually always around him. Later, Henry began the practice of summoning 
/ˈsʌm.ənɪŋ/ an expanded group of Lords from the entire kingdom. Known as a Great Council, it included the 
major land-owning barons7, other nobles, and the archbishops and bishops of the Catholic Church, the state 
religion. 
The king’s judges and top government officials also attended. Henry summoned about 50 Lords to a Great 
Council when he needed their advice and consent for such things as going to war, changing the law, or 
levying8 /ˈlevi.ɪŋ/ a new tax. The Great Council Lords looked upon their advice and consent as both a duty to 
the king and a right that he was bound to honor. 
When he died, Edward I brought together the first real parliament. Several kings had made arrangements for 
taxation but Edward I was the first to create a ‘representative institution’ which could provide the money he 
 
7 Baron /ˈbær·ən/ a man of high social rank in the UK and other parts of Europe 
8 Levy to use official authority to demand and collect a payment, tax, etc. 
needed. This institution became the House of Commons. Different from the House of Lords, it contained a 
mixture of ‘gentry9’ (knights and other wealth ‘freeman’ from the shires10) and merchants from the towns. 
These were the two broad classes of people who produced and controlled England’s wealth. In 1275 the 
‘commoners’ became unwilling representatives of their local community. They did not want to give their money 
to the king. This, rather than Magna Carta, was the beginning of the idea that there should not be ‘no taxation 
without representation’, later claimed by the American colonists /ˈkɑː.lə.nɪsts/ of the eighteenth century. 
 
How was the system of classes in England? 
England was special because the House of Commons contained a mixture of 
gentry belonging to the feudal ruling class and merchants and freemen. The co-
operation of these groups, through the House of Commons, became important to 
Britain’s later political and social development. After the death of Edward, for 150 
years the agreement of the Commons became necessary for the making of all 
statutes and all special taxation additional to regular taxes. 
 
How can we describe the figure of the knight? 
The knight, together with the King, was the most representative figure in Medieval Times. His 
image evokes qualities such as unconditional bravery, honor and idealization of someone who 
is able to abandon his desires to favor his principles. 
 
Knights’ value resided on their ability with arms, physical strength, courage, honor and loyalty 
towards his lord. In the 12th century, these elements mixed with Christian principles to form a 
code of knights. 
 
The knights did not only learn how to combat, but also the rules to behave like a real knight, there was a 
knight’s ethics. He knew how to sing the sufferings and pleasure of the ‘amour courtois11’. 
 
In medieval literature, the figure of a knight is outstanding. He is the hero, an example, always related to 
extreme actions, as in Sir Gawain /ˈɡɑː.weɪn/ and the Green knight. 
 
 The social classes in The Canterbury Tales 
Geoffrey Chaucer /ˈtʃɑː.sər/ is often called “the father of English literature” and to him goes the honor of being 
the first great English humorist and realist. He was born in London into the home of a successful wine importer 
who was able to place his young sons a page in a household associated with the court of King Edward III. 
Chaucer ties his collection of tales by having his story tellers travel together on the then familiar London-
Canterbury route of pilgrimage to the shrine of Thomas à Becket /əˈbek.ɪt/, who was martyred12 /ˈmɑːr.t̬ərd/ 
four years earlier at the hands of Henry II. It was the custom throughout Europe in those days for members of 
all classes to travel to religious shrines13 to seek miraculous cures, to gain remission14 /rɪˈmɪʃ.ən/ of their sins, 
or to satisfy the wanderlust15 in their hearts. In England the pilgrimage to Canterbury Cathedral, site of this 
splendid shrine, was the most popular. Chaucer’s characters represent a cross section of medieval society and 
include three important groups: feudal, ecclesiastical /ɪˌkliː.ziˈæs.tɪkᵊl/, and urban. The characters who are 
members of the feudal system are related to the land; these are the knight, the Squire, the Yeoman /ˈjoʊ.mən/, 
the Franklin, the Reeve and the Plowman /ˈplaʊ.mən/. Those in the ecclesiastical order represent individuals 
belonging to the medieval church: the Parson, the Summoner, the Monk, the Prioress /ˈpraɪ.ɚ.ɪs/, the Friar 
/fraɪ.ɚ/, the Pardoner, and the Clerk. The other pilgrims are professional and mercantile /ˈmɝː.kən.taɪl/ 
 
9 the gentrynoun [ plural ] uk /ˈdʒen.tri/ us /ˈdʒen.tri/ people of high social class, especially in the past. 
10 Shire /ʃaɪr/ UK old use a county, now used in combination in the names of many British counties. → Yorkshire, Oxfordshire 
11 another term for courtly love [/ˈkɔːrt.li/polite and formal in behavior] 
12 [usually passive] martyr somebody to kill somebody because of their religious or political beliefs 
13 Shrine /ʃrɑɪn/ a holy place where people go to pray 
14 religion the fact of being forgiven for breaking religious laws or rules. 
15 /ˈwɑːn.dɚ.lʌst/ the wish to travel far away and to many different places 
laymen16, who reside in the ever-increasing English towns of Chaucer’s day: the Physician, the Lawyer, the 
Manciple17, the Merchant, the Shipman, the Tradesmen, the Cook, the Clothmaker (the wife of Bath), and the 
Innkeeper18. Although Chaucer does not attempt to individualize all the characters in the Prologue /ˈproʊ.lɑːɡ/ 
to The Canterbury Tales, his pilgrims become real human beings seemingly on a real pilgrimage: 
Excerpts from THE PROLOGUE 
 
Byfel that, in that sesoun on a day, 
In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay 
Redy to wenden on my pilgrimage 
To Caunterbury with ful devout corage, 
At night was come into the hostelrie 
Wel nyne and twenty in a compaiye, 
Of sundry folk, by aventure i-falle 
In felaweschipe, and pilgrims were thei alle, 
That toward Caunterbury wolden ryde, 
 
Tradução do PRÓLOGO 
Naquele tempo, um dia aconteceu 
Que em Southwerk, no Tabardo, achando-me eu 
Pronto a seguir em peregrinação 
A Cantuária, todo devoção 
Vieram essa noite à hospedaria 
Bem vinte e nove numa companhia 
De pessoas diversa, que os destinos 
Reuniram, por serem peregrinos 
Buscando o mesmo fim de igual maneira 
 
Through his pilgrims Chaucer gives far more than an unforgettable group of character sketches and a 
collection of stories. He uses the pilgrims to comment subtly but powerfully on the social problems of his time. 
His native tolerance and sense of humor helped him to understand men and the forces that motivated them. 
He realized that the disorders and confusions of the age in which he lived marked the decline of the Age of 
Chivalry19, and the beginning of a new era- an era in which the lot of the common man was improving, the 
merchant class was prospering, and a Parliament was functioning. Chaucer looked upon this new order and 
found it good. This optimism colors the mood of Chaucer´s pilgrims as they set forth20 to Canterbury. 
 
Activity 
For all questions mark the right options in relation to 'The Canterbury Tales', by Chaucer:1 - Chaucer carne from a poor family. → No 
2 - ln 'The Canterbury Tales', Chaucer describes characters from different social classes. → Yes 
3 - 'The Canterbury Tales' serves as a portrait of the English society in Medieval Times. → Yes 
 
Next class: 
• Discussion on the Arthurian /ɑːrˈθʊr.i.ən/ legends; 
• the origin of the arthurian mith; 
• analysis of arthurian stories; 
• the chivalry romance; 
• historical, social and cultural aspects in morte d’Arthur. 
 
16 Layman noun uk /ˈleɪ.mən/ us plural -men uk /-mən/ us also layperson someone who is part of a religious organization but who 
is not paid or specially trained: laico 
someone who is not trained in or does not have a detailed knowledge of a particular subject: leigo, -a 
17 /ˈmæn sə pəl/1.an officer or steward of a monastery, college, etc., authorized to purchase provisions. 
18 Innkeeper noun [ C ] uk /ˈɪnˌkiː.pər/ us /ˈɪnˌkiː.pɚ/ old use a person who owns or manages an inn, especially in the past. 
19 /ˈʃɪv·əl·ri/ polite behaviour towards women 
20 set forth (literary) to start a journey 
Lesson 3, Historical, cultural and literary sources about the King Arthur. 
 
Objectives: 
1. To know about the legend of king Arthur; 
2. to understand the origins of king Arthur´s stories; 
3. to analyze the historical and cultural roots of the Chivalry /ˈʃɪv.ᵊl.ri/ Romance; 
4. to identify historical, social and cultural characteristics in Le Morte D’Arthur. /ləˌmɔːrtˈdɑːr.θər/ 
 
What was the importance of William Caxton /ˈkæk.stᵊn/ and the Printing Press? 
Although William Caxton (1422? - 1491?) was at an early age apprenticed1 to one of England’s richest cloth 
merchants and ultimately became a wealthy merchant himself, it is with printing that his name is forever 
associated. Vacationing in the German city of Cologne /kəˈloʊn/ in the summer of 1471, he saw for the first 
time a printing press at work. 
 
Gutenberg’s /ˈɡuː.tən.bɝːɡ/ invention of printing from movable type, though not over fifty years old at that time, 
had already spread to nearly every country in Europe. On his return to England, he 
established the first English press at Westminster /westˈmɪniti.stɚ/ in 1476. 
 
One third of the books he issued were his own translations, and to them he 
contributed prefaces. Among Caxton’s hundred printed books are Chaucer’s 
‘Canterbury Tales’ and Malory’s ‘Le Morte D’Arthur’, to the latter of which he 
contributed an excellent preface. /ˈpref.ɪs/ 
Since books became both less cumbersome and less expensive, and since many 
different titles were printed, for the first time it became worthwhile for the average man to learn to read. Thus, 
to a great extent the invention of printing brought England to the close of the Middle Ages and ushered in2 the 
Renaissance. /ˈren.ə.sɑːns/ 
 
Why are the stories about King Arthur so fascinating? 
There was a story that an abbot3, in 1200, in a monastery was talking about God in a meeting. He noticed that 
the monks and nuns were sleepy and that some of them even snored. All of a sudden, the abbot announced: 
‘Listen, my brothers, once upon a time there was a king called Arthur…’ 
Everyone who was already sleeping, woke up to listen to Arthur’s stories. The abbot, then, concluded that his 
audience needed higher spiritual teachings because they were much more attentive to Arthur’s stories than to 
his preaching about God. 
 
What are Arthur’s historical roots? 
Arthur was born as a symbol of hope to the British people. After the Roman legions left Britain to defend Rome 
against vast groups of invaders in the beginning of the V century, the Bretons /ˈbret.ᵊnz/ had to fight their own 
invaders, the German, called ‘Saxons’. 
 
Over a century, the British soldiers fought against the Saxons, having victories and defeats, 
up to 577 A.D. when the Germanic conquest was achieved in the Battle of Deorham. With 
the Germanic conquest, the major part of Bretons mixed with the invaders; some others, 
however, went to Wales, and another part crossed the channel to the province of Britain. 
 
When did real facts start to mix with fiction? 
Although they have lost their island to invaders, the Bretons kept in their memories the 
remembrances of times in which they could fight the enemies having as their leader 
Ambrosius /æmˈbroʊ.ʒəs/ Aurelianus (Ambrósio Aureliano). 
That guaranteed them a period of peace of 44 years. This victory was achieved in the battle 
named Badon in 516, mentioned by Beda in Ecclesiastical History of the English People, and was present in 
 
1 /əˈpren.tɪ̬s/ old-fashioned to make someone an apprentice. 
2 usher something ⇿ in /ˈʌʃ·ər/ (formal) to be the beginning of something new or to make something new begin. 
3 /ˈæb.ət/a man who is in charge of a monastery. 
the memory of the Bretons. And since then, they expected the return of the ones who had led them to victory. 
From this point on, the facts started to mix with reality. 
 
 What are the cultural roots of Arthur’s legends? 
Many characters and elements surround the stories of King Arthur have their roots in legends, beliefs and 
habits of the peoples who invaded Britain. Let’s take a look at some of them. 
1- Arthur- ‘Arthur’ is the welsh form of the roman name Arthorius and that suggests that he has appeared when 
Britain was under the influence of the Roman Empire. Another story links the origin of the name ‘Arthur” from 
the legend, to a chivalry officer from the II century called Lucius /ˈluː.ʃəs/ Artorius Castus, who was a leader for 
the Bretons against the invaders in a number of battles. 
2- Avalon /ˈæv.ə.lɑːn/- In the year 1998, archeologists found in Cadbury /ˈkæd.ber.i/ Hill British military chiefs 
buried in coffins in the shape of boats. The ancient people believed that the soul traveled from one world to 
another which was found in lakes and seas. The coffins were pointing the hill of Glastonbury Tor 
/ˈɡlæs.tᵊnˌber.i//tɔːr/, a religious place. During the flooding times, Glastonbury was isolated as an island. 
People wonder if that ritual is behind the legend that Arthur was taken to the magic island of Avalon to heal his 
wounds. 
3- Camelot /ˈkæm.ə.lɑːt/- In 1542, John Leland /ˈliː.lənd/ found out hints of an ancient building from the VI 
century in Cadbury Hill, close to the river Cam. This river passed through the villages of West Camel and 
Queen Camel. Leland believes that this ancient building has given origin to the legendary headquarter of 
Arthur’s government. 
4- Excalibur /ekˈskæl.ɪ.bər/- It was common during the Middle Ages to give names to swords. According to 
recent researches, the famous scene of the sword withdrawn from the rock comes from the fact that the 
Bretons forged their swords in rock moulds. It is important to make clear that the sword withdrawn from the 
rock was not Excalibur. King Arthur’s famous sword, called in the first reports ‘Caladfwich’ ( it comes from the 
welsh word caladbolg- duro corte) and after, in the XII century of Caliburn, was given by him to the Dame of 
the Lake and it was forged by fairies. The fact that the sword came from water and returned to it after Arthur’s 
death comes from the habit of the first Celtic communities to throw in the water swords, shields and objects 
from the dead warriors. As time went by the two swords turned into a single one. 
5- The Graal /ɡreɪl/ - The origin of the Holy Grail /ɡreɪl/ comes probably from the word gradalis which means 
grail4 or dish. Indeed, a theme always mentioned in the Celtic legends is the search for a magical pot. From 
the XVIII century on it started to be associated with the Arthurian cycle, but only as a supernatural symbol 
without Christian connections. Around the XV century, it turned into the Holy Grail, the grail employed by 
Jesus. 
 6- Lancelot ofthe Lake- The most famous knight from the Round Table has his origin in the welsh warrior 
Lluch Llauynnauc and in the Irish divinity Lugh Lamhfada. Another version is that the death of his father, King 
Ben, he was taken by the Dame of the Lake to be raised by her in a palace under water. 
7- Merlin- Merlin is the mixing of a welsh legend about a British noble in the ending of the VI century. He was 
famous for becoming crazy in a battle and for raiding for the south of Scotland telling prophecies under the 
name of Myrddin, as the character Ambrosius Merlinus by Geoffrey de Monmouth. /ˈmɑːn.məθ/ 
8- The Round Table- A famous round table created by Merlin with the purpose of getting together 150 knights 
to celebrate king Arthur’s deeds. The shape of the table has its origins in the Celtic belief that the circle is a 
symbol of coherence and totality. 
 
How was the code of chivalry? 
According to code of chivalry, the perfect knight fought for his good name if insulted, served God and the King, 
and defended any lady in need. These ideas were expressed in the legend of the Round 
Table, around which King Arthur and his knights sat as equals in holy brotherhood. 
 
4 /ˈɡreɪl/ → the holy grail - a cup believed to have been used by Jesus Christ at the meal before his death 
o Santo Graal 
 
How did Edward III introduce the idea of chivalry into his court? 
Edward III and his eldest son, the Black Prince, were greatly admired in England for their 
courage on the battlefield and for their courtly manners. They became symbols of the ‘code of 
chivalry’, the way in which a perfect knight should behave. Edward introduced the idea of 
chivalry into his court. 
Once, a lady at court accidentally dropped her garter5 and Edward III noticed some of his 
courtiers6 laughing at her. He picked up the garter and tied it to his own leg, saying in French, 
‘Honi soit qui mal y pense’, which means ‘Let him be ashamed who sees wrong in it’. From this strange yet 
probably true story, the Order of the Garter was founded in 1348. 
 
Who were the members of the Order of Garter? 
Edward chose as members of the order twenty-four knights, the same number the legendary Arthur had 
chosen. They met once a year on St George’s day at Windsor /ˈwɪnd.zɚ/ Castle, where King Arthur´s Round 
Table was supposed to have been. The custom is still followed, and Honi Soit Qui Mal Y Pense7 is still the 
motto of the royal family. 
 
Why was chivalry useful? 
Chivalry was a useful way of persuading men to fight by creating the idea that war was a noble and glorious 
thing. War could also, of course, be profitable. But in fact, cruelty, death, destruction and theft were the reality 
of war, as they are today. The Black Prince8, who was the living example of chivalry in England, was feared in 
France for his cruelty. 
What are the characteristics of a Romance of Chivalry? 
The world depicted in these romances is unreal, a world in which daily 
life is irrelevant, where action dominates reflection and exaggeration 
rules (the hero is the best, the greatest, the lady the most beautiful, 
the enemy the cruelest etc.). We have to suspend our disbelief as we 
enter the black and white world of heroes and villains, virtuous women and immoral 
women, giants and dwarves and so on. 
Chivalric romance looks constantly to the future, as the knight moves from adventure to adventure. This active 
life contrasts significantly with, for example, that pastoral /ˈpæs.tᵊr.əl/ literature which is typically static, with the 
shepherd seated on a river bank comparing his past joy-through-love with his loveless present. For the 
shepherd, there is no future; the knight-errant9, on the other hand, constantly propels10 himself forward (unless 
he is enchanted, in which case he awaits release). 
 
What are the characteristics of a Romance of Chivalry? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5 /ˈɡɑr·tə̬r/ a circle of elastic that holds up your socks or stockings = liga (de meia) 
6 Courtier noun uk /ˈkɔː.ti.ər/ us /ˈkɔːr.ti̬.ɚ/ a companion of a queen, king, or other ruler in their official home, especially in the 
past. cortesão, -ã 
7 Honi soit qui mal y pense é uma expressão francesa que significa Envergonhe-se quem nisto vê malícia, muito usada em meios 
cultos. Também é o lema da Ordem da Jarreteira, comenda britânica criada pelo rei Eduardo III de Inglaterra, no tempo das 
Cruzadas. E um dos lemas do Reino Unido, estando estampado em sua bandeira. 
8 Edward of Woodstock KG (15 June 1330 – 8 June 1376), called the Black Prince, was the eldest son of King Edward III and Philippa 
of Hainault, and the father of King Richard II of England. He was the first Duke of Cornwall (from 1337), the Prince of Wales (from 
1343) and the Prince of Aquitaine (1362–72). /ˌæk.wɪˈteɪn/ 
9 /ˌnaɪt ˈer.ənt/ plural knights errant literary a medieval knight who travelled around doing brave things and helping people who 
were in trouble. 
10 /prəˈpel/ us -ll- to push or move something somewhere, often with a lot of force 
Romances of chivalry have a universal, timeless quality. The adventures are variations on the eternal struggle 
between good and evil, order and disorder, requited11 and unrequited love, and happen in some vague time in 
the past (but after the birth of Christ) and in exotic and distant places. The world of romance is still with us, but 
transformed. We have only to look, for example, at Western (cowboy) movies and novels, the highly popular 
James Bond novels and films (set in present time but exotic locales12), the television series Xena: Princess 
Warrior (female ‘knight’ and ‘squire’) and the Star Wars movies (which take us into a distant future). 
 
Who was Sir Thomas Malory /ˈmæl.ᵊr.i/? 
Shortly before Chaucer’s death, when both feudalism and chivalry were faltering institutions, a man was born 
who sought to capture in his writings the medieval ideal of knighthood. This man was Sir Thomas Malory. Little 
is known about his life. For many years, scholars have identified the author of Le Morte D’Arthur with a 
Warwickshire /ˈwɑːr.ɪkʃɪr/ knight who was charged with extortion, robbery, and rape and who spent long 
stretches of his life in various prisons. Recent investigations have discovered other ‘Thomas Malorys’, 
indicating that the actual author may not have had a criminal record. 
 
What is Le Morte D´Arthur about? 
Malory´s Le Morte D´Arthur is a gathering of the main body of legends about King Arthur into one narrative, it is 
the best-known work of fifteenth-century English literature. His simple, forthright13 telling of Arthurian lore14 is 
still enjoyed by modern readers, and the work has long inspired other writings, such as Tennyson´s Idylls of the 
king15. 
What were the sources of Morte D' Arthur? 
Mallory used 13th century French version of Arthurian legends, skillfully condensing and rewriting them. 
Another source was a medieval alliterative16 poem in English called Morte Arthure. Malory omitted minor 
episodes found in these sources. 
 
What was the content of Malory’s cycle? 
A manuscript discovered in 1934 of Malory’s work lists the eight principal bodies of Arthurian lore: 
 
1- The Tale of Arthur and Lucius /ˈluː.ʃəs/ 
2- The book of king Arthur 
3- The Tale of Sir Lancelot du Lake 
4- Sir Gareth of Orkney 
5- Tristan de Lioness 
6- The quest of the Holy Grail 
7- Lancelot and Guinevere17 /ˈɡwɪn.ɪ.vɪr/ 
8- Le Morte D’Arthur 
 
What was the content of Malory’s cycle? 
Extract from Le MORTE D’ARTHUR 
 
11 /rɪˈkwaɪt/ formal to give or do something in return for something given to you or done for you: 
Requited love is not enough to sustain a long-term relationship. 
12 Locale noun [ C ] uk /ləˈkɑːl/ us /ləˈkɑːl/ formal an area or place,especially one where something special happens, such as the 
action in a book or film. 
13 adjective uk /ˈfɔːθ.raɪt/ us /ˈfɔːrθ-/ (too) honest or direct in behavior. 
14 /lɔːr/ traditional knowledge and stories about a subject. 
15/ˈaɪ.dᵊlz/ Idílios do rei 
16 /əˌlɪt.̬əˈreɪ.ʃən/ specialized the use, especially in poetry, of the same sound or sounds, especially consonants, at the beginning of 
several words that are close together 
 ‘Round the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran’ uses alliteration. 
alliterative adjective /əˈlɪt.ər.ə.tɪv/ /əˈlɪtə̬r.ə.tɪ̬v/ 
17 Genebra, Ginebra ou Ginevra é um personagem mitológico-literário, rainha consorte do Rei Artur nas lendas do Ciclo Arturiano da 
Matéria da Bretanha. 
Book XXI, Chapter IV 
Therefore, for God’s sake, my lord, leave off by this. For blessed by God ye have won the field, for 
here we be three on live, and Sir Mordred is none on live. And if ye leave off now this wicked day of 
destiny is past. Tide me death, betide me life, saith the king, now I see him yonder alone he shall never 
escape mine hands, for at a better avail shall I never have him. God speed you well, said Sir Bedivere. 
Then the king gat his spear in both hands, and ran toward Sir Mordred, crying: Traitor, now is thy death 
day come. And when Sir Mordred heard Sir Arthur, he ran until him with his sword drawn in his hand. 
And there King Arthur smote Sir Mordred under the shield, with a foin of his spear, throughout the 
body, more than a fathom. And when Sir Mordred felt that he had his death wound he thurst himself 
with the might that he had up to the bur of king Arthur’s, with his swod holden in both his hands, on 
the side of the head, that the sword pierced the helmet and the brain-pan, and therewithal Sir Mordred 
fell stark dead to the earth. And the noble Arthur fell in a swoon to the earth, and he swooned oft-
times. 
Tradução de Paulo Vizioli 
Portanto, pelo amor de Deus, meu senhor, deixá-lo estar. Pois, graças a Deus, fostes o vitorioso no campo, visto 
que aqui ainda vivemos três, e com Sir Mordred não há mais ninguém com vida. E, se agora deixardes as coisas 
como estão, terá passado este dia cruel do destino. Traga-me a morte, leve-me a vida, brada o rei, agora que o vejo 
sozinho acolá não há de escapar-me das mãos, pois oportunidade melhor nunca terei. Deus vos proteja, ajuntou Sir 
Bedivere. Então o soberano agarrou a lança com ambas as mãos e correu para Sir Mordred, gritando: Traidor, 
chegou o dia de tua morte. E quando Sir Mordred ouviu Sir Arthur, correu para ele com a espada desembaiada na 
mão. E ali o Rei Artur feriu Sir Mordred por baixo do escudo, com um golpe de lança, perfurando-lhe o corpo de 
lado a lado. E quando Sir Mordred sentiu que fora ferido de morte, arremessou-se sobre o Rei Artur, com o que 
ainda lhe restava de forças, até o punho da lança. E assim, segurando a espada com ambas as mãos, feriu seu pai 
Artur em um dos lados da cabeça, de modo que a lâmina atravessou o elmo e o crânio; e com isso Sir Mordred 
tombou morto ao solo. E o nobre Artur veio ao chão num desmaio, e lá desfaleceu seguidas vezes. 
 
The selection occurs near the end of the Morte D’Arthur, when the unity of the Round Table has been 
disrupted by the ambitions of Arthur’s nephew, Mordred /ˈmɔːr.dred/. Rallying a band of knights around him, 
the traitor attempts to seize Arthur’s crown. Ultimately the two factions meet in a battle which brings about the 
death of all the knights of the kingdom except the loyal Sir Bedivere. Mordred is killed by Arthur, who is himself 
mortally wounded. It is left to Bedivere /ˈbed.ə.vɪr/ to carry out his king’s last wishes. 
Activity: 
For all questions mark the right options in relation to ‘Morte D’Arthur’: 
 
1- We know many facts about Malory’s life. [no] 
2- ‘Morte D’Arthur’ is an example of an excellent romance of chivalry. [yes] 
3- Malory uses 13th century French versions of Arthurian legends. [yes] 
Next class: 
• Recognize the 16th century in England as the ‘Golden Age”, “the Elizabethan era”, the “Tudors era”; 
• analyze the importance of the Protestant Reformation and establish how the rupture with the Church 
favors Henry VIII; 
• understand how the Renaissance opposed the medieval mentality; 
• recognize the origins and development of the Elizabethan /iˌlɪz.əˈbiː.θᵊn/ Theater and analyze one of 
Shakespeare´s plays. 
 
 Summary, in this class, you were able to: 
• To know about the legend of king Arthur; 
• to understand the origins of king Arthur´s stories; 
• to analyze the historical and cultural roots of the Chivalry Romance; 
• to identify historical, social and cultural characteristics in Morte D’arthur. 
 
 
 
 
Lesson 4, The Tudors [ˈtuː.dərz], The Renaissance [ˈren.ə.sɑːns] and The Elizabethan [iˌlɪz.əˈbiː.θᵊn, 
əˌlɪz.əˈbiː.θən] Theater 
 
Goals: 
 
1. Recognize the 16th century in England as the ‘Golden Age’, ‘the Elizabethan era’, and the ‘Tudors era’; 
2. analyze the importance of the Protestant [ˈprɑː.t̬ə.stənt] Reformation and establish how the rupture with the 
Church favors Henry VIII; 
3. understand how the Renaissance opposed the medieval [ˌmiː.diˈiː.vəl, ˌmed.iˈiː.vəl] mentality; 
4. recognize the origins and development of the Elizabethan Theater and analyze one of Shakespeare’s plays. 
 
Elizabethan Age – a time of changes 
The Elizabethan Age or Golden Age or Tudors Era may very well be called the Age of the 
Sea. Emerging from the Middle Ages and facing the modern world we know today the country 
put its efforts in a historical process involving the major nations of the time and would ensure 
its future as a world leader. In the meantime, the sixteenth century, old and new England 
shared the same space and fought for it bringing profound changes. 
The medieval baron, the knight, the serf, and the Catholic prelate1 were no longer the 
dominant types in English society. The agent of the national government, the wealthy urban 
merchant, the Protestant reformer and the worldly scholar became more important. All the changes that deeply 
marked English history forever made the Elizabethan Era one of the most remarkable periods in human 
history. 
 
Who were the Englishmen in the sixteenth century? 
Englishmen in the 16th century were as devoutly religious as their medieval ancestors, but also threw 
themselves passionately into the worldliest2 of projects and pastimes. They were still superstitious enough to 
believe in witches and all kinds of sorcery. They were great respecters of authority yet violently critical of their 
medieval ancestors for accepting it. Despite of being rather conscious of the social status, determined by birth, 
they proclaimed their human right as men to ascend in a social mobility scale. 
 
Why does the period bear the name of Queen Elizabeth? 
Elizabeth I was the greatest of the Tudor monarchs and ruled longer than any of them and promoted 
tremendous political, religious, economic and intellectual changes during her reign. During this period, fine arts 
flowered as it had never done before and life was intensively lived and loved. 
Routine activity of the court involved royal agents, foreign ambassadors [æmˈbæs.ə.dərz], churchmen, 
scholars, poets, actors, musicians, all kind of servants, and chambermaids. People in general merged to 
London from each corner of the country. 
Elizabeth attended to public punishments such as hangings and witch burnings along 
with her people wearing exquisite jewels and rich garments. 
 
The Elizabethan Age had the most effervescent [ˌef.ɚˈves.ənt] festive calendar in 
which dance celebrations, holidays and various celebrations punctuated3 the life of the 
country. Besides more profound discussion was openly held involving issues such as 
Christian theology [θiˈɑː.lə.dʒi], Greek philosophy and Italian poetry.1 prel‧ate / prelət, prelɪt / noun [ countable ] a bishop , cardinal , or other important priest in the Christian church. 
2 world‧ly / wɜldli $ wɜrld- / adjective [ only before noun ] 
1 worldly goods/possessions literary everything you own 2 relating to ordinary life rather than spiritual or religious ideas SYN.: mundane 3 having a lot 
of experience and knowledge about people and life OPP.: unworldly 
— worldliness noun [ uncountable ] 
3 punctuate / pʌŋk.tju.eɪt / / -tu- / verb [ T ] formal (REPEAT) to happen or cause something to happen repeatedly while something else is 
happening; to interrupt something repeatedly: 
 
 
Elizabethans loved their country more than anything else. Being so, they supported their queen in risky 
endeavors as the remarkable event that occurred during the war with Spain when England faced and 
overcame the Spanish Armada4. The love and devotion they all dedicated to England can be felt when we read 
the Elizabeth’s own words pronounced during the same episode “(…) I know I have the body of a week feeble5 
woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a King – and a King of England too, and think foul scorn 
[contempt] that Parma or Spain or any Prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm”. 
 
These words reveal the same intense patriotism [ˈpeɪ.tri.ə.tɪ.zəm] as John of Gaunt’s [ɡɑːnt] famous speech in 
Shakespeare’s Richard II: 
 
This happy breed of men, this little world, 
This precious stone set in the silver sea, 
Which serves it in the office of a wall 
Or as a moat6 defensive to a house, 
Against the envy of less happier lands, 
This blessed plot, this earth, this real, this England. 
 
Henry VIII – A divided monarch 
As his father, who became a powerful and rich king by taking over the nobles’ 
lands, Henry VIII was always looking for new sources of money. However, land 
belonging to the Church and the monasteries had not been touched. The 
Church was a huge landowner and the monasteries were not important to 
economic and social growth as they had been in two hundred years earlier. In 
fact, the institution and the clergymen had turned into unpopular elements 
because many monks no longer led a respectable religious life but lived in 
wealth and comfort. 
 
The king and The Church – a delicate relation 
Henry disliked the power of the Church in England because, since it was an international organization, he 
could not completely control it. Moreover, there were two far more powerful states, France, and Spain that 
allied with the Holy Roman Empire remained between him and Rome. The power of the Catholic Church in 
England could therefore function against his own authority. Besides taxes paid to the Church reduced his own 
income. Henry wanted to centralize state authority as many other European kings apart from another reason. 
Henry VII X Catherine of Aragon [ˈer.ə.ɡɑːn, ˈær.ə.ɡən]: the kingdom for a son 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Catherine of Aragon Henry VIII 
By 1526, after sixteen years of marriage, Catherine of Aragon – the queen - still could not have a son who 
could be the heir to the throne and continue the Tudor dynasty. [ˈdaɪ.nə.sti] 
All the baby boys she gave birth could not survive their childhood. Using the Queen's inability to generate and 
keep alive their sons Henry tried to persuade the Pope to allow him to divorce Catherine. However political and 
 
4 armada / ɑmɑ.də / / ɑr- / noun [ C ] a large group of armed ships that fight wars at sea. 
5 Extremely weak. 
6 moat / məʊt / / moʊt / noun [ C ] a long, wide hole that is dug all the way around a place such as a castle and usually filled with water, to make 
it more difficult to attack 
 
theological reasons drove the Pope to firmly deny it. He wanted Henry to stay married to Catherine. But, based 
on religious doctrine [ˈdɑːk.trɪn] and diplomatic aspects, the Pope forbade the king’s divorce. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The Whitehall Mural [ˈmjʊr.ᵊl] 1660 - Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Anne [æn] Boleyn [ˈbʊ.lɪn, bʊˈlɪn] 
In 1531, Henry, after putting the bishops under strong pressure and after skillful political maneuverings7, 
managed to persuade them to institute him the religious chief, founding an English Church and a new religion – 
the Anglican [ˈæŋ.ɡlɪ.kən] Church. This act became law after the Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy in 
1534. It was a popular decision. Henry was free to divorce Catherine and marry his new love, Anne 
Boleyn. He hoped Anne would give him a son to succeed him as the king of England. 
 
How did England become Protestant? 
Henry’s break with Rome was purely political. He did not approve the new ideas of Protestant 
Reformation introduced by Martin Luther in Germany and John Calvin in Geneva [dʒəˈniː.və]. He 
still believed in the Catholic faith. Like his father, Henry VIII governed England through his close 
advisers, men who were completely dependent on him for their position. 
When he broke with Rome, he used Parliament to make the rupture legal. Through several Acts 
of Parliament, between 1532 and 1536, England became politically a Protestant country, even 
though the popular religion was still Catholic. 
 
How did Reformation advance with Henry VIII? 
Thomas Cromwell [ˈkrɑːm.wəl] became the king’s chief minister. Between 1536 and 1539 they 
closed 560 monasteries and other religious houses. Henry did this in order to keep to the crown 
all the money and goods that had once belonged to the Church and to religious orders, but he 
also wanted to be popular with the rising classes of landowners and merchants. He sold or gave 
much of the monasteries’ lands to them. 
Meanwhile, the monks and nuns were thrown out. Some were given small sums of money, but 
many were unable to find work and became wandering beggars. The dissolution of the monasteries was 
probably the greatest act of official destruction in the history of Britain. However, the king remained loyal to 
Catholic religious teaching, and executed Protestants who refused to accept it. 
 
 
 
 
 
Did Henry manage to have a son? 
 
 
7 ma‧noeu‧vring British English, maneuvering American English / mənuv ə rɪŋ / noun [ uncountable and countable] 
 the use of clever and sometimes dishonest methods to get what you want. 
 
 
The king, in the following years, would remarry some other times. Anne Boleyn, his 
second wife, for whom he had changed the country face forever, did not give him the son 
Henry wished. Having been accused of high treason, Anne Boleyn was sentenced to 
death with the knowledge and agreement of the king himself. 
She was decapitated, few years after her marriage leaving a daughter – Elizabeth – who 
would run the country with successful iron fist for a long period. Henry died in 1547, 
leaving behind his sixth wife, Catherine Parr [pɑːr], and his three children. Mary, the eldest, was daughter of 
Catherine of Aragon. 
Edward VI8, who was nine years old, was Jane Seymour’s son, the only wife whom Henry had really loved, but 
who had died giving birth to his only son. However, Edward VI never ruled England. He died still young and left 
the throne to her sister. 
 
The English Renaissance occurs much later, compared to the Italian and Flemish9. It only becomes marked in 
1485 with the consolidation of the national state English. There was no significant development in the arts as in 
Italy. The cultural production focused on music, literature and theater. 
Actually, the most notable contribution and legacy of the English Renaissance was the Elizabethan theater 
whose greatest exponent was William Shakespeare (1564-1616). 
 
The king and The Church – a delicate relation 
The Renaissance (or rebirth of learning), which beganin Italy in the 14th century, affected English artistic 
attitudes toward arts from approximately the year of 1485, the accession of the Tudor monarchs, to 1660, 
when Charles II was restored to the throne. Before Caxton [ˈkæk.stᵊn] – who is thought to be the first English 
person to work as a printer and the first to introduce the printed press in the country - printed his first book in 
English, no more than two percent of the English people could read. Afterwards, this situation has changed 
profoundly. Learning increased rapidly, from the Crown to the commoner: Henry VIII wrote poetry and 
composed songs; Elizabeth I spoke five foreign languages and encouraged drama and the arts. New schools 
were founded throughout Britain, in rural villages as well as cities. 
How was the influence of the Humanists during Renaissance? 
Enlightened by the classics of Greece and Rome, the Humanists emphasized human potential, not God’s 
power, believing one’s role in life should be action, not religious contemplation. After the publication of The 
Wycliffe Bible (the name now given to a group of Bible translations into Middle English that were made under 
the direction of, or at the instigation of, John Wycliffe [ˈwɪk.lɪf]. The mentioned work appeared over a period 
from approximately 1382 to 1395. These Bible translations were the chief inspiration and chief cause of a pre-
Reformation movement that rejected many of the distinctive teachings of the Roman Catholic Church), 
Humanists influenced a critical and scholarly study of the scriptures10, which partly led to a challenge of Roman 
Catholicism and the emergence of English Protestantism. 
 
 
 
How did English nationalism become strong? 
 
 
8 Edward VI ( 1537–53 ) the king of England from 1547 to 1553 . He was the son of King Henry VIII and his third wife Jane Seymour , and the half-
brother (= brother by a different mother ) of Mary I and Elizabeth I . He became king at the age of ten, so other people, called regents governed on 
his behalf. One of them persuaded him to change his will , giving the throne to Lady Jane Grey , but the plan failed and Mary became queen when 
Edward died. During this period, with Edward’s support, England became much more strongly Protestant, so that Mary was unable to change it back to 
Catholicism. 
9 Flem • ish 
BrE / flemɪʃ / NAmE / flemɪʃ / noun [ uncountable ] the Dutch language as spoken in northern Belgium 
10 scrip‧ture / skrɪptʃə $ -ər / noun 
1 Scripture [uncountable] ( also the (Holy) Scriptures [ plural ] ) the Bible 
2 [uncountable and countable] the holy books of a particular religion : 
 
During Queen Elizabeth’s reign (1558-1603), England became a world naval [ˈneɪ.vᵊl] power and began the 
foundations of the far-flung11 British Empire. The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 gave impetus12 to a 
powerful surge of nationalistic fervor [ˈfɝː.vɚ] that energized all English pursuits, including literature and arts. 
 
What were the key Renaissance characteristics? 
 
• Emphasis on classical studies in the expanding universities; 
• Increasing literacy among the laity13; 
• Growth of a critical, skeptical type of scholarship, leading to scientific inquiry; 
• Increasing trade leads to individual wealth, general prosperity, nationalism and materialism; 
• Gradual movement from unquestioned religious beliefs toward a more human-centered philosophy. 
 
English drama had its beginnings with the church plays and pantomimes14 of the Middle Ages. Introduced by 
the clergy in order to help the unlettered congregation to understand the Latin Church service, these plays 
eventually became so elaborate and so filled with secular or humorous incidents that they were moved to the 
church porch. 
 
The origin of English drama 
English drama had its origin in the church plays and pantomimes of the Middle Ages. Introduced by the clergy 
in order to help the unlettered congregation to understand the Latin Church service, these plays eventually 
became so elaborate and so filled with secular or humorous incidents that they were moved to the church 
porch. When this too became inadequate, they were moved to the church lawn or graveyard. Out in the open 
the plays lost even more of their religious solemnity [səˈlem.nə.t̬i]. Audiences became unruly. An irate15 clergy 
eventually threw up its hands in disgust and banned the production of plays from church property altogether. 
What was the Miracle or Mystery plays? 
Many events of religious history were suitable subjects for drama. These early plays, called Miracle or Mystery 
Plays, are divided in four main groups, according to the city where they were acted: Chester, Coventry 
[ˈkʌv.ən.tri, ˈkɑː.vᵊn-], York and Wakefield. [ˈweɪk.fiːld] 
What are the subjects of the Miracle Plays? 
The subjects of the Miracle Plays are various: the disobedience [ˌdɪs.əˈbiː.di.əns, -oʊˈ-] of Adam and Eve; 
Noah [ˈnoʊ.ə] and the great flood; Abraham and Isaac [ˈaɪ.zək]; events in the life of Christ; and so on. They 
were acted by people of the town on a kind of stage on wheels called a pageant [ˈpædʒ.ənt]. This was moved 
to different parts of the town, so that a play shown in one place could then be shown in another. Often several 
Miracle Plays were being performed at the same time in different places. Here is a short bit of Noah’s Flood in 
the Chester plays: 
God: Seven days are yet coming 
For you to gather and bring 
Those after my liking 
When mankind I annoy 
Forty days and forty nights 
Rain shall fall for their unrights 
And those I have made through my mights 
Now think I to destroy 
Noah: Lord, at your bidding I am true 
Since grace is only in you, 
As you ask I will do 
For gracious I you find 
 
11 far-flung / fɑflʌŋ / / fɑr- / adjective literary describes places that are a great distance away, or something that is spread over a very large area. 
12 impetus / ɪm.pɪ.təs / / -pə.t̬əs / noun [ S or U ] something that encourages a particular activity or makes that activity more energetic or 
effective. 
13 the laity / leɪ.ə.ti / / -t̬i / noun [ S , + sing/pl verb ] all the people who are involved with a Church but who are not priests 
14 pantomime / pæn.tə.maɪm / / -t̬ə- / noun [ C ] ( UK informal panto ) (in Britain) a funny musical play based on traditional children's stories, 
performed especially at Christmas 
15 irate / aɪreɪt / adjective very angry. 
 
Although the Miracles were serious and religious in intention, English comedy was born in them. There was a 
natural tendency for the characters in the play to become recognizably [ˈrek.əɡ.naɪ.zə.bli] human in their 
behavior. However serious the main story might be, neither the actors nor the audience could resist the 
temptation of enjoying the possibilities of a situation such as that in which Noah’s wife needs a great deal of 
persuasion to make her go on board to the ark. 
What about the Morality Plays? 
Performance of "The Castle of Perseverance," a morality play In the Morality Plays, the characters were not 
people (such as Adam and Eve or Noah); they were virtues (such as Truth) or bad qualities (such as Greed or 
Revenge) which walked and talked as personifications [pərˌsɑːn.ɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃənz] of human beings. For this 
reason, we find these plays duller today, but this does not mean that the original audiences found them dull. 
The plays presented moral truths in a new and effective way. 
What was the Interlude [ˈɪn.t̬ɚ.luːd]? 
Another kind of play, the Interlude, was common in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The origin of this 
name is uncertain; perhaps the Interludes were played between the acts of long Moralities; perhaps in the 
middle of meals; or perhaps the name means a play by two or