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RESEARCH PAPER
Fermentable short chain carbohydrate (FODMAP) content of
common plant-based foods and processed foods suitable
for vegetarian- and vegan-based eating patterns
C. Tuck, E. Ly, A. Bogatyrev, I. Costetsou, P. Gibson, J. Barrett & J. Muir
Department of Gastroenterology, Monash University, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Keywords
carbohydrates, fermentable carbohydrates,
fermentable short chain carbohydrates, irritable
bowel syndrome, vegan, vegetarian.
Correspondence
C. Tuck, Department of Gastroenterology Central
Clinical School, Monash University, Level 6, The
Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Melbourne
VIC 3004, Australia.
Tel.: +61 3 9903 0264
Fax: +61 3 9903 0556
E-mail: caroline.tuck@monash.edu
How to cite this article
Tuck C., Ly E., Bogatyrev A., Costetsou I.,
Gibson P., Barrett J., Muir J. (2018) Fermentable
short chain carbohydrate (FODMAP) content of
common plant-based foods and processed foods
suitable for vegetarian- and vegan-based eating
patterns. J Hum Nutr Diet.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jhn.12546
Abstract
Background: The low FODMAP (fermentable, oligo-, di-, mono-saccharides
and polyols) diet is an effective strategy to improve symptoms of irritable
bowel syndrome. However, combining the low FODMAP diet with another
dietary restriction such as vegetarianism/veganism is challenging. Greater
knowledge about the FODMAP composition of plant-based foods and food
processing practices common to vegetarian/vegan eating patterns would
assist in the implementation of the diet in this patient population. The pre-
sent study aimed to quantify the FODMAP content of plant-based foods
common in vegetarian/vegan diets and to investigate whether food process-
ing can impact FODMAP levels.
Methods: Total FODMAP content was quantified in 35 foods, including
fructose-in-excess-of-glucose, lactose, sorbitol, mannitol, galacto-oligosac-
charide and total fructan, using high-performance-liquid-chromatography
and enzymatic assays. The effects of cooking, sprouting, pickling, fermenta-
tion, activation and canning on FODMAP content were assessed. The Mon-
ash University criteria to classify foods as low FODMAP was used.
Results: Of the 35 foods, 20 were classified as low FODMAP, including
canned coconut milk (0.24 g serve–1), dulse (0.02 serve–1), nutritional yeast
(0.01 serve–1), soy cheese (0.03 serve–1), tempeh (0.26 serve–1), wheat gluten
(0.13 serve–1) and wheat grass (0.05 serve–1). No FODMAPs were detected
in agar-agar, egg replacer, vegan egg yolk, kelp noodles and spirulina. Food
processing techniques that produced the greatest reduction in FODMAP
content included pickling and canning.
Conclusions: The present study provides a greater FODMAP composition
knowledge of plant-based foods that can now be applied to the dietetic
management of vegetarians/vegans requiring a low FODMAP diet. Food
processing lowered the FODMAP content of foods, thereby increasing
options for patients following a low FODMAP diet.
Introduction
A diet low in fermentable short-chain carbohydrates
(FODMAPs; fermentable, oligo-, di-, mono-saccharides
and polyols) is an effective therapy for the management
of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) (1,2), which is charac-
terised by chronic gastrointestinal symptoms such as
bloating, flatulence and alternating bowel habits (3). With
the high prevalence rates of IBS (4) and worldwide imple-
mentation of the low FODMAP diet as therapy (5), con-
siderable overlap now exists in clinical practice between
use of the low FODMAP diet and other dietary restric-
tions. An estimated 10% of the world’s population are
following either a vegetarian or vegan eating pattern (6).
1ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics
The major reasons for this include religious practices,
ethical, environmental and social concerns, as well as
putative health benefits (6). Various forms of these diets
include lacto-ovo vegetarians (i.e. consumes dairy foods
and eggs but no meat, poultry or seafood), lacto-vegetar-
ian (i.e. consumes dairy but no eggs, meat, poultry or
seafood), ovo-vegetarian (i.e. consumes eggs but no dairy,
meat, poultry or seafood), pescatarian (i.e. lacto-ovo veg-
etarian but also consumes seafood) and vegans (i.e. con-
sumes no animal products). Following a vegetarian diet
in the long-term has been shown to be associated with
the presence of IBS in a cross-sectional study (7). Com-
bining the low FODMAP diet with other dietary restric-
tions such as vegetarian- or vegan- eating patterns can be
challenging as a result of the often competing nature of
each dietary recommendation.
Provided that an appropriate variety of plant-based
foods is consumed and total energy requirements are
met, a strict vegetarian or vegan diet can fulfil an indi-
vidual’s nutritional requirements (8). Key nutrients at risk
of inadequate intake following a vegetarian and vegan
eating pattern include protein, iron, zinc, calcium and
vitamin B12. These nutrients can be sourced from
legumes, wholegrains, nuts and seeds, and soy-based
products (8,9). Because the compositional data to date
show that many of these foods also contain significant
quantities of FODMAPs (10–12), their intake is limited on
a low FODMAP diet. However, comprehensive analysis
of the FODMAP composition of many foods frequently
consumed by vegetarians and vegans has not been under-
taken. Data for the FODMAP composition of common
vegetables, fruits, grains and cereals have been published
previously (10–13). Most varieties of legumes analysed were
high in galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) and fructans (12).
Other vegetarian and vegan foods analysed include nuts,
with cashews and pistachios shown to contain significant
amounts of FODMAPs (13). The FODMAP content of soy
products appears to be variable, with firm-tofu and soy-
protein based soy milk being low and silken-tofu and
whole soybean-based soy milk being high in FODMAP
content (13). Expansion of the current FODMAP database
to provide more food sources of key macro- and micro-
nutrients, especially protein, for vegetarians and vegans is
needed.
Certain food processing techniques offer an opportu-
nity to reduce the FODMAP content of foods. Processes
trialled to date have aimed to reduce the GOS content of
legumes and soy milks via soaking, cooking, germination,
fermentation, enzyme treatments, ethanol extraction,
genetic manipulation, dry heating and dehydration (14).
Oligosaccharides are water soluble and hence are assumed
to be lost when the water used for cooking is
removed (15,16). Although it appears that soaking and
cooking may reduce the total oligosaccharide content of
legumes (16–20), the results have not been consistent (21)
and testing for effects on total FODMAP content have
not been undertaken. Additionally, previous work mea-
suring the FODMAP content of legumes did not assess
the difference in FODMAP content between dried and
canned products of the same forms of legumes (12).
Strategies such as food processing that may reduce the
burden of dietary restriction in an effort to improve
adherence and nutritional adequacy in this patient group
would be welcomed (22).
The present study aimed first to quantify the FODMAP
content of plant-based foods available to vegetarians and
vegans. Second, the study aimed to investigate the effect
of food processing and cooking on FODMAP composi-
tion of a variety of plant-based foods.
Materials and methods
Study 1: Analysis of key vegetarian and vegan foods and
food constituents
Selection of key vegetarian and vegan foods and food
constituents for analysisThirty-five common vegetarian and vegan foods or food
constituents that were considered important nutrient
sources and had not previously been analysed for their
FODMAP content by the Department of Gastroenterol-
ogy, Monash University were chosen to be analysed as
shown in the Supporting information (Table S1). Foods
or food constituents were chosen by a group of eight spe-
cialist Dietitians based on foods most commonly con-
sumed by vegetarians and vegans that would also provide
good nutritional value. Nutritional composition was
based largely on the NUTTAB 2010 database (Food Stan-
dards Australia New Zealand) (23). Food samples were
sourced from metropolitan Melbourne. The food collec-
tion protocol requires three different brands of the same
food to be collected and pooled, as described previously
(12). Where three brands with similar ingredients were not
available, one or two brands were used and, where possi-
ble, multiple packages with different expiry dates were
used to make up a sample of three, as indicated in the
Supporting information (Table S1)
Food sampling methodology
Food samples were collected and pooled using methods
described previously (10–12, 24). Briefly, three different
brands of each food product were collected, prepared for
analysis either as purchased or cooked in accordance with
the packet instructions (see Supporting information,
Table S1) and pooled and mixed to provide one homoge-
nous sample.
2 ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans C. Tuck et al.
Study 2: Analysis of processed and cooked foods
Selection of foods undergoing various forms of food
processing for analysis
Vegetarian and vegan food items that had undergone
additional food processing were selected including; acti-
vated nuts, pickled vegetables and fermented foods (see
Supporting information, Table S1). To assess the effect of
food processing on FODMAP content, a comparison was
made with previous results from the same foods in the
fresh, unprocessed form. In addition, six types of grains
and legumes were chosen to be sprouted: wheat, barley,
rye, chickpeas, red kidney beans and mung beans. Three
brands of each grain or legume were sourced and 50 g of
each was weighed and pooled. The grains and legumes
were first covered in water and soaked overnight for at
least 12 h. They were then wrapped in muslin cloth and
left damp in a cool dark place. Additional rinsing with
water occurred on a daily basis for 3–6 days until the
grain or legume had sprouted. Once the grains or
legumes had sprouts of at least 1 cm, they were consid-
ered to have adequately sprouted.
Selection of foods to compare dried and canned
forms
To compare differences between dried and canned forms
of legumes, red kidney beans in dried (n = 6) and canned
form (n = 12) were collected. Canned red kidney beans
were strained and prepared ‘as eaten’ prior to sampling
in preparation for FODMAP analysis. Dried red kidney
beans were soaked overnight and subsequently cooked in
water as directed on the packet label and then sampled in
preparation for analysis. Additionally, dried and canned
forms (n = 3 of each) of adzuki beans were collected and
analysed.
Preparation of foods to assess the effect of
cooking conditions on the FODMAP content of
legumes
Red lentils and red kidney beans were simmered in accor-
dance with the packet instructions in water for variable
lengths of time. Seven different cooking conditions of red
lentil were assessed, including raw red lentils; red lentils
that had been simmered for 5, 10, 20 and 30 min and
subsequently strained; red lentils that had been simmered
for 30 min without straining; and the strained liquid.
Nine different cooking conditions of red kidney beans
were assessed, including raw red kidney beans; red kidney
beans that had been soaked (overnight) but remained
uncooked; red kidney beans that had been soaked (over-
night) and simmered for 5, 10, 20 and 30 min and
subsequently strained; red kidney beans that had been
soaked and simmered for 30 min without straining; the
soaking liquid (prior to cooking the red kidney beans);
and the strained liquid (after cooking the red kidney
beans). Two additional cooking conditions (soaked over-
night but uncooked and soaking liquid) were tested for
the red kidney beans compared to the red lentils as a
result of differences in packet instructions, where red kid-
ney beans required soaking overnight prior to cooking
but red lentils did not.
Food sampling methodology
Food sampling for the activated nuts, pickled vegetables,
fermented foods, sprouted products, and dried and
canned adzuki beans was undertaken in the same way as
Study 1, with three different samples being collected and
pooled prior to analysis. However, to assess differences
between brands of canned and dried products and differ-
ences in cooking conditions, samples were not pooled
and, instead, they were analysed individually. As a result
of the large availability of many different brands of dried
and canned products of red kidney beans, a larger sample
size was used to reflect the number of brands available;
hence, 6 dried and 12 canned products were chosen to be
analysed. Legumes were prepared as eaten, with dried
legumes being cooked in accordance with the packet
instructions prior to analysis (see Supporting information,
Table S1).
FODMAP analysis methodology
Samples from both studies were analysed using the same
techniques. Samples were freeze-dried (Operon Thermo-
line Scientific freeze-drier, TDPR-FDB-5003; Thermoline
Scientific, Wetherill Park, NSW, Australia) prior to the
extraction step. The weight of the sample before and after
freeze-drying was recorded and, following analysis, adjust-
ments were made to account for the difference. Samples
that were collected in a pre-dried form (e.g., flour) or in
a liquid form (e.g. macadamia milk) did not undergo
freeze-drying. All dried samples were ground to a fine
particle size (approximately 0.5 mm) prior to sugar
extraction by use of a mortar and pestle or an electric
food processor.
Sugar extraction and analysis of samples were com-
pleted in triplicate in accordance with well-defined meth-
ods used across a wide international range of food types
and previously described in detail (10–12,24,25). Analysis
using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
was completed using a Waters HPLC using evaporative
light scattering detector (ELSD) with Sugar Pak 1 column
(6.5 9 300 mm column; Waters, Rydalmere, NSW,
3ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
C. Tuck et al. FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans
Australia) to separate carbohydrates and then compared
with standards for sucrose, glucose, fructose, mannitol
and sorbitol. Excess fructose was calculated by subtracting
the total glucose from the total fructose content. Analysis
using ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC)
was completed using a Waters Acquity UPLC with ELSD
detector (BEH Amide 1.7 lm column; Waters) to sepa-
rate carbohydrates and then compared with standards for
lactose, kestose, raffinose, nystose and stachyose. At the
time of testing, the most common forms of GOS in food
(i.e. stachyose and raffinose) were quantified.
Total fructan content of food samples was determined
using the enzymatic fructan assay (Megazyme Fructan
HK Assay AOAC Method 999.03, AACC Method 32.32;
Megazyme International Ireland Ltd, Wicklow, Ireland) as
described previously (10).
Determination of the FODMAP rating
The results from both studies were compared with the
FODMAP cut-off values for each FODMAP subgroup as
usedby Monash University to classify foods as low FOD-
MAP (26), in accordance with serving size. As described
by Varney et al. (2017), the cut-off values per serve to
denote a food as low FODMAP were: oligosaccharides in
grains, legumes and nuts <0.30 g; oligosaccharides in veg-
etables, fruits and other products <0.20 g; total polyols
<0.40 g; excess fructose <0.15 g; and lactose <1.00 g (26).
Serving sizes were taken from packet suggestions and
modified as necessary within typical serving size ranges to
allow for low FODMAP serving sizes where possible.
Results
Study 1: Analysis of key vegetarian and vegan foods and
food constituents
The FODMAP contents of the 35 plant-based foods or
food constituents are shown in Table 1. The results are
displayed per 100 g and per serve, and include key nutri-
ent sources, individual FODMAP subgroup analysis, total
FODMAP content and FODMAP rating. Eight categories
of foods or food constituents were analysed, including
coconut products, soy products, wheat products, milk
alternatives, proteins, meat alternatives, sea vegetables and
other. Twenty foods or food constituents that were iden-
tified to be low in total FODMAP content with their
respective nutrients for which they are major sources
were agar-agar (gelling agent), canned coconut milk (fat),
coconut yoghurt (fat), dulse (iodine), vegan egg yolk and
egg replacer (protein), false chicken (protein), false pork
(protein), fresh gluten (protein), kelp noodles (iodine),
macadamia milk (calcium), nutritional yeast (protein, B
vitamins), pea and rice protein isolates (protein), soy
cheese (protein), soy roll (protein), spirulina (protein),
tempeh (protein, iron and zinc), wheat gluten (protein,
iron), and wheat grass (vitamin A). Foods that did not
meet the low FODMAP criteria per serving included qui-
noa milk and wakame flakes.
Study 2: Analysis of processed and cooked foods
FODMAP analysis of foods undergoing various forms of
food processing
Table 2 shows the FODMAP composition of foods that
had undergone various types of food processing, includ-
ing fermentation, activation, pickling or sprouting. The
FODMAP contents of the activated, sprouted and pickled
foods were then compared with the FODMAP contents
of the fresh variety of each food in accordance with the
Monash University FODMAP database (Fig. 1). The total
FODMAP content was lowered for all types of activated
and pickled foods compared to that of the fresh versions
of these foods. All types of sprouted grains and legumes
also had a lower FODMAP content with the exception of
chickpeas. The most substantial changes were seen with
pickling, where the FODMAP content was lowered by
87% in artichokes, 89% in onion, 95% in beetroot and
97% in garlic. Pickling lowered the FODMAP rating in
garlic, onion and beetroot sufficiently to be classified as
low FODMAP, although the change was not adequate to
alter the FODMAP rating of artichoke.
FODMAP analysis of dried and canned foods
Canning red kidney beans lowered the content of GOS
and fructans compared to the equivalent dried, soaked
and cooked forms (Fig. 2). On average, dried, soaked and
cooked red kidney beans contained 0.60 g serve–1
oligosaccharide compared to 0.21 g serve–1 in canned red
kidney beans. The same effect occurred in the adzuki
beans, which contained 0.76 g serve–1 oligosaccharide in
the dried form compared to 0.62 g serve–1 in the canned
form (Table 2).
Effect of cooking time on FODMAP content of legumes
Simmering reduced total oligosaccharide content in red
lentils from 0.89 g serve–1 in the dried form to 0.44–
0.53 g serve–1 in cooked forms (Fig. 3). Simmering red
lentils for 5 minutes reduced oligosaccharide content by
43% to 0.51 g serve–1. Although longer simmering times
caused no further reduction in oligosaccharide content,
straining the lentils after 30 minutes of simmering caused
a 12% reduction in oligosaccharide content compared to
that of unstrained lentils. Fructan content was reduced
from 0.25 g in raw to 0.13 (0.12–0.14) g in cooked and
strained lentils, whereas, in unstrained lentils, it remained
higher (0.18 g). The total GOS (stachyose plus raffinose)
4 ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans C. Tuck et al.
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o
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
5
.5
1
1
.1
2
6
.6
3
6
.6
3
N
o
W
h
ea
t
p
ro
d
u
ct
s
N
u
tr
it
io
n
al
ye
as
t
Pr
o
te
in
,
B
vi
ta
m
in
s
g
p
er
1
6
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
1
0
.0
1
0
.0
1
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
0
.0
1
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
4
0
.0
4
0
.0
5
Y
es
W
h
ea
t
g
lu
te
n
Pr
o
te
in
,
Ir
o
n
g
p
er
3
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.1
3
0
.1
3
0
.1
3
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.4
4
0
.4
4
0
.4
3
N
o
W
h
ea
t
g
ra
ss
V
it
am
in
A
g
p
er
3
.5
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
1
0
.0
4
0
.0
5
0
.0
5
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
2
0
.1
4
1
.2
4
1
.3
8
1
.4
0
N
o
W
h
ea
t
g
er
m
Zi
n
c,
M
ag
n
es
iu
m
g
p
er
5
0
g
se
rv
e
0
.0
3
N
D
0
.0
1
N
D
1
.9
6
1
.2
4
3
.2
0
3
.2
5
N
o
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
0
.0
7
N
D
0
.0
3
0
.0
0
3
.9
1
2
.4
9
6
.4
0
6
.4
9
N
o
5ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
C. Tuck et al. FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans
T
a
b
le
1
.
C
o
n
ti
n
u
ed
C
at
eg
o
ry
Fo
o
d
o
r
fo
o
d
co
n
st
it
u
en
t
it
em
Su
g
g
es
te
d
n
u
tr
ie
n
t
so
u
rc
e
Po
rt
io
n
si
ze
Ex
ce
ss
fr
u
ct
o
se
La
ct
o
se
So
rb
it
o
l
M
an
n
it
o
l
To
ta
l
G
O
S
To
ta
l
fr
u
ct
an
To
ta
l
O
lig
o
sa
cc
h
ar
id
e
To
ta
l
FO
D
M
A
P
M
ee
ts
lo
w
FO
D
M
A
P
cr
it
er
ia
(2
6
)
M
ilk al
te
rn
at
iv
es
M
ac
ad
am
ia
m
ilk
C
al
ci
u
m
g
p
er
2
5
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
4
0
.0
4
0
.0
4
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
0
.0
0
0
.0
0
0
.0
0
0
.0
0
0
.0
0
0
.0
2
0
.0
2
0
.0
2
Y
es
Q
u
in
o
a
m
ilk
(A
g
av
e
sw
ee
te
n
ed
)†
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
2
5
0
g
se
rv
e
0
.3
3
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.2
2
0
.2
2
0
.5
5
N
o
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
0
.1
3
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
9
0
.0
9
0
.2
2
Y
es
Q
u
in
o
a
m
ilk
(u
n
sw
ee
te
n
ed
)*
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
2
5
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.2
2
0
.2
2
0
.2
2
N
o
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
9
0
.0
9
0
.0
9
Y
es
Pr
o
te
in
s
Eg
g
re
p
la
ce
r†
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
6
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
2
0
.0
2
0
.0
2
Y
es
Eg
g
yo
lk
(v
eg
an
)
*
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
2
.6
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
0
.0
1
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
1
0
.0
1
0
.0
2
Y
es
Pe
a
p
ro
te
in
is
o
la
te
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
4
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
4
0
.0
7
0
.1
1
0
.1
1
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.1
0
0
.1
7
0
.2
7
0
.2
7
N
o
R
ic
e
p
ro
te
in
is
o
la
te
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
4
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
6
0
.0
6
0
.0
6
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.1
6
0
.1
6
0
.1
6
Y
es
Sp
ir
u
lin
a
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
3
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
2
0
.0
2
0
.0
2
Y
es
Fr
es
h
g
lu
te
n
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
1
0
.1
6
0
.1
7
0
.1
7
Y
es
M
ea
t
al
te
rn
at
iv
es
Fa
ls
e
b
ac
o
n
*
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.1
1
0
.1
3
0
.2
4
0
.2
4
N
o
Fa
ls
e
p
o
rk
*
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
4
0
.0
4
0
.0
4
Y
es
Fa
ls
e
ch
ic
ke
n
1
(s
o
yb
ea
n
ex
tr
ac
t)
*
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.2
9
0
.0
7
0
.3
6
0
.3
6
N
o
Fa
ls
e
ch
ic
ke
n
2
(s
o
yb
ea
n
)*
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.3
1
0
.1
0
0
.4
1
0
.4
1
N
o
Fa
ls
e
ch
ic
ke
n
3
(c
an
n
ed
–
fr
ie
d
g
lu
te
n
)*
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
3
0
.0
3
0
.0
2
Y
es
Fa
ls
e
ch
ic
ke
n
4
(s
o
y
p
ro
te
in
,
so
yb
ea
n
)*
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
8
0
.1
2
0
.2
0
0
.2
0
N
o
Fa
ls
e
ch
ic
ke
n
5
(g
lu
te
n
,
so
yb
ea
n
)*
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
3
0
.2
8
0
.3
0
0
.3
0
N
o
So
y
ro
ll*
Pr
o
te
in
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
5
0
.1
4
0
.1
9
0
.1
9
Y
es
6 ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans C. Tuck et al.
content followed a similar pattern. Stachyose was the
major GOS present.
Simmering also reduced the total oligosaccharide con-
tent of red kidney beans, and the content continued to
decline with simmering times greater than 5 min. Thus, a
further 32% reduction in oligosaccharide content was
observed when red kidney beans were cooked for 30 min
(Fig. 3). The soaking liquid (prior to cooking) did not
contain significant FODMAP content. Stachyose was pre-
sent in largest quantity with smaller amounts of raffinose.
Application to vegetarian and vegan meal plans
The waysin which these new data can be applied in prac-
tice are shown in Table 3.
Discussion
The results from the present study provide key FODMAP
composition data with respect to important plant-based
foods that are commonly consumed when following vege-
tarian- and vegan-eating patterns. Important findings also
include the observation that food processing and cooking
can lower the FODMAP content of a wide range of foods.
Greater knowledge of FODMAP composition and the use
of food processing techniques should provide strategies to
assist not only patients with IBS, but also especially those
who are following vegetarian/vegan diets to adhere to the
low FODMAP diet to control gastrointestinal symptoms.
Data from the UK assessing the dietary intake of IBS
patients (and not specifically those who are vegetarian or
vegan) have shown that more than half of patients fol-
lowing a low FODMAP diet did not meet their recom-
mended intakes of calcium and iron, although values
were not dissimilar to the healthy population on a habit-
ual diet (27). An inadequate intake of calcium and iron is
of particular concern because these are among the key
nutrients considered to be at risk of inadequacy for vege-
tarians and vegans (8).
The expansion of the FODMAP composition database
from Study 1 to include more foods appropriate for vege-
tarians and vegans improves food choice, with the aim of
improving nutritional adequacy. Various sources of pro-
tein in particular, such as soy cheese, tempeh, pea-protein
isolate and rice-protein isolate, were found in the present
study to be low FODMAP and therefore suitable for the
low FODMAP diet. Nutrient-rich vegetarian foods found
to be low FODMAP include macadamia milk (a source of
calcium via fortification), dulse and kelp noodles (a
source of iodine), and tempeh (a source of iron and
zinc).
Legumes are an important source of protein, fibre and
key nutrients (folate, iron, zinc, calcium and magnesium)
(28). Both GOS and fructans present in legumes areTa
b
le
1
.
C
o
n
ti
n
u
ed
C
at
eg
o
ry
Fo
o
d
o
r
fo
o
d
co
n
st
it
u
en
t
it
em
Su
g
g
es
te
d
n
u
tr
ie
n
t
so
u
rc
e
Po
rt
io
n
si
ze
Ex
ce
ss
fr
u
ct
o
se
La
ct
o
se
So
rb
it
o
l
M
an
n
it
o
l
To
ta
l
G
O
S
To
ta
l
fr
u
ct
an
To
ta
l
O
lig
o
sa
cc
h
ar
id
e
To
ta
l
FO
D
M
A
P
M
ee
ts
lo
w
FO
D
M
A
P
cr
it
er
ia
(2
6
)
Se
a
ve
g
et
ab
le
s
D
u
ls
e
Io
d
in
e
g
p
er
1
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
1
N
D
0
.0
1
0
.0
1
0
.0
2
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.1
3
0
.0
0
0
.0
6
0
.0
6
0
.1
9
Y
es
K
el
p
n
o
o
d
le
s
Io
d
in
e
g
p
er
1
1
3
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
Y
es
W
ak
am
e
fl
ak
es
Io
d
in
e
g
p
er
1
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.2
1
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.2
1
N
o
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
2
.0
8
0
.0
0
0
.0
4
0
.0
4
2
.1
2
N
o
O
th
er
A
g
ar
-a
g
ar
G
el
lin
g
ag
en
t
g
p
er
7
.5
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
Y
es
Su
g
g
es
te
d
n
u
tr
ie
n
t
so
u
rc
e
la
rg
el
y
b
as
ed
o
n
N
U
TT
A
B
2
0
1
0
(F
o
o
d
St
an
d
ar
d
s
A
u
st
ra
lia
N
ew
Ze
al
an
d
).
Se
rv
in
g
si
ze
s
b
as
ed
o
n
p
ac
ke
t
su
g
g
es
ti
o
n
o
r
st
an
d
ar
d
se
rv
in
g
si
ze
p
er
p
ro
d
u
ct
.
U
H
T,
u
lt
ra
-h
ig
h
te
m
p
er
at
u
re
p
ro
ce
ss
in
g
.
R
es
u
lt
s
d
is
p
la
ye
d
as
av
er
ag
e
o
f
tr
ip
lic
at
e
sa
m
p
le
s
ex
ce
p
t
w
h
er
e
m
ar
ke
d
an
as
te
ri
sk
(*
)
d
en
o
te
s
n
=
1
an
d
a
d
ag
g
er
(†
)
d
en
o
te
s
n
=
2
.
N
D
,
n
o
t
d
et
ec
te
d
;
N
A
,
n
o
t
ap
p
lic
a-
b
le
;
G
O
S,
g
al
ac
to
-o
lig
o
sa
cc
h
ar
id
e.
Ex
ce
ss
fr
u
ct
o
se
ca
lc
u
la
te
d
vi
a
su
b
tr
ac
ti
o
n
o
f
g
lu
co
se
co
n
te
n
t
fr
o
m
fr
u
ct
o
se
co
n
te
n
t.
To
ta
l
G
O
S
ca
lc
u
la
te
d
fr
o
m
th
e
su
m
o
f
ra
ffi
n
o
se
an
d
st
ac
h
yo
se
.
7ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
C. Tuck et al. FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans
T
a
b
le
2
FO
D
M
A
P
(f
er
m
en
ta
b
le
,
o
lig
o
-,
d
i-
,
m
o
n
o
-s
ac
ch
ar
id
es
an
d
p
o
ly
o
ls
)
co
m
p
o
si
ti
o
n
p
er
se
rv
e
o
f
fo
o
d
s
u
n
d
er
g
o
in
g
p
ri
o
r
fo
o
d
p
ro
ce
ss
in
g
C
at
eg
o
ry
Fo
o
d
it
em
Su
g
g
es
te
d
n
u
tr
ie
n
t
so
u
rc
e
Po
rt
io
n
si
ze
Ex
ce
ss
fr
u
ct
o
se
(g
)
La
ct
o
se
(g
)
So
rb
it
o
l
(g
)
M
an
n
it
o
l
(g
)
To
ta
l
G
O
S
(g
)
To
ta
l
fr
u
ct
an
(g
)
To
ta
l
o
lig
o
sa
cc
h
ar
id
e
(g
)
To
ta
l
FO
D
M
A
P
(g
)
M
ee
ts
lo
w
FO
D
M
A
P
cr
it
er
ia
(2
6
)
A
ct
iv
at
ed
n
u
ts
A
ct
iv
at
ed
p
is
ta
ch
io
s
Fa
t,
p
ro
te
in
,
fi
b
re
g
p
er
3
0
g
se
rv
e
0
.0
1
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.5
7
0
.2
0
0
.7
7
0
.7
8
N
o
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
0
.0
3
N
D
N
D
N
D
1
.8
8
0
.6
7
2
.5
6
2
.5
9
N
o
A
ct
iv
at
ed
ca
sh
ew
s
Fa
t,
zi
n
c,
m
ag
n
es
iu
m
g
p
er
3
0
g
se
rv
e
0
.0
1
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.4
0
0
.1
3
0
.5
3
0
.5
4
N
o
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
0
.0
2
N
D
0
.0
1
N
D
1
.3
4
0
.4
3
1
.7
7
1
.8
0
N
o
Fe
rm
en
te
d
p
ro
d
u
ct
s
K
o
m
b
u
ch
a
(f
er
m
en
te
d
te
a)
A
n
ti
o
xi
d
an
ts
g
p
er
2
5
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.2
4
0
.2
4
0
.2
4
N
o
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.1
0
0
.1
0
0
.1
0
Y
es
K
va
ss
(f
er
m
en
te
d
ry
e)
B
vi
ta
m
in
s
g
p
er
2
5
0
g
se
rv
e
0
.0
5
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.1
9
0
.1
9
0
.2
4
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
0
.0
2
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
7
0
.0
7
0
.0
9
Y
es
Le
g
u
m
es
,
d
ri
ed
an
d
ca
n
n
ed
A
d
zu
ki
b
ea
n
s
(c
an
n
ed
)
Ir
o
n
,fi
b
re
g
p
er
9
5
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.5
5
0
.0
6
0
.6
2
0
.6
2
N
o
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.5
8
0
.0
7
0
.6
5
0
.6
5
N
o
A
d
zu
ki
b
ea
n
s
(d
ri
ed
,
co
o
ke
d
)
Ir
o
n
,
fi
b
re
g
p
er
9
5
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.6
1
0
.1
5
0
.7
6
0
.7
6
N
o
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.6
4
0
.1
6
0
.8
0
0
.8
0
N
o
R
ed
ki
d
n
ey
b
ea
n
s
(c
an
n
ed
)
[n
=
1
2
]
Pr
o
te
in
,
fi
b
re
g
p
er
9
5
g
se
rv
e
0
.0
5
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.1
0
0
.0
9
0
.1
9
0
.2
4
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
0
.0
5
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.1
1
0
.1
0
0
.2
1
0
.2
5
Y
es
R
ed
ki
d
n
ey
b
ea
n
s
(d
ri
ed
,
co
o
ke
d
)
[n
=
6
]
Pr
o
te
in
,
fi
b
re
g
p
er
9
5
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.4
9
0
.1
0
0
.5
9
0
.5
9
N
o
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.5
1
0
.1
1
0
.6
2
0
.6
2
N
o
R
ed
le
n
ti
ls
(d
ri
ed
,
co
o
ke
d
)*
Pr
o
te
in
,
fi
b
re
g
p
er
4
6
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.3
7
0
.1
4
0
.5
1
0
.5
1
N
o
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.8
1
0
.3
1
.1
1
1
.1
1
N
o
Pi
ck
le
d
p
ro
d
u
ct
s
Pi
ck
le
d
ar
ti
ch
o
ke
Pr
eb
io
ti
c
fi
b
re
g
p
er
5
0
g
se
rv
e
0
.1
6
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.7
4
0
.7
4
0
.9
0
N
o
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
0
.3
1
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
1
.4
8
1
.4
8
1
.7
9
N
o
Pi
ck
le
d
b
ee
tr
o
o
t
Fo
la
te
g
p
er
6
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
2
N
D
N
D
N
D
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
4
N
D
0
.0
4
0
.0
4
Y
es
Pi
ck
le
d
g
ar
lic
Pr
eb
io
ti
c
fi
b
re
g
p
er
2
0
g
se
rv
e
0
.1
0
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.0
2
0
.0
2
0
.1
2
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
0
.5
0
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.1
2
0
.1
2
0
.6
2
N
o
Pi
ck
le
d
o
n
io
n
Pr
eb
io
ti
c
fi
b
re
g
p
er
4
5
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.1
1
0
.1
1
0
.1
0
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.2
4
0
.2
4
0
.2
3
N
o
Sp
ro
u
te
d
p
ro
d
u
ct
s
Sp
ro
u
te
d
b
ar
le
y
Fi
b
re
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
0
.0
1
N
D
N
D
0
.0
4
0
.0
4
0
.0
6
Y
es
Sp
ro
u
te
d
ch
ic
kp
ea
s
Fi
b
re
,
p
ro
te
in
g
p
er
9
5
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.5
5
0
.1
4
0
.7
0
0
.6
1
N
o
8 ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans C. Tuck et al.
prebiotics, which enhance the growth of certain colonic
bacteria with putative health benefits (14). The many pro-
ven or likely nutritional and health qualities associated
with legume consumption [e.g. reduced risk of chronic
disease (14, 28, 29) and prebiotic attributes (14)] highlight
the importance of identifying legume varieties and pro-
cessing techniques (e.g. canning and cooking, as shown in
the present study) that will improve tolerance for patients
with IBS with the aim of increasing intake. Similarly, soy-
derived products have a high nutritional value as a result
of their high protein content, as well as their amino acid
profile, which corresponds more closely to human
requirements than do other plant-based proteins (30, 31).
Hence, the soy-based products such as soy cheese found
to be low in FODMAP content in the present study are
of importance.
The FODMAP content was not always consistent
between different varieties of similar products in both
Study 1 and Study 2. Variation in the FODMAP content
of meat alternatives (‘false meat’) was likely attributed to
the different type of ingredients used. For example, false
chicken based on soybean was high in FODMAP content
compared to the low FODMAP content when based on
gluten. Similarly, the FODMAP content of rice and soy
milks appears to be significantly affected by the ingredi-
ents chosen and the processing methods used. For exam-
ple, soy milks based on the whole-soybean have a much
higher FODMAP content compared to soy milks based
on the soy protein only (13). The FODMAP contents of
legumes found in the present study are considerably
lower than the results previously obtained by Biesiekierski
et al. (12), who reported that red kidney beans contain
0.54 g fructan and 1.44 g GOS per 100 g and red lentils
contain 0.14 g fructan and 0.46 g GOS per 100 g, despite
similar methodology. Variations seen in the FODMAP
content of legumes between studies may be the result of a
number of reasons, including different growing condi-
tions of the legumes, seasonal changes, harvesting condi-
tions and the preparation methods used. This is
consistent with previous work reporting significant varia-
tions in raffinose, stachyose and verbascose content
among lentil varieties (16), as well as within varieties of
the same common Indian pulse types (21). These differ-
ences highlight the importance of testing multiple
sources/brands of food products in any nutrient analysis
of foods in accordance with the FSANZ guidelines (Can-
berra, Australia) (32), as well as the need for the analysis
of products originating from different countries.
Food processing methods, such as pickling and sprout-
ing, may also provide a way to lower FODMAP content.
For example, in Study 2, pickling of vegetables such as
onion, garlic and beetroot resulted in a sufficiently large
change in total FODMAP content to adjust the overallTa
b
le
2
.
C
o
n
ti
n
u
ed
C
at
eg
o
ry
Fo
o
d
it
em
Su
g
g
es
te
d
n
u
tr
ie
n
t
so
u
rc
e
Po
rt
io
n
si
ze
Ex
ce
ss
fr
u
ct
o
se
(g
)
La
ct
o
se
(g
)
So
rb
it
o
l
(g
)
M
an
n
it
o
l
(g
)
To
ta
l
G
O
S
(g
)
To
ta
l
fr
u
ct
an
(g
)
To
ta
l
o
lig
o
sa
cc
h
ar
id
e
(g
)
To
ta
l
FO
D
M
A
P
(g
)
M
ee
ts
lo
w
FO
D
M
A
P
cr
it
er
ia
(2
6
)
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.5
8
0
.1
5
0
.7
3
0
.7
3
N
o
Sp
ro
u
te
d
m
u
n
g
b
ea
n
s
Fi
b
re
g
p
er
9
5
g
se
rv
e
0
.0
2
N
D
N
D
0
.0
1
0
.1
1
0
.0
6
0
.1
7
0
.1
9
Y
es
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
0
.0
2
N
D
N
D
0
.0
1
0
.1
1
0
.0
6
0
.1
7
0
.2
0
Y
es
Sp
ro
u
te
d
re
d
ki
d
n
ey
b
ea
n
s
Fi
b
re
,
p
ro
te
in
g
p
er
9
5
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.8
1
0
.1
9
1
.0
0
1
.0
0
N
o
g
p
er1
0
0
g
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.8
5
0
.2
0
1
.0
6
1
.0
6
N
o
Sp
ro
u
te
d
ry
e
Fi
b
re
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
1
.4
5
1
.4
5
1
.4
5
N
o
Sp
ro
u
te
d
w
h
ea
t
Fi
b
re
g
p
er
1
0
0
g
se
rv
e
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
D
0
.5
5
0
.5
5
0
.5
5
N
o
Su
g
g
es
te
d
n
u
tr
ie
n
t
so
u
rc
e
la
rg
el
y
b
as
ed
o
n
N
U
TT
A
B
2
0
1
0
(F
o
o
d
St
an
d
ar
d
s
A
u
st
ra
lia
N
ew
Ze
al
an
d
).
Se
rv
in
g
si
ze
s
b
as
ed
o
n
p
ac
ke
t
su
g
g
es
ti
o
n
o
r
st
an
d
ar
d
se
rv
in
g
si
ze
p
er
p
ro
d
u
ct
.
R
es
u
lt
s
d
is
-
p
la
ye
d
as
an
av
er
ag
e
o
f
tr
ip
lic
at
e
sa
m
p
le
s.
N
D
,
n
o
t
d
et
ec
te
d
;
N
A
,
n
o
t
ap
p
lic
ab
le
;
G
O
S,
g
al
ac
to
-o
lig
o
sa
cc
h
ar
id
e.
Ex
ce
ss
fr
u
ct
o
se
ca
lc
u
la
te
d
vi
a
su
b
tr
ac
ti
o
n
o
f
g
lu
co
se
co
n
te
n
t
fr
o
m
fr
u
ct
o
se
co
n
-
te
n
t.
To
ta
l
G
O
S
ca
lc
u
la
te
d
fr
o
m
th
e
su
m
o
f
ra
ffi
n
o
se
an
d
st
ac
h
yo
se
.
9ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
C. Tuck et al. FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans
FODMAP rating from high to low. This lower FODMAP
content following pickling is in agreement with previous
work also showing that pickling resulted in lower abdom-
inal symptoms and colonic fermentation (33). We propose
that the water solubility of FODMAPs and the likely
leaching of FODMAPs into the pickling liquid is the
mechanism by which the FODMAP content is reduced;
additionally, it has been proposed that pH, time, water
ratio and temperature may also influence the carbohy-
drate content following pickling (34,35). Sprouting
appeared to have variable effects on the FODMAP con-
tent of grains and legumes; the most significant effect of
sprouting was on reducing the FODMAP content of
grains, with a lesser effect seen on legumes. Upon germi-
nation, it has been postulated that enzymes that break
down carbohydrates are activated (36), although more
work is needed to confirm any specific action on
oligosaccharides.
The water solubility of FODMAPs provides a simple
way to reduce the FODMAP content of legumes via
changes in cooking methods. In Study 2, cooking lentils
for a short duration (5 min) and straining them reduced
the FODMAP content by 43%, with no further reduction
seen with longer cooking times. By contrast to the red
lentils, red kidney beans had further reduction in FOD-
MAP content with longer cooking times. This may have
been a result in differences in the legume size. Red lentils,
which are small, may allow the FODMAPs to leach out
quickly; hence, no further reductions occurred with
longer cooking times. A similar effect was seen where len-
tils had a much larger reduction in oligosaccharide con-
tent with cooking compared to other legumes tested in
one study (37). Other proposed mechanisms for the reduc-
tion in carbohydrate content include heat hydrolysis (17).
By contrast, some studies have shown increased oligosac-
charide content with cooking proposed to be a result of
the comparable leaching of other soluble components, as
well as the release of bound oligosaccharides during
Pis
tac
hio
s
Ca
sh
ew
s
Ba
rle
y
Ch
ick
pe
as
Mu
ng
be
an
s
Re
d k
idn
ey
be
an
s
Ry
e
Wh
ea
t
Ar
tic
ho
ke
Be
etr
oo
t
Ga
rlic
On
ion
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
2
3
4
5
6
7
To
ta
l
FO
D
M
A
P
co
nt
en
t(
g
pe
rs
er
ve
)
Fresh
Processed
Sprouted legumes
and grains
Pickled
vegetables
Activated
nuts
1.
02
0.
78
0.
54
0.
89 0.
97
0.
06 0.
43
0.
70
0.
34
0.
19
1.
88
1.
00
4.
24
1.
45
2.
31
0.
55
6.
86
0.
90
0.
44
0.
02
3.
47
0.
12
0.
10
0.
90
Figure 1 Comparison of the total FODMAP (fermentable, oligo-, di-, mono-saccharides and polyols) content of processed foods with the
FODMAP content of fresh varieties of each food. FODMAP content of fresh varieties taken from the Monash University FODMAP database (13).
The FODMAP content was compared with the Monash University criteria to classify foods as low FODMAP (26), as indicated by the dashed line.
Dr
ied
(co
ok
ed
)
Ca
nn
ed
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
To
ta
lF
O
D
M
A
P
co
nt
en
t(
g 
pe
r s
er
ve
)
n =
 6 n =
 12
Figure 2 Total FODMAP (fermentable, oligo-, di-, mono-saccharides
and polyols) content of different samples of dried (cooked) and
canned red kidney beans. Data are expressed as grams per 95 g
serve. Dried forms of red kidney beans were cooked in accordance
with the packet instructions prior to analysis. The FODMAP content
was compared with the Monash University criteria to classify foods as
low FODMAP (26), as indicated by the dashed line.
10 ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans C. Tuck et al.
cooking (18,21,38). These divergent results may be releated
to the legume variety used (18), whether or not the cook-
ing liquid has been discarded (20), and/or differences in
the cooking and subsequent cooling methods prior to
carbohydrate analysis.
The clinical implications of these results will only be
fully understood after conducting longitudinal studies
of vegetarian and/or vegan patients following the low
FODMAP diet with a comprehensive analysis of dietary
intake. Theoretically, the results provided by the present
studies will allow patients to increase their intake of
foods containing low and moderate amounts of fruc-
tans and GOS, improving their prebiotic intake. Dieti-
tians should encourage their patients to include the
foods and food constituents found to be low in FOD-
MAP content during the initial phase of the low FOD-
MAP diet. Dietitians should target foods containing
nutrients of concern, such as tempeh in an individual
with low iron intake. Foods not meeting the low FOD-
MAP cut-off criteria at a standard serving size could
then be trialled in small quantity during the re-chal-
lenge phase with a gradual increase in serving size to
assess individual patient tolerance (39). For example,
first by commencing the patient on 100 mL of Quinoa
milk, which did meet the low FODMAP cut-off, and
gradually increasing the serving size as tolerated toward
a standard serving size of 250 mL, which did not meet
the low FODMAP criteria. Dietitians should educate
their patients on the effect of food processing and
cooking on FODMAP content and encourage patients
to trial such techniques to determine their individual
tolerance.
In conclusion, the improved knowledge of FODMAP
composition from the present study can assist in
improving the ability of vegetarians or vegans who
require a low FODMAP diet to better adhere to the
dietary guidelines. The most common FODMAPs found
in these plant-based foods were fructans and GOS.
Expanding low FODMAP food choice by the strategy of
cooking and removing strained liquid from legumes is
likely to enhance protein intake in those who are follow-
ing a low FODMAP diet. Otherfood processing tech-
niques, such as pickling, provide additional ways of
improving patient tolerance of high FODMAP foods.
The variation in FODMAP content found in the present
study, depending on product, food processing and cook-
ing methods, highlights the importance of individual tol-
erance testing in patients with IBS (39). Reductions in
FODMAP content via food processing and cooking tech-
niques, even if only modest, may improve patient toler-
ance. These results can be translated into practice to
allow patients to maximise symptom relief and nutri-
tional adequacy at the same time as minimising dietary
restrictions.
Transparency declaration
The lead author affirms that this manuscript is an honest,
accurate and transparent account of the study being
reported. The lead author affirms that no important
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Total FODMAP content of red kidney beans
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Figure 3 Effect of cooking conditions on the FODMAP (fermentable, oligo-, di-, mono-saccharides and polyols) content of (a) red lentils and (b)
red kidney beans compared to dried forms. Data are expressed per 100 g. The FODMAP content was compared with the Monash University
criteria to classify foods as low FODMAP (26), as indicated by the dashed line.
11ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
C. Tuck et al. FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans
aspects of the study have been omitted and that any dis-
crepancies from the study as planned have been
explained.
Conflict of interests, sources of funding and
authorship
The Department of Gastroenterology financially bene-
fits from the sales of a digital application and booklets
on the low FODMAP diet. P Gibson has published an
educational/recipe book on diet.
C. Tuck was supported by an Australian Postgraduate
Award Scholarship.
CT, JB and JM designed the study. CT, EL, AB and IC
collected and analysed the samples. CT interpreted the
data. CT, JM, JB and PG drafted the manuscript. CT
had primary responsibility for final content. All authors
have read and approved the final manuscript submitted
for publication.
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Table 3 Sample vegetarian and vegan low FODMAP meal plans incorporating newly analysed food items
Sample low FODMAP meal plan incorporating newly analysed food items
Additional nutrients provided by
incorporation of newly analysed foods
Vegetarian
Breakfast ¼ cup of low FODMAP muesli (made with oats, rice or quinoa puffs, 10 almonds, 1
tbs of dried cranberries but without other dried fruits), served with 250 mL of lactose
free cow’s milk (vegans: use calcium fortified macadamia milk†), topped with 10 fresh
or frozen raspberriesWheat grass drink† (made with 3.5 g of wheat grass)
Macadamia milk: calcium
Wheat grass: vitamin A
Snack 10 almonds
Lunch Sandwich made with two slices gluten free bread or spelt sourdough bread, 20 g of
cheddar cheese (vegans: use soy cheese†), 60 g of pickled beetroot†, low FODMAP
salad ingredients (e.g. lettuce, tomato, cucumber)
Soy cheese: protein
Pickled beetroot: folate
Snack One cup of fresh grapes
Dinner Stir fry made with 100 g of false chicken† (made from gluten), 113 g of kelp noodles†,
95 g of sprouted mung beans†, 45 g of pickled onion†, low FODMAP vegetables
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Kelp noodles: iodine
Sprouted mung beans: fibre
Pickled onion: prebiotic fibre
Egg replacer: protein
Snack 170 g of lactose free yoghurt (vegans: use coconut yoghurt†) Coconut yoghurt: fat
Vegan
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option to use lactose free cow’s milk), topped with 10 fresh or frozen strawberriesRice
protein drink made with 40 g of rice protein isolate† and water
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of 32 peanuts, two cups of mixed low FODMAP salad vegetables (e.g. lettuce, tomato,
cucumber, roasted eggplant) and one cup of cooked rice and/or quinoa
Tempeh: protein, iron, zinc
Snack 125 g of coconut yoghurt† (vegetarians: option to use lactose free yoghurt) Coconut yoghurt: fat
†Indicates newly tested foods.
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Supporting information
Additional Supporting Information may be found online
in the supporting information tab for this article:
Table S1. Food description and sampling details
14 ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans C. Tuck et al.