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Relationships Among Computer Games, Fantasy, and Learning
Mahboubeh Asgari & David Kaufman
Faculty of Education
Simon Fraser University
Burnaby, British Columbia
Canada
masgari@sfu.ca , dkaufman@sfu.ca
Abstract
Computer games have the potential to motivate learners and be used as effective
instructional tools (Lepper & Malone, 1987; Cordova, 1993; Rieber, 1996; Stewart,
1997; Dempsey et al., 2002; Rosas et al., 2003). This paper explores the relationships
among computer games, fantasy, and learning. The authors first define what they
mean by ‘game’, more specifically, ‘computer/video game’. They describe game
characteristics and the key factors that make an activity or a game motivational and
compelling, including fantasy and curiosity (Malone, 1980; Malone & Lepper, 1987;
Myers, 1990, cited by Waal, 1995; Garris et al., 2002; Vockell, 2004). The terms
fantasy and curiosity are then discussed and the implications of the use of fantasy in
games are explained.
KEYWORDS: fantasy; games; computer games; motivation; learning
Introduction
Computer games can give the opportunity to learners to explore their imagination
comfortably (Millians, 1999). Using fantasies, mental images and non-real situations in
computer games, can stimulate learners’ behavior (Vockell, 2004). To make learning
motivating and appealing for learners, one way is to present the material to them either in
an imaginary context which is familiar to them or in a fantasy context which is
emotionally appealing for the learner (Malone and Lepper, 1987). Creating such
environments that stimulate learners to become absorbed in a fantasy world can motivate
and engage them in activities (Cordova, 1993). Empirical research suggests that
embedding material in a fantasy context can enhance learning more than a generic, de-
contextualized environment (Cordova, 1993; Garris et al. cites from Druckman, 1995).
This paper focuses on the relationship between fantasy and learning in computer-
based instructional games. Since learning is believed to be one of play benefits which is
related to factors such as increased motivation (Rieber, 2001), and computer games are
reported to increase motivation, we first review the features that make such games
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motivational. Among those features, we will focus on ‘fantasy’. The features ‘curiosity’
and ‘goal’ will also be explained, as these two game characteristics are also related to our
discussion. Finally, we report what previous research has shown in regard with presenting
instructional materials in fantasy contexts and their effects on learning.
Game definition
Generally, we define a game as a set of voluntary activities which has
participants, goals, rules, and some kind of competition (physically or mentally).
Dempsey et al. (2002) gives a more elaborate definition of a game: “A game is a set of
activities involving one or more players. It has goals, constraints, payoffs, and
consequences. A game is rule-guided and artificial in some respects. Finally, a game
involves some aspect of competition, even if that competition is with oneself” (p.159).
A computer game usually refers to a game played using a personal computer.
Garris et al. (2002) define game play as “voluntary, nonproductive, and separate from the
real world” (p.459). On the other hand, Jones (1999) points out that for some people,
computer and video games are real and sometimes, they are more engaging than reality.
Computer games can be categorized as adventure games, simulation games, competition
games, cooperation games, programming games, puzzle games, and business
management games (Hogle, 1996, citing from Dempsey et al., 1993; Jacobs & Dempsey,
1993). During the past 40 years, computer games have been played from a floppy disk,
CD-ROM, with the use of email, or online through the Internet. Computer games can be
played individually, against the computer, or against other people face-to-face or on-line.
Game characteristics
Games share a number of essential features. Good games are fun and intrinsically
motivating. They incorporate an optimal challenge, have an appropriate goal and
uncertain outcomes, provide clear, constructive, and encouraging feedback, and offer
elements of curiosity, and fantasy (Malone, 1980). Intrinsically motivating games also
include an intermediate number of choices and give players an intermediate control over
the features of the game (Malone & Lepper, 1987; Waal, 1995; Snider, 2003).
Interactivity (Waal, 1995, citing from Myers, 1990) and competition (Malone & Lepper,
1987; Vorderer & Hartmann, 2003; Vockell, 2004) are other essential features of
motivating games.
According to Garris et al. (2002), fantasy, rules/goals, sensory stimuli, challenge,
mystery, and control are the six features that characterize games. They state that to
enhance learning, some elements of games need to be activated within an instructional
context; games by themselves are not enough to enhance learning.
Curiosity, Fantasy, and Goal
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As mentioned above, past research has shown that curiosity and fantasy are the
features that make computer games motivating and engaging (Malone, 1980; 1981a;
Malone & Lepper, 1987; Waal, 1995, citing from Myers, 1990; Garris et al., 2002).
Curiosity is the result of knowledge gap. Malone and Lepper explain that curiosity can be
stimulated by making individuals think that their existing knowledge lacks one or more
of these three characteristics: completeness, consistency, and parsimony. In a game,
mystery can evoke curiosity. For example, adventure themes, or including activities in
fantasy contexts can stimulate curiosity.
Malone and Lepper (1987) define fantasy as an environment that “evokes mental
images of physical or social situations not actually present” (p.240). Garris et al. (2002)
assert that including “imaginary or fantasy context, themes, or characters” and providing
“optimal level of informational complexity” can make computer games motivational
(p.447). They state that through fantasies, individuals can interact in situations that are
not part of their real life.
Fantasy environments may increase intrinsic motivation in individuals through
satisfying their needs. For instance, individuals can satisfy those needs that are not
available for them in their real life such as power, success, or fame, with different kinds
of fantasies and imaginary characters that computer/video games provide for them
(Malone & Lepper, 1987; Cordova, 1993). Likewise, Gee (2003) states that in computer
games, some players play outside their “real” identity. They project their own values and
desires onto the virtual identity. For example, they may play their virtual character as
someone who takes risks, is creative or is resilient in the face of failure.. However, in
their real life, they may not be anything like that. Therefore, it is important to create
different kinds of fantasy for different kinds of players, since there are large differences
among individuals in the fantasies they find compelling (Malone and Lepper, 1987).
According to Myers (1990, cited by Waal), fantasy, unlike challenge and
interactivity, is not powerful enough to keep the player motivated and engaged; however,
it is influential in engaging the player in the first stages of playing the game, when the
player is deciding whether or not play the game. In other words, fantasy can be the hook
to motivate the player. Malone (1980) notes that computer games that involve fantasies
such as war, destruction, and competition seem to be more compelling than games with
less emotional fantasies. In addition, fantasies that girls find compelling appear to be
different from those of boys (Cassell & Jenkins, 1999).
Among other features of captivating games is providing an appropriate goal.
According to Malone (1980), in simple games, using visual effects or fantasy can make
goals compelling. Practicalor fantasy goals are better than goals in which they use a skill.
To maximize motivation in learners, goals should be “personally meaningful”. One way
to make goals motivating and personally meaningful is through fantasy relevance.
Motivation and Learning
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The integration of computer games in education has been the subject of debate in
the past several decades. In his Ph.D. dissertation, Malone (1980) states that the
characteristics that make games fun do not necessarily make them educational. This is the
key question in research, i.e., whether or not adding such game features to instructional
materials which seem to increase learners’ motivation and interest, also leads to greater
learning. Lepper and Malone (1987) discuss the effects of adding game features to
educational content on students’ motivation and learning. With regard to learning, they
examine two approaches. From one perspective, they argue that this addition may be
distracting and therefore decrease learning. From the other perspective, these
motivational game-like features may increase students’ attention and ultimately enhance
learning.
Concerning motivation, they indicate that adding game embellishments may
increase students’ motivation in the short term. However, in the long-term, it may have
negative effects because when students are back to classroom work, they may find the
subject matter boring; thus, their interest may decrease. From the other perspective, they
discuss that these motivational features can have positive effects. Similarly, Garris et al.
(2002) cite a study by Ricci et al. (1996) and report that incorporating game features in
instruction had increased motivation and consequently produced greater attention and
retention. Another empirical research by Chen et al. (1998) has demonstrated the positive
effects of computer-based instructional games on motivation and learning.
Cordova (1993, citing from Davis et al., 1997, Lesgold, 1982) states that
advocates of computer-based educational games see such integration as to enhance
learning because they increase children’s enjoyment, attention, effort, and concentration.
However, opponents of using computer games in education indicate that such activities
may distract children from the educational content and weaken learning (Cordova, 1993,
citing from D’Attore, 1981; Psotka, 1982).
Fantasy and Learning
Experimental research on fantasy and learning has shown that instructional
material that is presented in a fantasy context that is of interest leads to increases in both
students’ interest and learning (Parker and Lepper, 1992; Cordova, 1993; Cordova &
Lepper, 1996). This means those who learned from an embellished fantasy context had
greater learning than those in an unembellished program. According to Malone (1980), an
emotionally appealing fantasy needs to be intrinsically related to the skill learned in the
activity. Games with no fantasies involve only abstract symbols.
Fantasy contexts can be intrinsic/endogenous and extrinsic/exogenous to the game
content (Lepper and Malone, 1987; Rieber, 1996). In endogenous fantasy, the content to
be learned is embedded in the fantasy context, i.e., the skill to be learned and the fantasy
are related to each other. In exogenous fantasy, the relationship between the content of
the study and the fantasy is purely arbitrary.
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In their study, Lepper and Malone (1987) describe endogenous and exogenous
fantasy through two types of instructional games. In the first type (exogenous), students
learn about prefix; whenever they perform successfully, a cavorting dragon breathing
smoke and fire appears on the screen. In this context, the content of the game can be
replaced with any subject, and the dancing dragon does the same. However, in the second
type of the instructional game (endogenous), learners need to solve problems about
fractions presented to them in the form of requests from customers in a pizza place. In
this context, the skills to be learned; i.e., fractions, are integrated with the context. Lepper
and Malone believe that the use of these two different types of fantasy contexts affect
differently in the long-term on learners’ interest in the material being presented. They
also believe that endogenous fantasies are preferred to exogenous fantasies because in
endogenous fantasy, the feedback is not just right or wrong, but it provides specific
constructive feedback to the learner. Generally, both Lepper and Malone (1987) and
Rieber (1996) find endogenous fantasies more interesting and educational than
exogenous fantasies.
Fantasy can be studied from two aspects: cognitive aspects of fantasy, and
emotional aspects of fantasy (Lepper and Malone, 1987; Malone and Lepper, 1987).
Cognitive aspects of fantasy: There are cognitive advances of the use of fantasy in
instructional design. For instance, presenting new information to learners by relating it to
their past knowledge through endogenous fantasies can help better understanding the
information. On the other hand, in simulations, new information can be embedded in an
imaginary context in which learners will later apply them to their real-life situations.
Fantasy may also improve memory for the instructional material. Malone & Lepper
(1987) state that “Fantasies should provide appropriate metaphors or analogies for the
material presented for learning” (p.249).
In addition, Lepper and Malone discuss that goals in fantasy activities should
reinforce instructional goals, not competing with them. For instance, the consequences of
failure should not be more interesting and exciting than the consequences of success (e.g.
Hangman). Moreover, achieving instructional goals should be placed in priority to
subjective success; as they say “fantasy should not permit the learner to experience
subjective success without the achievement of instructional goals” (p.247).
Emotional aspects of fantasy: Fantasy fulfills emotional needs, especially when it
provides imaginary characters that are familiar to the learner (Malone and Lepper, 1987).
In emotional aspects of fantasy, two factors are related: personalization and learners’
prior interests. The fantasy context can be personalized by incorporating information
about learners’ background and interests into the fantasy environment (Lepper and
Malone, 1987; Cordova, 1993). Lepper and Malone believe that personalizing fantasies
might be beneficial in increasing intrinsic motivation. For instance, asking about the
learners’ favorite sport or books and then presenting the instructional problems in relation
to those interests, can increase learners’ motivation and engagement. The second factor is
to relate fantasy elements to learners’ previous interests. In this regard, differences
between girls and boys need to be considered.
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Discussion
It appears clear from the professional literature, as well as from discussions with
game designers, that fantasy plays a key role in successful computer games for enhancing
both motivation and learning. Creating a fantasy context is emotionally appealing, can
motivate and engage, and can lead to greater learning. A few basic guidelines can go a
long way towards creating effective computer games. These guidelines include: (1) use
fantasy to reinforce instructional goals, not compete with them; (2) provide appropriate
metaphors and analogies for learning; (3) provide imaginary characters that are familiar
to the learner; (4) accommodate gender differences in fantasies; and (5) relate the fantasy
to the content to be learned.
Although fantasy is a key component of a good computer game, it is important to
emphasize that it is not powerful enough to sustain motivation and engagement.
However, fantasy can serve as a ‘hook’ to engage the learner so that other game features
can be activated such as interactivity, competition, control, curiosity, challenge and
feedback (Asgari& Kaufman, 2004).
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge the support of the Social Sciences and Humanities
Research Council of Canada for providing funding through an INE Collaborative
Research Initiative grant for the ‘Simulation and Advanced Gaming Environments
(SAGE) for Learning’ project under which this work was completed.
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