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Montes Claros/MG - 2012 Rosa Maria Neves da Silva Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos © - EDITORA UNIMONTES - 2012 Universidade Estadual de Montes Claros REITOR João dos Reis Canela VICE-REITORA Maria Ivete Soares de Almeida DIRETOR DE DOCUMENTAÇÃO E INFORMAÇÕES Huagner Cardoso da Silva EDITORA UNIMONTES Conselho Editorial Prof. Silvio Guimarães – Medicina. Unimontes. Prof. Hercílio Mertelli – Odontologia. Unimontes. Prof. Humberto Guido – Filosofia. UFU. Profª Maria Geralda Almeida. UFG Prof. Luis Jobim – UERJ. Prof. Manuel Sarmento – Minho – Portugal. Prof. Fernando Verdú Pascoal. Valencia – Espanha. Prof. Antônio Alvimar Souza - Unimontes Prof. Fernando Lolas Stepke. – Univ. Chile. Prof. José Geraldo de Freitas Drumond – Unimontes. Profª Rita de Cássia Silva Dionísio. Letras – Unimontes. Profª Maisa Tavares de Souza Leite. Enfermagem – Unimontes. Profª Siomara A. Silva – Educação Física. UFOP. REVISÃO LINGUÍSTICA Ângela Heloiza Buxton Arlete Ribeiro Nepomuceno Aurinete Barbosa Tiago Carla Roselma Athayde Moraes Luci Kikuchi Veloso Maria Cristina Ruas de Abreu Maia Maria Lêda Clementino Marques Ubiratan da Silva Meireles REVISÃO TÉCNICA Admilson Eustáquio Prates Cláudia de Jesus Maia Josiane Santos Brant Karen Tôrres Corrêa Lafetá de Almeida Káthia Silva Gomes Marcos Henrique de Oliveira DESIGN EDITORIAL E CONTROLE DE PRODUÇÃO DE CONTEÚDO Andréia Santos Dias Camilla Maria Silva Rodrigues Clésio Robert Almeida Caldeira Fernando Guilherme Veloso Queiroz Francielly Sousa e Silva Hugo Daniel Duarte Silva Marcos Aurélio de Almeida e Maia Magda Lima de Oliviera Sanzio Mendonça Henriques Tatiane Fernandes Pinheiro Tátylla Ap. Pimenta Faria Vinícius Antônio Alencar Batista Wendell Brito Mineiro Zilmar Santos Cardoso CATALOGADO PELA DIRETORIA DE DOCUMENTAÇÃO E INFORMAÇÕES (DDI) - UNIMONTES Dados Internacionais de Catalogação na Publicação (CIP) EDITORA UNIMONTES Campus Universitário Professor Darcy Ribeiro s/n - Vila Mauricéia - Montes Claros (MG) Caixa Postal: 126 - CEP: 39.401-089 - Telefone: (38) 3229-8214 www.unimontes.br / editora@unimontes.br Este livro ou parte dele não pode ser reproduzido por qualquer meio sem autorização escrita do Editor. Chefe do Departamento de Ciências Biológicas Guilherme Victor Nippes Pereira Chefe do Departamento de Ciências Sociais Maria da Luz Alves Ferreira Chefe do Departamento de Geociências Guilherme Augusto Guimarães Oliveira Chefe do Departamento de História Donizette Lima do Nascimento Chefe do Departamento de Comunicação e Letras Ana Cristina Santos Peixoto Chefe do Departamento de Educação Andréa Lafetá de Melo Franco Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de Artes Visuais Maria Elvira Curty Romero Christoff Coordenador do Curso a Distância de Ciências Biológicas Afrânio Farias de Melo Junior Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de Ciências Sociais Cláudia Regina Santos de Almeida Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de Geografia Janete Aparecida Gomes Zuba Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de História Jonice dos Reis Procópio Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de Letras/Espanhol Orlanda Miranda Santos Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de Letras/Inglês Hejaine de Oliveira Fonseca Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de Letras/Português Ana Cristina Santos Peixoto Coordenadora do Curso a Distância de Pedagogia Maria Narduce da Silva Ministro da Educação Aloizio Mercadante Presidente Geral da CAPES Jorge Almeida Guimarães Diretor de Educação a Distância da CAPES João Carlos Teatini de Souza Clímaco Governador do Estado de Minas Gerais Antônio Augusto Junho Anastasia Vice-Governador do Estado de Minas Gerais Alberto Pinto Coelho Júnior Secretário de Estado de Ciência, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior Nárcio Rodrigues Reitor da Universidade Estadual de Montes Claros - Unimontes João dos Reis Canela Vice-Reitora da Unimontes Maria Ivete Soares de Almeida Pró-Reitora de Ensino Anete Marília Pereira Diretor do Centro de Educação a Distância Jânio Marques Dias Coordenadora da UAB/Unimontes Maria Ângela Lopes Dumont Macedo Coordenadora Adjunta da UAB/Unimontes Betânia Maria Araújo Passos Diretor do Centro de Ciências Humanas - CCH Antônio Wagner Veloso Rocha Diretora do Centro de Ciências Biológicas da Saúde - CCBS Maria das Mercês Borem Correa Machado Diretor do Centro de Ciências Sociais Aplicadas - CCSA Paulo Cesar Mendes Barbosa Chefe do Departamento de Artes Maristela Cardoso Freitas Autor Rosa Maria Neves da Silva MA in Linguistics and Specialization in TEFL (Ball State University, USA) as a Fulbright Grantee; Specialization in ESP (University of Lancaster, England); Teaching License in Portuguese and English (FUPAC, Barbacena, MG); Retired Associate Professor from UFMG; English Linguistics Teacher – PREPES/ PUCMG; Visiting Professor of Portuguese and Brazilian Culture (Portland State University, USA); Publications: Glossário Bilíngue de Tecnologia e Negócios (1998, Editora Nova Fronteira), Glossário de Termos Parlamentares - bilíngue (Assembléia Legislativa de Minas Gerais), Leitura de Textos em Inglês: uma abordagem instrumental (co-author); Language Specialist for Undergraduate Courses Assessment at Conselho Estadual de Educação de Minas Gerais; Professional Translator. Sumário By way of presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 UNIT 1 What is applied linguistics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 1.2 The Object of Teaching and Learning: Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 UNIT 2 What does it mean to learn a foreign language? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.1 The Learning Process: Core Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.2 Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.3 Learning Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 2.4 Your new self . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 UNIT 3 What does it take to teach a foreign language? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 3.1 Approaching Language Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 3.2 Learning assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 UNIT 4 How is the foregoing material applicable to the classroom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 4.1 Sample unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 4.2 General task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Learning Activities - AA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 8 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período APPENDIX Annex 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Annex 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Annex 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 Annex 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 Annex 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62 Annex 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Annex 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 9 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos By way of presentation Welcome back to a new school term! During this term you will be introduced to a new field of study, one which is of the utmost importance to yourself as an English learner and a prospective English Language Teacher: Applied Linguistics. Through the next units you will read about this subfield of Linguistics mainly as connected to foreign/second language teaching. The readings are complemented with a number of varied activities and practical examples aimed to combine theory and practice. In the 'clues', 'glossaries', and 'learn more' sections you will find additional explanation and guidelines, and the references offer you a selection of reliable, useful sources of material to expand your knowledge I am sure you will profit from every lesson and agree to the importance of this tool to your learning and teaching. I invite you to read and study and carefully complete all the activities proposed for each of the four units of this 90-hour course. Hope you enjoy this course. Happy learning! The objectives for this course are: • Provide the student with an insight into the scope, means and purposes of Applied Linguistics. • Provide the student with a discussion of the concepts of learning and teaching. • Provide the student with an overview of major approaches and methods to foreign language teaching. • Provide the student with the opportunities to apply those concepts and teaching approaches and methods. • Provide the student with a discussion of language learning assessment. • Provide the student with an actual sample a communicative lesson aiming to demonstrate the applicability and usefulness of the Applied Linguistics concepts, teaching approaches and methods. After completing the readings and activities proposed here, the student/prospective teacher is expected to • Have a better understanding of the concepts, scope, means and purposes of Applied Linguistics. • Have a better understanding of the impact of developing the various competencies involved in foreign language learning. • Have a better understanding of the implications of learning and teaching. • Have a better understanding of the cultural implications of foreign language teaching and learning. • Be able to make better informed decisions concerning approaches, methods, activities, procedures to adopt for their English classes. • Have a better understanding of the communicative approach and its implications – advantages and disadvantages to teaching English as a foreign/second language. • As a teacher, manage to design meaningful reading comprehension, speaking and writing activities, or select such activities from reliable sources to meet the objectives of teenager and young adult foreign language learners. • As a teacher, manage to design appropriate, valid and timely assessment questions and activities compliant to the teaching methodology selected, the content and the objectives of the course. The Author 11 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos UNIT 1 What is applied linguistics? 1.1 Background Applied Linguistics (term derived from the American language teaching program developed during and after the Second World War and based on Leonard Bloomfield’s Outline Guide for the Practical Study of Foreign Languages (1942) has been defined in many ways, not always satisfying. The term ‘applied’ implies a relation with some type of support theory, in this case, Theoretical Linguistics. The Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language defines Applied Linguistics as linguistics applied to the study and improvement of language teaching and learning, language planning, intergroup communication, speech therapy and speech impairment management, communication systems, translation and interpretation and lexicology. Despite the controversy arising from the various attempts to define Applied Linguistics, most studies in this field so far concentrate on language teaching and learning, including the learning process and learning results. Applied linguistics is often said to be concerned with solving or at least ameliorating social problems involving language. The problems applied linguistics concerns itself with are likely to be: How can we teach languages better? How can we diagnose speech pathologies better? How can we improve the training of translators and interpreters? How can we write a valid language examination? How can we evaluate a school bilingual program? How can we determine the literacy levels of a whole population? How can we helpfully discuss the language of a text? (DAVIES & ELDER, 2004, p.1) As you can see, Applied Linguistics accounts for a number of issues, all of them involving language, so to those questions I would add: How can foreign language users achieve proper interaction? What level of competence should we expect from foreign language learners? How does the choice of methodology impact actual language learning? Applied linguistics is an area of work that deals with language use in professional settings, translation, speech pathology, literacy, and language education; and it is not merely the application of linguistic knowledge to such settings but is a semiautonomous and interdisciplinary domain of work that draws on but is not dependent on areas such as sociology, education, anthropology, cultural studies, and psychology. (PENNYCOOK,2001, s/p) Pennycook somehow repeats Davies and Elder (2004) and other authors like Moita Lopes (1996) view of Applied Linguistics, and clearly stresses its interdisciplinary nature – which renders it as not entirely autonomous, but combined to other fields of study. As you go on reading and learning about this field of study, you will see that authors agree in one point, that is, that Applied Linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of investigation – just as Pennycookhad pointed - which offers the necessary theoretical and descriptive foundations for the investigation and solution of language-related problems, mainly those concerning language teaching and learning. It also tries to understand and explain how communication is actually carried out in real life, while identifying difficult contexts and challenging issues. Particularly in Brazil, Applied Linguistics developed to include case studies on the language learning process, error analysis and foreign language reading aimed both at understanding the teaching/learning process and modifying the conditions of the language classroom to achieve the objectives proposed. To accomplish this task the teachers are expected to have some good knowledge of language theories and language teaching approaches as well so that they can develop extensive and in-depth research on the language learning process, foreign language learning and learning results in actual formal contexts, that is, the classroom. CLUE All cartoons and figures from the Web used in this textbook are copyright-free, allowed for free download and use. TASK Read Chapter 1: Afinal, o que é Linguística Aplicada? In MOITA LOPES, L.P. da Oficina de Linguística Aplicada: A natureza social e educacional dos processos de ensino/ aprendizagem. Campinas, SP: Mercado das Letras, 1996. and CELANI, M.A.A. Afinal o que é Linguística Aplicada? In: PASCHOAL, M.S.Z. & CELANI, M.A.A. (org.) Linguística Aplicada: da aplicação de linguística à linguística transdisciplinar. São Paulo: EDUC. List the main points of agreement between those authors. 12 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período Outside the field of language teaching and learning, Applied Linguistics is also concerned with problems of translation and interpretation; bilingualism and multilingualism; computer- mediated communication; conversation analysis; corpus linguistics; critical discourse analysis; discourse analysis and pragmatics; forensic linguistics; language assessment; language for special purposes; lexicography; literacy; multimodal communication; rhetoric and stylistics. According to Brown, K. (2005), teaching is still a major concern of Applied Linguistics in various parts of the world, where applied linguists approach issues like speech pathologies and the levels of literacy of social groups, language processing and communicative differences between social/cultural groups. Simply put, and for the purposes of this course, we will accept that Applied Linguistics is a subdivision of Linguistics which developed into an independent interdisciplinary field of science. It is of particular interest to language teachers in what concerns the implications of foreign/ second language teaching and foreign/second language learning/acquisition and the solution of language-related problems in specific situations of the real world. Some authors make a clear distinction between Applied Linguistics and Linguistics-Applied studies. Among those, Davies & Elder (2004) understand that Applied Linguistics engages in trying to explain social issues concerning the use of language, while the aim of Linguistics- Applied studies is more abstract to explain and test theories on language. In this course we will not engage in theoretical discussions about what Applied Linguistics is or is not; on theoretical controversies arising from the viewpoints of different authors, but yet on what most directly interests you as a student and a prospective English teacher. From now on, that is how I intend to address you – as a prospective English teacher, as you are taking a Curso de Letras. By the way, let’s start by asking: How would you introduce yourself to an American, saying that you are ‘um (a) aluno (a) do Curso de Letras’? So, the next sections will offer you insights on the many aspects that I find useful for you to develop as a proficient learner and a teacher prepared to offer the best English teaching job when you start performing your classroom activities. My purpose is to make this course as much resourceful and helpful as possible for you to meet your needs and goals. Let me remind you that learning to be a teacher depends equally, among others, on developing your knowledge of English syntax, phonology, morphology and semantics, and your understanding of the culture underlying the English language. Then remember to refer to the other textbooks provided for your course – Anglo-American Culture, Morfologia da Língua Inglesa, Fonologia da Língua Inglesa, Introdução à Línguística, Gramática da Língua Inglesa - as they will be very helpful in many ways. 1.2 The Object of Teaching and Learning: Language In this section you will learn about a number of core concepts which support the concerns of Applied Linguistics towards language teaching and learning, mainly foreign or second language teaching and learning. The first question proposed by Davies & Elder- How can we teach languages better? - as seen on page 07 above, somehow summarizes the focus of this discipline and triggers the descriptions you will find in the next section on language concepts. Let us start with a discussion of what language is. Considering that language is the sole object of our work as teachers, the more we understand what it is, how it works, the easier it is for us to do our job. A classical and primary definition of language goes that language is a mental faculty which allows human beings to engage in linguistic behavior to acquire, produce and understand utterances; a learned symbolic, flexible communication system. Language – the linguistic code – the most representative of the forms of communication, exclusive to human beings, is by nature chaotic in what it reveals the cultural, ethics, moral, social, religious, political and institutional standards of diverse human groups. Through language human beings express their emotions, feelings, viewpoints and share them with others. A language reflects the culture of a community, and yet this same culture mirrors the language of that community. This means that social life is permeated by language at every level, from the most common to the most complex and significant activities. CLUE The following abbreviations are largely found in the literature and very useful to you: ESL (English as a second language), ESOL (English for speakers of other languages), and EFL (English as a foreign language) all refer to the use or study of English by speakers of other languages. More recently, this new abbreviation has been added to the list above: EIL (English as International Language), identifying English as an intercultural, multicultural, intervarietal form of language that allows wider communication between nations and region inside nations, and is the language currently used for science, technology and international trade. ELT (English language teaching), TESL (teaching English as a second language), TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages), and TEFL (teaching English as a foreign language) 13 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos Among the various fields of human knowledge, the linguistic code stands as the most important carrier of information, the most forceful social/political interaction tool, the most effective means for the disclosure of technology and science advancements, the core tool in education. Without language you would not have the literature or theater you enjoy so much. The linguistic code combines linguistic items organized in three levels: semantic, syntactic and phonological, and which is used by human beings only. Here is how some authors define language: G. Trager (1949)states that a language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by specific social groups to interact according to their particular culture. The arbitrariness of language, as Trager states, stands for the belief that there is no natural reason why a particular sign should be attached to a particular concept. For example, there is no natural reason for an r (the letter) to be attached to the sound /r/, as in rat. Linguistic signs are imposed on real life sounds and concepts: a real ball could have been identified by any other word but ball. A baby who is about to start speaking would call a ball ‘apple’ or ‘shoe’ if all the people around him would always refer to the ball as ‘apple’ or ‘shoe’. There is no logical reason for the round object used in soccer games, the ball, to have been assigned the word ‘ball’ to name it. This reminds us of Shakespeare’s “What’s in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet” which has been interpreted as indicating that the names of things do not really matter; what matters is what things are; names are merely arbitrary. Michael Haliday (1973) views language as a source of open-ended options for linguistic behavior that are available to the individual as a member of the society. He says that the cultural context creates an environment for the selection of such options, and defines those options. Finally, the context of situation provides the conditions for the speaker’s choice among those options. Halliday clearly indicates the functional and creative nature of language – an open- ended set of options. Comprising extensive vocabulary and rules of grammar combined, a language allows the user to as much creative and productive as he wants and needs. Although limited by a close set of rules, any language allows the user to make an infinite number of combinations of words to express feelings, emotions, perceptions, ideas, and talk about everything they want to. The more you know about a language, the more vocabulary you have, the more creative and productive you can be. Sapir (1921) acknowledges language is a purely human and non-instinctive; a tool for communication that makes use of voluntarily produced symbols. ‘Purely human’ reminds you that only human beings can make use of language; animals are out. Forget about parrots. They cannot be linguistically creative, they do not increase their language production by themselves. All they do is repeat a small number of frozen words or short phrases they hear. Sapir also acknowledged language as being a product that is mainly cultural or social, and which as such is to be understood. Saussure (1916) stresses the social nature of language made possible from a typically human faculty, that is, our inherent ability to produce and creatively combine a set of meaningful sounds, hold a grammatical system existing in everyone’s mind and in the minds of groups of individuals. As he puts it, this human faculty only makes sense as a tool shared by a group of people, for it would be of no use for the individual alone. Here we find a most valuable argument for our understanding of the importance of learning and teaching a language. “Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground.” (WALT WHITMAN, 1892, p. 4) I would summarize by saying that language is as much a part of human beings as are their mind, heart and soul, a tool both for self expression and communication. It is also interesting to learn about some specific types or typical forms of language. Let us go back to our own Brazilian history and think about those large vessels navigating the ocean from Africa, filled with hundreds of African slaves from different regions, speaking different languages. Those slaves had to stay together for months inside those ships. How could they communicate? Under those conditions, human beings start creating some kind of hybrid language by combining a limited amount of vocabulary and grammar derived from the various languages around them. Initially a mumbo jumbo – an unintelligible mix of vocabulary and grammar -, this strange combination develops into a code called pidgin allowing those people to communicate to some extent. Supposing that the same group of people finally settle in a community, such pidgin may, over the generations, develop into a creole, then the native language of that community. In general, creoles include traces of languages like Spanish, French, GLOSSARY CORPUS LINGUISTICS: The study of language based on real world samples from which a set of rules on that particular language is derived. Before the computer was available to linguists, researchers used to interview a group of pre-selected people to collect language samples; the interviews were recorded on tape. The advent of the computer allowed for a larger, automated collection of real life samples. INTERDISCIPLINARY: What is said of: 1. a discipline which combines concepts, approaches and views from other two or more fields of study; 2. Research using methods and insights from various established fields of study. LINGUISTICS - Linguistics is the science of human language. LEXICOGRAPHY: Editing or making of dictionaries; the principles and practices guiding dictionary making. LITERACY: Ability to read and write about printed material coherently and critically. STYLISTICS: The study of the use of language style elements, like metaphors in specific contexts; the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective. 14 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período English or Portuguese – colonial European languages – combined with vocabulary and grammar of the colonized people. Most creoles have now disappeared, but some survive, for example, in the Caribbean and Western Africa. In the island nation of Haiti, a French-African pidgin became the creole language. As a foreign language speaker you are not expected to produce a mumbo jumbo type of language or discourse, or else you will not make yourself understood, and as a teacher, you will have to provide your students with some coherent language. Finally, let us have a quick look at dialects. A dialect is a variant of a language. Within your broader language community, that is, your country, you find a variety of regional speeches marked by the diversity of vocabulary, that is words that are typical of a specific area, or words that are attached different meanings depending on the region they are used. Dialects of this type are called regional dialects. Dialectal boundaries – called isoglosses (fronteiras dialetais) - do not match political or geographic boundaries. Therefore, do not expect to find differences in the pronunciation of the r in porta only because you have crossed the border between São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, for example. Isoglosses function somehow like the sound waves you see here: the changes in language move slowly across geographic borders. LEARN MORE Foreign language is understood as language learned in a community that has another mother tongue, and therefore is not used for everyday conversation by the learners outside the classroom, e.g., English learned in Brazil. Second language is the language learned by immigrants while living in a foreign country, where that language is used in everyday life, e.g., English learned in the US by Brazilians living there. For a broader understanding of Corpus Linguistics, you should refer to this article by Daniel Krieger: Corpus Linguistics: What It Is and How It Can Be Appliedto Teaching, at http://iteslj.org/ The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. IX, No. 3, March 2003. And for a better understanding of what Applied Linguistics is about, read http://www.filologia. org.br/revista/40suple/ introdao_a_ linguistica%20.pdf where you find this article in Portuguese: Introdução à Linguística Aplicada e sua utilidade para as pesquisas em sala de aula de língua estrangeira, by Doris de Almeida Soares. On Error Analysis, refer to Contribution of Error Analysis to Foreign Language Teaching, by Vacide ERDOĞAN, at *http://efd.mersin.edu. tr/dergi/meuefd_2005_ 001_002/pdf/ meuefd_2005_001_ 002_0261-0270 _erdogan.pdf Figure 01: Sound waves Source: Targethd.net, disponível em http://targethd.net/2009/03/19/gadgets- -fita-adesiva-sonora-voce-conhecia-isso/. Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012. ► Additionally, social dialects identify the linguistic status of speakers within a society. In our own communities, we are aware of forms that are considered better or worse, words and grammar forms that are used only by educated people, people who speak the standard form of the language, people who did not receive much language education, people whose pronunciation is typical of certain social groups. In the United States, particularly in Charleston, South Carolina, r-less speech, that is, not pronouncing the r in words like bear and court is associated with aristocratic, high-status groups, therefore a mark of linguistic prestige; in New York City, however, the same r-less speech is typical of working-class, low-status people. 1.2.1 Competencies The quotes above include such terms like society, culture, context of situation, communication. In any foreign language setting language learning has one and only purpose: enable the individuals to dive into a new culture and interact in contexts of situation which may also be entirely new. To do so, language users have to develop their communicative competence, or how language is used by members of a speech community to accomplish their social interactional purposes. The diagram below shows elements comprising communicative competence as viewed by Canale and Swain (1980). According to Hymes (1972), communicative competence requires the speaker to have proper control of the following interacting systems: • grammatical - what is provided by the rules of the language • psycholinguistic – whatever feasible through human information processing • psycho-cultural - the social meaning or value of a given utterance • probabilistic - what actually occurs during the interaction 15 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos In sum, to make it easier for you to understand it, you can say that communicative competence involves the ‘Whs’ of communication: when to engage in a conversation, speak, what to say or talk about, whom to talk to, when, where, in what manner, or how to say something or be silent. For proper interaction in contexts of situation which may be entirely new, the foreign language speaker must develop their grammatical competence, cultural competence, sociolinguistic competence, strategic competence all together contributing to what is called communicative competence. It is the task of foreign language teachers to give their students opportunities to develop these multiple competencies aimed to prepare them to properly use their most important human communication tool. Let us then learn more about such competencies. One day an English grammar teacher was looking ill. A student asked, “What’s the matter?” “Tense,” answered the teacher, describing how he felt. The student paused, then continued, “What was the matter? What has been the matter? What might have been the matter... ?” This joke, at this point used as merely motivational, is a good example of how simple language, easy words put together may create interesting forms of misunderstanding. TASK: Identify what caused the misunderstanding in the previous conversation. Grammatical competence involves the identification of the set of rules which governs a person’s understanding of what is and is not correct and acceptable in the language they speak. It therefore implies • mastering the morphology, the vocabulary and the mechanics of pronunciation (letters, syllables words), intonation and stress of a language, e.g., ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ • recognizing a verb in a sentence and a subject independent of the syntactic configurations in which they occur, e.g., ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ LEARN MORE This paper on Diversidade e Unidade: A Aventura Linguística do Português, by Rosa Virgínia Mattos e Silva, provides a very interesting analysis of language variance. I highly recommend its reading as knowledge of our own language is a valuable support for our learning of a foreign language. It is available at http:// cvc.instituto-camoes. pt/hlp/biblioteca/ diversidade.pdf . Another reading I do recommend is this book by Henriette Walter, A aventura das línguas no ocidente, Mandarim, 1997, where you will find useful, curious, interesting and sometimes funny information about languages like Portuguese, French, Italian, Spanish, Danish, German, English, and others. TASK – 1 Research and list 10 examples of pronunciation or use of Portuguese vocabulary representative of different social groups in your community. 2. Then refer to http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Regional_vocabularies_ of_American_English read the page and select 10 examples from the various regional words and comment on them. ◄ Figure 02: Model of communicative competence by Canale and Swain Source: CANALE and SWAIN (1980). 16 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período • using proper agreement of two or more items: they agree if they are both marked for the same grammatical distinction, e.g., ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ • telling which of a set of non-adjacent words in a sentence go together and which do not, e.g., ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ • identifying reference in a sentence, that is, what a specific word refers to, e.g., ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ • identifying how one sentence relates to another semantically (e.g. different words or arrangement, same meaning) or syntactically (e.g. different words, same structure), e.g., ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ TASK - 1 The previous marked items are all followed by e.g., but no actual examples were provided. Your task is to provide two English examples for each of the five implications above. TASK – 2 Identify and correct the grammar error in the cartoon (Figure 3) by providing two different forms of asking the same thing. 2. What cultural aspects are shown in the cartoon? Sociolinguistic competence, as the name implies, involves knowledge of the social context, roles of the interlocutors, functions of the interactions in which the language is used as well as the information shared in suchinteractions. It also involves recognizing instances of code switching, that is, the concurrent use of more than one language variety (formal/informal register) in conversation. Formal English is used in official documents, books, news reports, articles, business letters or official speeches while informal English is used in everyday conversations and in personal letters. Despite this definition, it is not always easy for foreigners to identify formal from informal language. Reading different types of texts, watching movies attentively, watching interviews with different types of people and news reports on TV are tools the teacher may recommend so that the language learner can observe and retain various levels of register, which, in fact range from informal to semi-informal and formal, as you can see in this example taken from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/ resource/608/02/. Formal (Written to an unknown audience): I am applying for the receptionist position advertised in the local paper. I am an excellent candidate for the job because of my significant secretarial experience, good language skills, and sense of organization. Semi-formal (Written to a well-known individual): I am applying for the receptionist position that is currently open in the company. As you are aware, I have worked Figure 03: What snapping can do! Source: The Funny Times. Disponível em http://pewari.may. be/2011/03/21/when- -english-teachers-snap/. Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012. ▼ 17 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos as a temporary employee with your company in this position before. As such, I not only have experience and knowledge of this position, but also already understand the company’s needs and requirements for this job. Informal (Incorrect): Hi! I read in the paper that ya’ll were looking for a receptionist. I think that I am good for that job because I’ve done stuff like it in the past, am good with words, and am incredibly well organized. Many authors agree that the language user shows discourse competence if he approaches language with both coherence and cohesion in “a large repertoire of structures and discourse markers to express ideas, show relationships of time, and indicate cause, contrast and emphasis” (SCARCELLA & OXFORD, 1992, p. 207). According to H.P. Grice (1975), conversation is based on a cooperative principle by which the interlocutors share specific goals and have already agreed ways of achieving them. This ‘agreement’ seems to be implicit in natural development of the conversation, and any successful dialogue would depend on the interlocutors including these four elements: • Quantity - say neither too little or too much than needed • Relation – make sure what is said is relevant to the conversation • Manner - be clear and coherent; avoid ambiguities and obscurities • Quality – use enough evidence to support what you say and avoid whatever may be felt as false, unimportant for the purpose of the conversation. TASK Identify which of these utterances are formal and which are informal. 1. I feel real good. I feel really good. 2. As the final price of ten dollars was reasonable, I decided to accept it. It was, like, ten bucks, so I said okay. 3. You can find out all about the survey in chapter 10. Details of the survey are to be found in chapter 10. The number of infected patients is increasing. 4. The number of infected patients is going up. TASK Both the cartoon on the figure 5 and the text are good examples of language and discourse misuse, filled with obscurities, ambiguities, incoherence. Of course, it takes some language and cultural knowledge for the reader to identify the various types of misuse in those authentic texts, which native speakers do easily. 1. Pick up the grammar error in Lula’s text and find what is ‘obscure’ or ambiguous in the text. 2. Pick up five examples of misuse in Bush’s text, including incoherence. ◄ Figure 04:Talking balloons Source: Disponível em http://www.stcare.com/ serendipity/exercise.html. Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012. Figure 05: Making progress Fonte: www.simontaylor.com.br. Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012. ► 18 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período Can the English language survive after Bush? Here is a collection of George Bush’s quotes: • “The vast majority of our imports come from outside the country.” • “If we don’t succeed, we run the risk of failure.” • “One word sums up probably the responsibility of any Governor, and that one word is ‘ to be prepared ‘.” • “I have made good judgments in the past. I have made good judgments in the future.” • “ The future will be better tomorrow.” • “We have a firm commitment to NATO, we are a part of NATO. We have a firm commitment to Europe. We are a part of Europe.” • ” Public speaking is very easy.” • “A low voter turnout is an indication of fewer people going to the polls.” • ”We are ready for any unforeseen event that may or may not occur.” • “For NASA, space is still a high priority.” • “Quite frankly, teachers are the only profession that teach our children.” • “It isn’t pollution that’s harming the environment. It’s the impurities in our air and water that are doing it.” • “It’s time for the human race to enter the solar system.” (Email running on the Internet) According to Canale and Swain (1980), strategic competence comprises a number of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that the speaker uses to offset his insufficient competence or common performance variables. This means the various ways a speaker handles language vocabulary, forms, or varieties to express his feelings, emotions, personal traits to achieve his communicative goals. Choosing to be more or less emphatic, use formal or informal language, polite expressions, metaphors, slang, gestures or facial expressions, pauses, all these are strategic means of achieving communication. For Duquette et al (1988) strategic competence is the ability to use communication strategies to keep the communication channel open maintaining the interaction between the interlocutors and the conversation according to the speaker’s intentions. Their definition assumes that the speaker sets a communicative goal and modifies what they say depending on what they intend to say. All this is certainly not new to you, as any speaker, in any language, including yourself when speaking Portuguese, uses similar strategies. In fact, some strategic strategies are to some extent international. What is important here is to remember that when teaching, you have to make this clear to your students so that they use them appropriately when conversing in English. GLOSSARY COHERENCE: The quality or state of cohering, especially a logical, orderly, and aesthetically consistent relationship of parts; logical or natural connection or consistency (www. thefreedictionary.com). COHESION: Proper use of linguistic elements to make a discourse semantically coherent. Figure 06: Following cultural standards Source: http:// pt.dreamstime.com/foto- -de-stock-royalty-free-exe- cutivos-na-reuni-ampatil- deo-do-globo-do-mundo- -nos-e-u--image5255005. Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012. ► 19 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos Cultural competence or cross-cultural awareness involves understanding the life and institutions, beliefs and values, everyday attitudes and feelings of the foreign society as expressed by language and by paralinguistic features like dressing, gestures, facial expressions, stance and movements. According to Tomalin and Stempleski (1996), for the purposes of communication,cultural competence summarizes as having: • awareness of one’s own culturally-induced behavior; • awareness of the culturally-induced behavior of others; • ability to explain one’s own cultural standpoint. Foreign language teachers must be aware of the fact that teaching a language is teaching a culture; values and presuppositions about the nature of life, about what is good and bad in it, which are implicit in any normal use of a language; crosscultural communication requires crosscultural understanding. Let me remind you that another important aspect to remember is that the language is generally accompanied by non-linguistic, or paralinguistic elements, that is, gestures, movements, gestures, facial expressions which may be very different from those used in the learner’s native language. In fact, the type and amount of those paralinguistic elements vary from culture to culture, and you must be careful when using them with a foreign language. As a teacher, remember that teaching communicatively requires observing such aspects as well. Still another type of competence that would very much help foreign language users interact in a cross-cultural environment is pragmatic competence, that is, the ability to perceive and understand speaker’s intended meaning, which many times is difficult when we use our own native language. Metaphors, irony, ambiguities, puns (trocadilhos), neologisms, all these just add to the difficulty in conversation, mainly for foreign speakers. It is the task of the language teacher to find ways to minimize such difficulty by exposing the learner to as much real life language as possible. You will read more about pragmatics in the next section. Enjoy an interesting example of total miscommunication in this fictional conversation between State Secretary Condolezza Rice and President George Bush in the Oval Office White House. Hu is on First? George: Condi! Nice to see you. What’s happening? Condi: Sir, I have the report here about the new leader of China. George: Great. Lay it on me. Condi: Hu is the new leader of China. George: That’s what I want to know. Condi: That’s what I’m telling you. George: That’s what I’m asking you. Who is the new leader of China? Condi: Yes. George: I mean the fellow’s name. Condi: Hu. George: The guy in China. Condi: Hu. George: The new leader of China Condi: Hu. George: The Chinaman! Condi: Hu is leading China. George: Now whaddya’ asking me for? Condi: I’m telling you Hu is leading China. George: Well, I’m asking you. Who is leading China? Condi: That’s the man’s name. George: That’s who’s name? Condi: Yes. George: Will you or will you not tell me the name of the new leader of China? Condi: Yes, sir. 20 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período George: Yassir? Yassir Arafat is in China? I thought he was in the Middle East. Condi: That’s correct. George: Then who is in China? Condi: Yes, sir. George: Yassir is in China? Condi: No, sir. George: Then who is? Condi: Yes, sir. George: Yassir? Condi: No, sir. George: Look, Condi. I need to know the name of the new leader of China. Get me the Secretary General of the U.N. on the phone. Condi: Kofi? George: No, thanks. Condi: You want Kofi? George: No. Condi: You don’t want Kofi. George: No. But now that you mention it, I could use a glass of milk. And then get me the U.N. Condi: Yes, sir. George: Not Ya ssir! The guy at the U.N. Condi: Kofi? George: Milk! Will you please make the call? Condi: And call who? George: Who is the guy at the U.N? Condi: Hu is the guy in China. George: Will you stay out of China?! Condi: Yes, sir. George: And stay out of the Middle East! Just get me the guy at the U.N. Condi: Kofi. George: All right! With cream and two sugars. Now get on the phone. (Condi picks up the phone.) Condi: Rice, here. George: Rice? Good idea. And a couple of egg rolls, too. Maybe we should send some to the guy in China. And the Middle East. Can you get Chinese food in the Middle East? Source: Email circulating on the Internet In the cartoon (FIG. 07) and in the text you have just read you may find interesting examples taken from an English-speaking culture, namely, the American culture. Observe how one simple cartoon offers a good amount of cultural information, and is therefore a rich source of teaching material, starting from reading and understanding the text. Figure 07: Culture tips Source: The Funny Times. Disponível em http:// www.funnytimes.com/. Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012. ► 21 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos I bet that after learning about those concepts you are now asking yourself: Can language teachers help the students develop all those types of competence? Is one type of competence more important than another? Should the teacher give priority to one or more competences in relation to the others? How does the choice of methodology impact the development of those competencies? What level of competence should be expected from the learner? You will find the answers by yourself after reading all the material selected for this course and completing the activities proposed. Questions are good to make you think! References BLOOMFILED, Leonard. Outline Guide for the Practical Study of Foreign Languages, 1942. BROWN, K. (Editor) Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. 2. ed. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005. DAVIES, Alan & ELDER, Catherine ( Editors). The Handbook of Applied Linguistics, Blackwell Publishing, 2004. DUQUETTE, L. La créativité dans les pratiques communicatives’ in A. M. Boucher, A. M. Duplantine, R. Leblanc, Pédagogie de la communication dans l’enseignement d’une language étrangere. Bruxelles: De Boeck-Wesmael, 1988. GRICE, H.P. ‘Logic and conversation’ In Cole, P. & Morgan, J. (eds.) Syntax and Semantics, Volume 3. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41-58, 1975. HALLIDAY, M.A.K. Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning. London, Edward Arnold, 1978. HYMES, D.H. ‘On Communicative Competence’ In: J.B. Pride and J. Holmes (eds) Sociolinguistics. Selected Readings. Harmondsworth: Penguin, pp. 269-293.(Part 2),1972. KRIEGER, Daniel Corpus Linguistics: What it is and how it can be applied to teaching, available at The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. IX, No. 3, March 2003. SAPIR, Edward Sapir Language. New York: Harcourt Brace, p.8, 1921. SELINKER, L. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-241, 1972. TRAGER, G. The Field of Linguistics. Norman, OK: Battenberg Press. 1949. TASK 1 Read the text contained in the cartoon above. Identify the cultural aspects and the language items used to indicate them. How do those aspects compare to the Brazilian culture? 2. Refer to http://www. fujishima-h.ed.jp/ teacher/materials/ American%20Gestures. pdf - American Gestures: A Lesson for Elementary Students. Read it carefully then make a list of the gestures commonly used by Americans and compare them with the gestures used in Brazil, if any, for the same contexts. LEARN MORE For a more detailed understanding of the role of culture in foreign language teaching and learning refer to the textbook on Anglo American Culture, by Helena Maria Gramiscelli Magalhães, 2011. GLOSSARY UTTERANCE - (enunciado) - A string of words produced on a particular event of oral interaction; a complete unit of speech in conversation, in general bounded by silence. 23 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos UNIT 2 What does it mean to learn a foreign language? ◄ Figure 08: The joy of learning Source: Sangrea.net. Dis- ponível em http://inglesie- sollosgrandes.blogspot. com.br/2010_06_01_ar- chive.html. Acesso em: 02abr. 2012. 2.1 The Learning Process: Core Concepts A first distinction you must learn is the one between learning and acquisition. In the context of language learning, learning is understood as the conscious, formal process developed in the classroom which includes grammar explanation, memorization of rules and vocabulary, activities, tasks, and exercises involving the four skills, and testing. Acquisition is the informal, unconscious, out-of-class process that involves the actual exposure to language in real life environments: English as a second language is acquired by Brazilians who have not attended English classes in Brazil and move to an 24 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período English speaking country where they do not take English classes. However, you are going to see in the material supplied for this course that some authors do not apply this distinction and use both acquisition and learning interchangeably. In fact, this is quite the case for other linguistic terms: selecting language terms or statements to describe language itself is sometimes difficult. The language learning/acquisition process basically implies going through the stages of: • retrieval of information. • processing of information. • transfer or encoding of information. In doing so, the foreign/second language learner develops some kind of intermediate, self-contained, specific form of language, termed interlanguage, as proposed by Larry Selinker (1972). This interlanguage creates a language system with grammar rules and vocabulary that, in general, do not belong to either his native language or the foreign/second language being learned. What is created is then some kind of third language marked by mechanisms of transfer or interference (negative transfer), overgeneralization, simplification, avoidance, overuse and fossilization. These mechanisms are all learning strategies that the learner uses in an attempt to master the rules of the new language. Transfer occurs when a rule of the native language is successfully used in the foreign language, that is, it is acceptable and also correct in that language, e.g., verb agreement, like in Ele gosta (not Ele gosto)* He likes (not He like). Interference (negative transfer) occurs when the student selects a rule from his native language which does not apply to the foreign language, therefore producing an ungrammatical sentence, e.g., * I like of oranges. Interference also occurs when the learner uses the so called ‘false friends’, that is, false cognates, words like advocate or actual, for example, which he erroneously believes to mean *advogado or *atual, for their graphic or phonological similarity with Portuguese words. The Hu is on First? gives you a good example of phonological interference leading to a lot of misunderstanding. Overgeneralization is the broad application of a specific rule of the foreign language itself in situations in which a native speaker would not, e.g., use plural suffix s for all nouns, irrespective of exceptions in English. Simplification implies keeping general, simple forms of language, like the adjectives good and nice, instead of more specific which are applied in multiple contexts; or child-like speech, somehow indicating that the speaker has not yet mastered proper target forms. Avoidance may occur in the form of structures removed from the learner’s interlanguage when he does not feel able to master them, or as a pragmatic, communicative strategy. In this case, it may happen because the speaker finds that a specific word or sentence is too difficult to use in certain circumstances or it is too formal, or too informal for the context of situation. Overuse indicates the recurrent, repetitive use of some language forms instead of other for fear of making errors when trying newly learned forms. You yourself as a foreign language user certainly tend to use words like nice and good in a number of contexts. They are easy and seem to fit well in those contexts, for example, when answering questions like How was your trip? However, you can show better proficiency if you use more specific terms, like comfortable, profitable, pleasant, satisfying, etc. When in doubt as to the adequacy of these words to answer that question, you avoid using them in favour of nice/good. Concerning the process of foreign learning, Selinker (1972) developed the concept of fossilization, a mechanism by which the learner seems to stop improving his interlanguage and some rules, structures, strategies and words are kept frozen in that interlanguage no matter the amount of instruction the learner receives. The language fossilized can originate from either the native language or the foreign language, including errors or only correct forms. All in all, as a prospective English language teacher, you must be aware that any or all of those mechanisms will be present in the student’s interlanguage during the process of learning, no matter which approach and method is adopted to teaching. It is the task of the teacher to identify them and help the student minimize the errors/mistakes and maximize their positive results. An error occurs when the language user has not yet mastered a rule, or because he has not yet been taught that rule, therefore not being competent to use it accordingly. An error has to do with competence, that is, the LEARN MORE Metalanguage is the language statements or language symbols used to describe language itself, that is, use English senten- ces or symbols to describe the grammar, syntax, semantics and phonology of the English language. 25 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos more competent the language user is the fewer errors he will make. A mistake occurs notwithstanding the level of competence of the speaker and is due to non linguistic factors, like tiredness, distraction, etc. This means that the speaker is competent enough to correct his own mistake. A mistake has to do with performance, that is, with the actual use of language. As far as the actual use of language is concerned, Pragmatics is the sub-field of Linguistics which develops the study of language in use by observing how the context of situation, the social and the cultural context contribute as well to meaning in conversation. Pragmatics investigates the implications of language interaction and studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on the linguistic competence of the interlocutors, but also on a number of other factors besides the above mentioned contexts, like the manner, place and time of the utterance, the status of the interlocutors and the understanding of the speaker’s intended meaning, as well as the causes of miscommunication. In the Appendix to this textbook you find this excerpt attached as Annex 1 - When “Yes” means “No” or “Maybe”-- Avoiding Cross- Cultural Misunderstandings in Global Business - which is an example of what may occur in a cross-cultural interaction and provides some advice on how to avoid cross-cultural misunderstandings, in this case, in the critical context of global business. 2.2 Learning Styles In this next section we will describe a set of learning styles and language learning concepts which run across teaching approaches and methodologies, together with a discussion of said approaches and methodologies. We will start by defining learning in general. Learning is a natural ability of human beings, who are driven by curiosity, by an internal drive to seek knowledge through experiencing the surrounding world. It may occur consciously or unconsciously. Sight, hearing, touch smell andtaste are the tools human beings use to grasp concrete information; our abstract ability allows us to use our imagination, our intellect and our intuition to identify hidden meanings, discover subtle implications in messages, develop imaginative contexts and grasp novel ideas. Our mind then organizes the ◄ Figure 09: The knot Source: Cartoon by Bill Browning, from his we- bpage: http://www.mnispi.org/ cartoon/2001/index.htm. Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012. 26 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período information randomly, spontaneously sometimes, and orderly, in a linear sequence otherwise. This type of learning is also termed informal learning, somehow synonymous to acquisition, or learning by natural exposition to the real world. Formal learning, on the other hand, results from the implementation of knowledge, skills or practices offered by school instruction or study, which add to our behavior, attitudes, viewpoints. In the language classroom, the learning that arises from explanations, exercises, tests, drills, case studies, guided and free activities involving the English grammar, semantics, phonology and related culture. In this type of setting, particularly in your language classroom, you can identify a variety of learning styles. In Figure 09 you find a student who is self- identified as ‘Abstract-Sequential’. What does that mean? This type of learner is research- oriented, logical, systematic, usually viewed as a nerd. Abstract learners tend to acquire information through observation, thinking and analysis while concrete learners demand doing, feeling, acting, therefore having some kind of direct experience with the information provided. As a teacher, the more you identify your students’ learning style the easier it is for you to find the right activities to propose to them. Among your students you will find, for instance, active learners, those who enjoy teamwork, retain and understand information more quickly by discussing or applying it, and reflective learners, who like to work alone while thinking about the information provided in class. These learners exercise their receptive skills (listen and read) as a tool to learn, contrary to active learners who feel they have to be more productive, that is use their productive skills (speak and write) to learn. Sensing learners are distinct from intuitive learners; they enjoy learning facts – rules of grammar, and feel safe following well-established rules. Intuitive learners, on the other hand, prefer to discover possibilities and relationships, for example, learning grammar from intuition, by observing varied occurrences in texts. Other types of learners include visual learners, those who learn better and faster from what they see – pictures and diagrams are helpful, written texts help them memorize graphic forms; verbal learners are satisfied with spoken explanations and written texts for comprehension; active learners, those who make sense of an experience through the immediate application of the new information; reflective learners, who have to think and reflect about the information received to make sense out of it. Are you really aware of the type of learner that you are? What are the implications of understanding these various learning styles for your own learning and later for your teaching? Here it is: • Identifying individual learning styles facilitate your own learning and your work as a teacher; • No one teaching method will effectively reach all learners; • Different learning styles require different teaching strategies. Both as a learner and a teacher, one thing that you must keep in mind is that every person can learn one way or another and that what is sometimes felt as unlearning is only a human learning strategy, a mental, unconscious process, some form of selecting, discarding unwanted, unnecessary, unimportant information that all of us go through to organize information in our mind. Also as an English learner you may have felt sometimes that the pace of your learning seems to have slowed down, that you do not understand or remember some aspects of language as easily as you used to. This is only a natural part of the learning process. You are not unlearning. 2.3 Learning Difficulties The 1960s and early 1970s witnessed the development of Contrastive Analysis, a systematic study aimed to identify structural differences and similarities between a native and a foreign language. The idea behind the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis was to explain why some structures are more difficult than others to learn. Following the Behaviorist belief prevailing at the time, that language learning depended basically on habit formation, it seemed logical to conclude that when a foreign structure or sound is TASK Refer to ANNEX 2 - Motivating Learners: Understanding Language Acquisition. Read it and produce a brief summary of the main points of the text. This task allows you to exercise your listening comprehension and your writing skills. 27 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos similar to the native structure or sound it is easier to master. On the other hand, diverse structures or sounds are harder to acquire. This position was defended by Robert Lado in his Linguistics Across Cultures (1957, p.21): “Those elements which are similar to [the learner’s] native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult”. Following this statement, teachers would create their lesson plans accordingly, proposing specific teaching strategies and tasks for those areas considered more difficult, being able to preview possible learners’ errors. However, it was soon clear that many errors could not be anticipated and that it was not entirely true that differences between languages were the sole responsible for learning difficulties. Anyway, Contrastive Analysis, together with error analysis, provided a valuable tool for subsequent proposals, like the Audio-Lingual method. In the Brazilian educational environment it is still easy to find teachers who believe some English structures are definitely difficult to all learners, for example, phrasal verbs, prepositions and the present perfect tense. Teachers must remember that generalizations of this type are dangerous and not real. Moreover, many times those supposed difficulties are determined a priori, reflecting the teacher’s own difficulty to deal with such items or find an appropriate teaching strategy. Learning difficulties are individual: what is difficult to one learner may be easy to another: learning difficulties depend on a number of factors and vary greatly from learner to learner, from individual abilities to the teaching methodology applied. Therefore, learning difficulties must be addressed on an individual basis. 2.4 Your new self While you are mastering a foreign language you are building a new self – rebuilding your identity, giving a new significance to yourself as an individual by engaging in a new cultural environment, however preserving your native identity. To incorporate this new self, you have to retrain your ears to receive, perceive and produce new sounds as close as possible to the foreign sounds being learned (listening/speaking), graphic combinations (read and write) and discourse strategies. A foreign language learner has to be prepared to perform multiple roles in different linguistic and cultural settings and actually use that new self. Exercising the foreign language promotes the alignment between native and foreign concepts, ethics, habits, discipline while developing theintellectual abilities of the language user. So, when you are learning a language you are acquiring a new linguistic skill, while growing, advancing as a social being. You have this extraordinary chance to navigate across the richness of the diverse worlds of people’s dialects, idiolects – the speech of the individual - and registers – language levels of formality. You are sharing another culture, trying to see the world through a different linguistic experience, finding similarities in the expected differences. In the end you will find that learning a foreign language gives you an opportunity to see that such differences and similarities only contribute to the overall quality of the individuals. As a learner and prospective language teacher you can profit from the knowledge of your own native language and culture to compare and contrast its strategies to those of the foreign language and culture, and further your own (and later your students’) understanding and tolerance, that is, appreciation of diversity and the ability to live and let others live according to their principles. In conclusion, you now see that learning a language is more than merely mastering grammatical structures, memorizing vocabulary, or training pronunciation. None of these alone will make you properly use a foreign language. In the Brazilian context, for the purposes established in the Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais de Língua Estrangeira and the Conteúdo Básico Comum de Língua Estrangeira do Ensino Fundamental do 6º ao 9º Ano, foreign language learning means to provide the learner with a chance to sharpen his curiosity, develop his critical perception of his social environment, exercise critical reasoning, get rid of bias, realize that whatever perverted view the language user may have of other cultures, languages, races or people is only the result of prejudice, discrimination, and should not be encouraged. There are similarities and differences between languages, as there are similarities and differences between cultures. There is no one culture better than another. Finally, there is this question which you 28 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período may have many times asked yourself: Why learn languages? The answer for yourself is the same you should have for your students, who most certainly must be convinced and motivated to learn. First, let us remember that the ability to learn languages is not limited by economic background, ethnic background, nationality, gender, race, religion, or age. Despite the individual differences concerning abilities and strengths, everyone can develop language ability to some degree. Learning another language not only adds to your general knowledge, but also expands upon the knowledge and understanding you have of your native language and culture. Learning another language is not only learning new grammar concepts, memorizing a new vocabulary and different sounds, but it provides you with insights into other cultures, helps create a more positive attitude towards differences and have a better understanding of the difficulties faced by people who have to move out of their countries. In the world of today, learning another language prepares you to find more professional opportunities, expand your social and cultural life activities. References MINAS GERAIS. Conteúdo Básico Comum de Língua Estrangeira do Ensino Fundamental do 6º ao 9º Ano. Belo Horizonte: 2008. LADO, Robert Linguistics Across Cultures. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor. 1957. BRASIL. Mistério da Educação. Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais de Língua Estrangeira. Brasília: 1998. SELINKER, L. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-241. 1972. 29 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos UNIT 3 What does it take to teach a foreign language? 3.1 Approaching Language Teaching Now that you have improved your knowledge of what learning is all about, of learning styles and of the creation of that new self when you learn a foreign language, let us move to the front of the classroom and talk about teaching. Language teaching can be approached in many ways, both explicitly and implicitly. The most common, traditional mode that you know is the explicit mode of teaching, which includes explanations about how the language works, direct teaching of concepts, academic language and reading comprehension strategies as well as memorization of rules and forms. In this case, the content and messages of sentences and utterances is given second place. This teaching tends to be structural in nature. Implicit teaching, on the other hand, is made by guiding the learner to identify grammar patterns in samples of authentic use while keeping a focus on the message/ content. Some of the advantages of the implicit teaching include the immediate applicability of grammar patterns to real life contexts, therefore being more communicative and creative than explicit teaching based on grammar explanation and structural exercises. However, a combination of both explicit and implicit teaching seems to be a positive tool for the teacher. Implicit teaching can be performed through activities that demand observation and identification applied to a number of situations. Let us remember that this type of teaching is especially valuable for intuitive learners, who will profit the most from them. In this type of teaching, learners are exposed to demonstrations of language in use little with no grammar explanation, as used in ◄ Figure 10: Regular classroom, regular class Source: http://srhabay.wi- kispaces. com/15 +CLAS- SROOM +COMMANDS. Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012. 30 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período traditional methods. The activities have an immediate applicability to the learner’s lives or cultural backgrounds; they are usually motivational and the learner has more possibility of self-correction of mistakes. Anyway, whatever type of teaching you choose should include cooperative strategies for the learners to share, compare and discuss their results. This is particularly important as learners with different learning styles can profit from a proper combination of these styles. What this also means is that the teacher has the options of emphasizing either of the learners’ productive skills, that is, speaking or writing, or their receptive skills – listening and reading. The foreign language itself can be approached from its structure, grammar, vocabulary, or as a tool for communication. The techniques, or types of activities proposed to teaching will vary according to the approach chosen. Considering the needs of the Brazilian learners in general, the Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais de Língua Estrangeira and the Conteúdo Básico Comum de Língua Estrangeira do Ensino Fundamental do 6º ao 9º Ano defined the teaching objectives for our children, teenagers and young adults in formal education in terms of a communicative approach. What this means is that the syllabus must stress the social nature of language to empower the learner as a social actor. Therefore, the teaching material, including textbooks, learning and evaluation activities must be adequately selected so as to provide the learner with the necessary tools to develop their communicative competence. Although the terms ‘approach’ and ‘method’ are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a basic distinction between approaches and methods. A method is fixed teaching system comprising a set of stages, orderly organized, including activities, procedures, techniques and practices; a plan for the presentation of the language material to be learned. Approachesare said to be teaching philosophies, which are interpreted and applied in different ways - the methods – in the classroom. Since the beginning of the last century a number of methods were proposed for foreign language teaching, including, among others, Grammar Translation Method; Cognitive Approach; Audio-Lingual Method; Direct Method; Presentation, Practice, Production (PPP); The Silent Way; Suggestopedia; Total Physical Response (TPR); Community Language Learning (CLL); Total Immersion Technique; Task-based Learning; The Lexical Approach; English for Specific Purposes (ESP). From this list you can see that the words ‘approach’ and ‘method’ are used interchangeably, as some authors believe that that term ‘method’ should be avoided in favor of the term ‘approach’. These methods/approaches can be classified in three main categories, or types: (a) structural, (b) functional and (c) interactive methods. 3.1.1 The Structural Approach Structural approaches to foreign language teaching give first priority to exploring and mastering the grammatical and phonological patterns of the language. Most of the so-called traditional methods focused on sentence structure giving first priority to particular grammatical points, grammatical functions, like subject and predicate, word order and the memorization of word lists. Activities in general included repetition and memorization. The best known purely structural method, developed on an oral approach, is the Audio-Lingual method characterized by the use of the foreign language itself – never the learner’s mother tongue - to explain the grammar and new words of the target language, drills and memorization of sentence structures to create some kind of conditioning, so that the student could finally overcome their native language habits and acquire new habits to use those structures naturally, The Audio-Lingual method innovated when an audio-visual lab was added to the teaching practice as its most important tool. The Audio-Lingual method was a milestone in the history of foreign language teaching. 3.1.1.1 The Audio-Lingual Method The Audio-Lingual Method, an oral- based approach, drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns and is supported by a strong theoretical base in LEARN MORE An important distinction must be made between grammatical/syntactic functions – subject, predicate, object and complement - and communicative functions - apologize, describe, invite, reason, comment, criticize and a number of others. TASK Instead of referring you to the Internet, I attached this text about the Audio Lingual Method to this textbook as ANNEX 3 so that you do not run the risk of having it deleted from the Web. The complete, detailed text is available at http://faculty.ksu. edu.sa/fallay/Pages/ ChapterFourTheAudio- LingualMethod.aspx 31 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos linguistics and psychology. The assumption behind this method is that the understanding and retention of sentence patterns by the learners occurs through conditioning, responding to stimuli, and that learners could form new habits after overcoming the habits of their native language. The method makes use of drills of various types: repetition drill, chain, substitution, addition, expansion, transformation, completion, translation, sentence formation, replacement, question and answer. Practice, mainly understood as repetition, is intensive and extensive. 3.1.2 The Communicative Approach Interaction is a basic feature of teaching and learning. Any regular class demands asking and answering questions, receiving and returning tasks, discussions, etc. This interaction is intensified and extended in the so called Communicative Approach to foreign language teaching. The Communicative Approach draws on Michael Halliday’s (1973) account of language as being functional. Language strategies are then a tool to the realization of communicative functions, like getting things done, informing, inviting, convincing, reasoning, requesting, etc. The approach also includes the constructivist conception of learning as experimental response to real world events and as a socially mediated process. Within the communicative approach to foreign language teaching: • language is viewed mainly as a tool to communication; • classroom activities develop around authentic, meaningful communication; • fluency is essential to communication; • communication requires the integration of various language skills; • actual communication demands creativity based on the testing of hypotheses; • trial and error is a part of language learning; • actual language learning requires contextualization; • culture cannot be dissociated from language; • practice is essential; • competence is built through use; • language has to be adequate to the social context. Being an umbrella term, the communicative approach typically encompasses a number of trends, methods, practices, procedures, activities, all of them with a view to prepare the learner to use language effectively in the real world. The approach acknowledges the social- interactional nature of language, its role as an intervening tool for social relations, a mirror for an underlying culture. By now you have already mastered a number of concepts and may be wondering which methods, practices, activities to adopt for your teaching. The Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais (PCN) – língua estrangeira (1998), clearly stress the communicative scope of foreign language teaching in the Brazilian context. Under the provisions of the PCN, our schools must then adopt methods/trends that provide the learner with activities, procedures, tasks to allow them to develop their productive and receptive skills accordingly, therefore being prepared for perform his role in the society. To meet the provisions of the PCN for the Brazilian schools the foreign language learner is expected to be able to understand the social-interactional nature of language, identify and apply simple culture-specific patterns in conversation; develop appropriate pronunciation and intonation; reapply grammar forms and vocabulary to appropriate contexts; identify and apply the levels of language register – formal, semi-formal and informal; infer word and sentence meanings; understand the general and specific meanings of written texts; create simple meaningful chunks; produce short, coherent texts. 3.1.2.1 Functional Approaches Contrary to the proposal of the structural methods, functional approaches include methods proposing that structures must be presented and mastered in those LEARN MORE Go to ANNEX 3 and read about the Audio Lingual Method for features and scope, then suppose you teach in a school where the audio lingual is the method to be used in your English classes. Create a set of drills based on the description of typical Audio-Lingual Method drills. GLOSSARY DRILL: A drill is defined as a learning exercise aimed at perfecting facility and skill, especially by regular practice. LEARN MORE CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING - Learning is viewed as an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment, and on the previous knowledge and experiences of the learner. This view of learning was supported by a number of works by Vygotsky and Piaget, among which I suggest that you read, if you are interested in those theories, PIAGET, Jean. A Linguagem e o Pensamento na Criança. Trad. ManuelCampos. Rio de Janeiro: Fundo de Cultura, 1959; VYGOTSKY, Lev Pensamento e linguagem. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 1987. 32 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período situations in which they could be used. It emphasizes the processes of learning or receiving knowledge, memorizing knowledge by repetition and start practicing it when such knowledge becomes a personal skill and habit. To achieve this, students learn vocabulary and practice reading skills. Learning is then viewed as habit formation, where mistakes are to be avoided; language skills are presented orally first; word meanings are learned in context, both linguistic and cultural; oral practice is emphasized. 3.1.2.1.1 The notional-functional approach Developed in Europe in the early 1970s, this approach focused on semantic and performance criteria: (a) notions, like quantity, manner, time and place, and emotions, and (b) communicative functions, like apologize, describe, invite, reason, comment, criticize. The procedures do not provide for grammar and vocabulary explanation and memorization of rules, therefore relying on the assumption that the student has already mastered those aspects of the language. Teaching materials in general did not include a list of functions or notions. Anyway, the concept underlying the proposal was useful and valuable for the subsequent communicative trends in teaching. 3.1.2.2 Interactive Methods Language teaching methods tend to be more and more interactive, leading the learner to be more active, therefore focusing on the development of both the productive and receptive skills and allowing the learner to be more creative instead of merely repetitive. Below are some examples of how some major interactive methods work. 3.1.2.2.1 Strategic Interaction: focus on speaking For Di Pietro (1987), human conversation always involves a turning point after a first stage when phatic, expected, ‘meaningless’ utterances used are meant to establish a mood of sociability. That turning point then triggers the actual intended conversation, filled with surprises. An easy example is when you meet a friend in the street. You exchange greetings – this is expected, and whatever you say is accepted as greeting. Then you may hear something like “Did you hear that my husband was awarded a prize for his latest urban development project?” At this point what Di Pietro says is that language teachers fail when they prepare their students only to memorize greetings, phatic expressions LEARN MORE PHATIC EXPRESSIONS are those expressions used to establish a mood of sociability, introduce some conversation while not actually communicating information or ideas. When you meet someone and say “How are you?”, for example, you do not really want the other person to give you any information about him or her, but simply to have it as an introduction to a conversation, or merely a general form of greeting. Figure 11: (Em)Phatic talking! Source: http://www. brainstuck.com/tag/ beard/. Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012. ► 33 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos instead of preparing them for that unknown, unexpected bit of the conversation coming with that ‘decision moment’, that turning point when the speaker has to resort to their creativity and competence to move on with the conversation. To help the teacher with their task he proposes a pragmatics-centered, learner- centered method that makes use of strategic interactions based on real-life scenarios created by the teacher. The scenarios can involve two or more speakers/interlocutors. Although speaking is given first priority, the four language skills are involved, starting from reading comprehension. Reading, listening and writing activities support the development of the speaking skill. Here is a sample scenario I produced for you: Group A You are an exchange student in the USA. After your first term in school you have made some new friends. One of them is going to be 19 next Saturday and you have been invited to his birthday party. As most students, you live on a tight budget. Anyway, you want to buy him a present, so you go to a shopping mall. After doing some window shopping, you decide that a tie will be a good present as your friend will be working in an office in the summer. Besides, a tie is not so expensive and suits your budget quite well. Group B You are a salesperson in a gift shop of a well-known shopping mall. At work this morning, you were instructed to do your best to sell some Calvin Klein belts which were left from the last season. The store manager told you that for each belt sold the salesperson in charge will receive an extra sales commission. At this exact m o m e n t somebody is entering the shop. Be prepared to help your customer. In this scenario the basic communicative functions practiced are argumenting / convincing/ asking. The procedures, always based on teamwork, are developed in three stages: rehearsal, performance and debriefing. During rehearsal the students prepare the conversation based on the script they received for the scenarios and supported by research, discussion and experimentation. They are allowed to research whatever means they may have concerning grammar, lexicon and culture. Performance is the stage when the actual conversation occurs. It encourages the learner to take risks and feel self-confident as they learn that there is no pre-determined or a one-and-only language form or communicative strategy in conversation. During performance, the teacher takes notes and does not interfere. It is during debriefing that the teacher discusses the pertinent occurrences observed during performance and guarantees the solution of the problems and mistakes observed during the performance. 3.1.3 The Lexical Approach Proposed by Michael Lewis (1993), the Lexical Approach develops various of the basic principles of the Communicative Approach highlighting the nature and importance of lexis to language teaching. You will be surprised to learn that Lewis describes language as ‘grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar’. This means that language teaching should give first priority to the mastering of lexical chunks over grammar. Lexical chunks are defined as any pair or group of content words commonly found together, like good morning, foreign language, low price. Lewis makes a distinction between vocabulary and lexis, lexis including not only individual words but also the word combinations that he termed lexical chunks. Chunks can occur as: • collocations: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs which go together, like fast track, head hunting, speak slowly. • frozen (fixed) expressions: expressions which cannot be changed; idiomatic expressions, like I beg your pardon. • Semi-fixed expressions: expressions which allow for at least one word to be replaced with others, like How are you doing? TASK Provide a list of 10 collocations, 10 frozen expressions and 10 semi-fixed expressions in English. 34 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período According to Lewis, as much language consists of multi-word chunks, teaching should develop the learner’s proficiency with the lexicon. It is by mastering a set of frequently used combinations, or chunks that the learner develops his perception of the grammar, and not the other way around. This view contradicts those traditional views of language learning that place grammar as the basis of language, and mastery of the grammatical system as a prerequisite for effective communication. Additionally, some authors agree that, in communication, a lexicalmistake generally results in misunderstanding, while a grammar mistake only rarely does. However unpopular it is with teachers, language which contains grammatical errors is unlikely to be misunderstood in context, but with lexical errors misunderstanding, incomprehension, or in rare cases even offence, are quite likely. Recognizing the lexical nature of language, and the centrality of lexis to the creation of meaning, and consequently to communicative power, demotes grammar – and in particular, the often unnatural, inaccurate grammar of standard EFL – to a subsidiary role. (MICHAEL LEWIS 1997, p.37) It is clear, however, that Lewis is not saying that you, as a teacher, should not correct your learners’ errors, or give less attention to grammar. Remember that fluency requires a certain level of accuracy. What he proposes is giving first priority to the lexicon instead of grammar. So you can make your classes more interesting by leaving grammar rules to be learned inductively, primarily from observation. Essentially, learning should follow the sequence observe – create hypotheses – experiment, instead of the traditional sequence present – practice – produce. As you can see, this is primarily a constructivist/communicative proposal, centered on the learner. The learner himself observes specific language strategies, creates his hypotheses about them and tries his own forms based on those hypotheses. In fact, when engaging in conversation, the speaker has to risk using creative forms of language; when reading a foreign text the reader has to observe and create hypotheses about the content of the text to achieve understanding. LEARN MORE Go to http://www. kenlackman.com/files/ LexicalActivities Book102.pdf for more information on the The Lexical Approach. GLOSSARY COLLOCATION: a lexical pair of content words like in communicative approach, pretty girl, speak fluently. Groups of words like by the way or get up do not fit into the concept because they include both function and content words. In English, some words naturally collocate (go well together) with others. CONTENT WORD or FULL WORD, or LEXICAL WORD - any word belonging to the open class of words, that is, words which carry meaning in a sentence: noun, verb, adjective. FUNCTION WORD or GRAMMATICAL WORD - (palavra gramatical) a word belonging to the closed class of words, that is, words which do not carry content and are used as a syntactic (or construction) marker. In the examples above, the words by, the, up. TARGET LANGUAGE – The foreign/second language being learned. Figure 12: Hold your teeth! Source: http://www.proz. com/forum/fun_with_ images/221038-how_ to_pronounce_the_th_ sound_in_english.html. Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012. ► 3.1.4 A Reading Approach Traditionally in our foreign language teaching practice learn a language was achieved by studying its vocabulary, grammar and sentence structure, and reading was reduced to sentences and paragraphs produced by textbook writers and teachers. The reading of authentic materials was limited to literary works and only offered to advanced learners, those who supposedly had already developed the language skills required for them to understand those texts. This clearly shows that learning did not occur through actual reading. The advent of the communicative approach to language teaching provided the teachers with a different understanding of the role of reading in language teaching and the types (genre) of texts that could be used in the classroom. For the purposes of developing communicative competence, any type of materials related to everyday life, like newspaper articles, advertising leaflets, interviews, website texts are appropriate provided that they are of interest to the learners. When selecting a text to read you have a purpose for your reading: get 35 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos information, leisure, improve knowledge, curiosity… Language learners must see a clear purpose in reading in class. An interesting text is motivational, reading promotes implicit learning, provides cultural content, and displays the intricacies of the language grammar. As a teaching tool, texts must provide the reader with cognitive challenges that give them opportunities to process meaning effectively. Normal readers do not read all text types in a magazine or newspaper with the same interest, so learners are not expected to read whatever text presented in the classroom with the same interest. Sometimes you read only for main ideas, sometimes for details, and the way a reader approach the text is determined by the purpose they set for reading. This means that the focus of the reader varies accordingly: while scanning a list of prices for sneakers you may not give attention to that additional note on colors available. Reading is focus-selective. The specific knowledge, skills, and strategies that a reader has to use to achieve comprehension, depend on the purpose set for reading and the specific type of text selected. Text comprehension competence is achieved through practicing extensive and intensive reading, integrating the reader previous knowledge into the new information, being motivated to read, relying on the interaction of different skills and strategies, like recalling, inferring, experimenting, guessing. TASK After reading, refer to ANNEX 4 - Teaching Reading: Strategies for Developing Reading Skills – and produce a short lesson based on the following text: Since 1977, Bollywood movies have been staged and filmed at 16 air-conditioned studios spread over 520 acres in a place called Film City, located in the northern Mumbai suburb of Goregaon. Now the Maharashtra government thinks it’s time to make Bollywood’s office a state-of-the- art, one-stop-shop for filmmakers as well as a major tourist attraction. Future tourists will have access to shoots and sets and there’s a Bollywood museum also being planned on Film City premises. According to news reports, special sections will be built on sets to allow tourists to watch shoots in progress through mirrored walkways that will ensure minimal interference. Production houses will be offered discounts if they hold shoots on sets that are along the virtual tour route. “We want the Film City to become one of the best places for filmmaking,» Film City public relations officer Saini told media. «We also want it to become a sought after tourist spot. However, we won’t open the entire Film City for tourism purposes. There will be just few places that will be open to the general public. “We have decided to work on this plan because we used to get many requests from people so we thought why not do something so that people can see what happens inside a film set and get a closer look at Bollywood?” he added. Mumbai’s Film City to open to tourists Plan has visitors allowed onto actual film sets and able to see shoots in progress Source:http://www.cnngo.com/mumbai/visit/mumbais-film-city-open-tourists- 911279?hpt=hp_bn10 on Sept.13, 2011. Rethinking education for the 21st Century, Colombian philosopher and educator Bernardo Toro (1997 – Colombia) clearly states that there is no democracy without a quality education to enable the child to understand the surrounding context and this has to start from developing the reading comprehension and writing skills of children. Initially Toro’s giving first priority to reading and writing may appear simply as acknowledgment of the usefulness and recurrence of reading in today’s world. The code is, however, a call to the accountability of the reader, their responsibilityfor misinterpreting texts, reading superficially, which may lead to dangerous results. What Toro does is to authenticate the status of the written text as the most important and enduring documentary record ever created. His Code also reminds of that reading is the primary form of achieving a comprehensive understanding of the world, and this gives us reason enough to choose teaching a foreign language through reading. LEARN MORE Refer to http://www. powershow.com/ view/147203- ZGM3Z/ Teaching_Techniques_ and_Strategies_in_ Foreign_Languages_ flash_ppt_presentation and to Richards, Jack C. & Rodgers, Theodore Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press, 2001 to read about foreign language approaches and methods. TASK Go over the main features of the methods discussed and produce a comparative account of such features. Then, after learning more about the Communicative Approach decide if one of those methods or a combination of methods better match the objectives of your teaching and give five reasons for your choice. 36 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período Teaching through reading enables the teacher to reach a larger number of learners at the same time while offering the learners equal learning opportunities; enables learners to develop the other skills for language as a whole is a natural combination of oral and written elements and writing and oral activities result from the text content and comprehension. Reading in a foreign language implies allowing the reader to enjoy a “psycholinguistic guessing game” (GOODMAN, 1967). Of course, when you read you do not guess all the time, but this is one of the strategies readers use to grasp the meaning of the text. Anyway there is clearly an interaction between thought and language while developing the abilities to infer, preview, create and confirm hypotheses, draw conclusions, and guess! The linguistic content acquired through the written text must inevitably be reapplied to other communicative contexts and situations. In fact, reapplication to real life is a key element of the actual objective of language learning. As reading is a receptive skill, the receptive competence acquired becomes the semantic and structural content of the productive skills, that is, speaking and writing, therefore creating what I call a ‘boomerang effect’. It is clear then that the option to give first priority to a specific skill, in this case reading, does not mean to exclude the other skills. Human languages are not realized through one skill only; human beings do not develop the four skills equally. If I asked you about your Portuguese, you would probably tell me that you are better at speaking than at writing, or better at reading than at speaking. So why expect something different from yourself or your students, moreover when learning a foreign language? In fact all this only reflect the natural, necessary balance of human nature. Being aware of this balance only adds to a better understanding of the learner’s difficulties while contributing to reduce the teacher’s anxiety and concerns. Finally here is a note on reading in the real world and reading in the instructional context. Basically, the distinction between these two types of reading is saying that one is reading for pleasure while the other is reading for information. However, a good selection of texts can provide the learner with pleasant information! Krashen argued that pleasure reading is an important source of comprehensible input for language acquisition, and that the basic requirement “is that the story or main idea be comprehensible and the topic be something the student is genuinely interested in, that he would read in his first language” (Krashen, 1982) 3.1.4.1 ESP (English for Specific Purposes) ESP is one of the various trends under the umbrella term communicative approach. An extended research developed in Brazil in the 1990s identified reading as the most frequently used of the four skills among Brazilian teenagers and young adults and professionals. The research accounted for the difficulties, needs and wants of learners and schools alike as well as for the educational objectives established by the Brazilian educational authorities. In Annex 5 you find a detailed discussion of ESP. 3.1.4.2 What about writing? A first step in the process of teaching writing must always be to review the concept of writing and redefine the scope of writing in the Brazilian educational environment for teenagers and young adults. Writing in fact starts with the simple copy of words. Although English makes use of the alphabet that we know, combining characters to produce English words, that is, spelling is very particular of that language and not always logical from the viewpoint of a Brazilian speaker. Simple activities like copies and dictation can be valuable tools for beginners, mainly if the learner copies meaningful chunks instead of single words. Together with writing, learners develop memorization and listening to pronunciation. For beginners, copies can be enough as a first step to develop writing. Other activities like transforming active sentences into passives, paraphrasing and transforming direct discourse into indirect speech, reordering jumbled sentences, these are all forms of practicing writing, a guided exercise of the productive skill of writing. Guided/controlled writing should 37 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos precede creative writing and can be supported by visual aids: pictures, graphs, and others. Creative, free writing, on the other hand involves a number of stages, and requires the writer alone to pick up a topic, plan, outline, organize, draft and revise the text. In the teenager/young adult classroom, creative writing should include the production of short poems, simple stories, personal letters, blogs, and others. Writing in a foreign language is somehow complex and it has to follow the cultural conventions and linguistic patterns of the English variant selected: British English or American English, for example, for each text type or genre. As much as there is no variant better than another, speaking and writing must reflect the requirements of that variant. Levels of formality, presentation, even size of certain texts vary from one variant to another. Simple uses, like valedictions - word or phrase of farewell used to end a letter or message – vary from one variant to another. Yours sincerely is typically used in British English while American English uses Sincerely yours or Sincerely in formal correspondence. What is important is that whatever methods, techniques, procedures, activities are chosen for a given course should reflect the core concepts developed in Applied Linguistics and meet the communicative objectives established in the provisions of the PCNs. As I see it, this is what a communicative teaching should include: • Value both individual and cooperative work by calling for both the individual’s creativity and the reaching of a common ground. • Place the teacher as an orchestrator of activities, a research pal, one who shares information and interacts with the learners, controlling the instructional process but not dominating over the learner’s efforts to succeed in the acquisition of the target language. • View linguistic and cultural elements as live bodies which have to combine to produce actual communication. • Promote a balance between learner’s fluency and accuracy. • Trigger the learner’s building of a new linguistic self in accordance with the foreign environment. • View the occurrence of mistakes as a necessary step inthe learning process and use it as a tool for the teaching / learning of specific linguistic aspects. • Track the learners’ process of building the various stages of their interlanguage. • Use extra material and extensive tasks according to individual needs and wants. • Rely on a balance between those protocols dictated by cultural conventions and the strategies formulated by the individual’s intention. • Exercise the four language skills while clearly setting priorities according to the objectives of the course, the school and the education authority regulations. • Develop the communicative competence with the balanced support of the grammatical, semantic, phonological, strategic, functional competencies. • Observe individual learning styles. • Observe and value the diverse development of the four skills for individual learners. • Reach a satisfying predetermined teaching goal or conclusion. • Continuously and adequately assess learning quantity and quality using the same language teaching strategies. • Be motivational, thus not boring to either teachers or students. The learners are expected to • Profit from any type of previous linguistic knowledge - native or another foreign language - they may have • Understand the social-interactional role of language • Make appropriate and recurrent use of the communicative functions: ask, answer, invite, discuss, describe, reason, explain... • Make adequate selection and use of the lexicon • Identify linguistic variants • Make appropriate use of register in relation to the context of situation • Interpret the content and message of written texts • Apply the language learned in various modes of interaction • Produce short, coherent written texts of selected genres LEARN MORE Access the page below for more information on creative writing. http://www. teachingenglish.org. uk/articles/creative- writing-language- learners-teachers and http://www.learnnc. org/lp/pages/672 for writing and Second Language Teaching TASK Go to http://elpweb.com/ materials/wp-content/ uploads/2006/03/ Writing_3_Activity_1. pdf and http://elpweb.com/ materials/wp-content/ uploads/2006/04/ L2%20W%20task1%20 activity3.pdf and complete the exercises. These are interesting examples of how to propose simple guided writing activities. 38 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período 3.2 Learning assessment By many considered the most difficult area of teaching, learning assessment, understood as collecting information on a learner’s language ability or achievement, has been a controversial area, the scope and forms of which not always being clearly defined. Within the traditional school context, learning assessment has been cumulative and reductionist, distant from learning in time and many times making use of activities and strategies not used for teaching. As I see it, language learning assessment must aim to advance learning, be continuous, recurrent, balanced and parallel to teaching, a systematic, strategic observation of the development and moment of learning; progressive while accounting for the various levels of the learner’s interlanguage; constructive and positive, so that errors and mistakes are viewed as an essential part of learning and every bit of learning is accounted for. Effective assessment depends on the teacher understanding some core concepts. Language use is not only a matter of determining what is right or wrong, but also what is standard and non-standard (dialectal); formal, semi-informal and informal; used and not used in certain contexts or by certain speakers; grammatical or ungrammatical; acceptable or not acceptable; typical of certain social groups; frequently used or not; error or mistake… Understanding these concepts will help the teacher have a better evaluation of learners’ results. Many times learners come out with unexpected answers, which are, in fact, correct, good occurrences in the language although not the ones the teacher wanted to have. To avoid this attention must be given to the directions for each question or activity that should clearly state the objectives of the activity. Considering that no human being develops the four language skills or show the same level of performance, you should expect yourself to be better at one skill and not another and, when assessing your students, remember this and value whatever skill your student has developed. Something else to consider is that what is difficult for the teacher may not necessarily be difficult for your student. Assessment can take a number of forms, use various types of activities and questions, but these should always be compatible with the teaching strategies used. It should provide useful, clear information on students’ strengths and weaknesses in such a way as to give the teacher an insight on suitable materials and activities to use in teaching; determine the student readiness for a further stage of learning; provide feedback on the effectiveness of a teaching program, method, approach or procedure. Grades should be assigned on achievement, not on failures. Within a communicative teaching context, learners who are exposed to performance-based environments, who are used to completing activities that give them the ability to actually use the target language in simulated real-life situations must also be evaluated for their linguistic performance if the teacher is to gain a fair and accurate picture of what they know and are able to do with the foreign language. Performance assessment enables the learner to show the specific skills and competencies they have mastered while applying to life like situations. Teaching communicatively presupposes assessing communicatively otherwise it would not be fair to the learner. Figure 13: The unmaking of English Source: www.chrismad- den.co.uk/. Disponível em http://www.jesslaccetti. co.uk/labels/learning%20 styles.html. Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012. ► 39 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos References PENNYCOOK, Alastair Critical Applied Linguistics: A Critical Introduction. Routledge, 2001. CANALE, M. and SWAIN, M., Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics 1:1-47. , 1980. Di PIETRO, R. J. Strategic interaction: Learning languages through scenarios. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987. GOODMAN, K.. Reading: A psycholinguistic guess game. Journal of the Reading Specialist, May, 126-135. 1967. HALLIDAY, M.A.K. Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold, 1973. KRASHEN, S. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, Pergamon, 1982. LEWIS, Michael. The Lexical Approach: The State of ELT and a Way Forward, LTP Language Teaching Publication, 1993. MAGALHÃES, Helena Maria Gramiscelli. Anglo American Culture. Caderno da UAB, 2011. RICHARDS, Jack C. & RODGERS, Theodore. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press, 2001 Scarcella, R.C., & Oxford, R.L. The Tapestry of Language Learning: The Individual in the Communicative Classroom. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1992. TOMALIN, B. and STEMPLESKI S., Cultural Awareness. Oxford University Press, 1996. http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/03/Writing_3_Activity_1.pdf http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/672 http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/03/Writing_3_Activity_1.pdf http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/04/L2%20W%20task1%20activity3.pdf 41 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos UNIT4 How is the foregoing material applicable to the classroom? 4.1 Sample unit In this unit you are provided with a sample lesson resuming the concepts and proposals you learned in the previous units. It is meant to show you how you can profit from those concepts and proposals by offering your students a set of individual and group activities, triggered by reading comprehension. The four skills are developed in those lessons, which always include a final section on applicability to the real world. This sample unit was taken from Neves da Silva Magalhães (2001). Reading the World: COMPREHENSIVE COLLABORATIVE INTERACTION (2001). It was prepared to meet the provisions of both the Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais de Língua Estrangeira and the Conteúdo Básico Comum de Língua Estrangeira do Ensino Fundamental do 6º ao 9º Ano, therefore starting with reading comprehension. Lessons that follow this pattern are based on a tripod including: Communicative functions: inform, reason, describe, narrate, explain… Linguistic strategies: selected syntactic structures and vocabulary Contexts of situation (topics): technological innovation, business, everyday situations, sports… 4.2 General task 1. Your task is to go through the sample lesson and complete the activities proposed. 2. Then, based on what you read in the previous units, comment on how the sample lesson reflects or not the Applied Linguistics concepts learned. 3. Now it is your turn do prepare a similar unit. Theme Unit Make them hear you Communicative Functions: reasoning, justifying, stating facts, informing about personal conditions, expressing anguish and fear, asking for help... Linguistic strategies: simple past narrative, discourse markers of time and place, linking words, modals used to indicate possibility and advice, regular and irregular verb forms used to express feelings and conditions. Context of Situation: diplomacy and the citizen in trouble. 42 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período • Competencies to be achieved: use specific language to write letters, use modals to indicate possibility and advice, describe specific conditions and express anguish and fear. • Applicability: Be able to produce formal letters for a specific purpose and in different contexts of situation. TASK 1: READ THE TEXT Diplomacy and the citizen in trouble. IN: Diplomacy – A COURSE OF STUDY FOR ENGLISH FOR PROFESSIONALS Washington, D.C. 1979 A Letter from Jail October 20 To Whom It May Concern: I am writing on behalf of my husband, his brother, and myself. We are three American citizens who are in jail in Santa Maria, Tacaremba. We were arrested on the border for a crime which we did not commit. The van that we were riding in was driven by a Canadian man who, we later found out, was smuggling cocaine. We knew nothing about the cocaine. We were hitchhiking and we accepted a ride from this man. When we got to the border, the police found thousands of dollars worth of cocaine which was hidden in the van. We couldn’t believe it. The man seemed to be so nice. He confessed that he was smuggling the drug. He explained to the police that we knew nothing about the cocaine. But they didn’t believe him. They think we are part of a dope smuggling ring. Perhaps because we have an Italian name, the police think we were sent by the Mafia to smuggle dope, and that we just disguised ourselves as hippies. We are in two very small cells. My husband and I were separated – he is in a cell with his brother and the Canadian smuggler, and I am with some strange women. We are frightened and confused. We aren’t sure what our legal rights are. Can you help us get a lawyer? And can you notify our families? Most of all, could you send an American official to visit us, so that we can talk to someone who understands this situation and can give us some advice? Thank you for your help. Sincerely, Nicole Monte Michael Monte Peter Monte TASK 2: WORK ON TEXT ORGANIZATION a. Take out from the text discourse markers that carry the ideas of: place - duration of time - addition - purpose - cause - alternative – 43 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos CLUE Functional Grammar Recall Narrative in the past Narratives are usually written in the simple past tense of verbs. The simple past is used whenever we tell stories, tell of events in a sequence and mention a single event that was completed in a past time. Example: The kidnappers agreed to release the hostages when the family paid the ransom. Note: The simple present can equally be used in narratives. b. Rewrite paragraph 2 using simple present narrative. c. Rewrite these affirmative and negative statements of facts using the simple present 1. We knew nothing about this cocaine. ____________________________________________________________________________ 2. The man seemed to be so nice. ____________________________________________________________________________ 3. They didn’t believe me. ____________________________________________________________________________ 4. He explained to the police that we had nothing to do with that smuggling. ____________________________________________________________________________ 5. The van that we were riding in was driven by a Canadian. ____________________________________________________________________________ d. Match the columns to find the words or expressions that are similar in meaning. 1. a small truck ____ hitchhiking 2. authority ____ van 3. dope smuggling ring ____ concealed 4. on behalf of ____ official 5. hidden ____ scared 6. asking for a ride ____ people who smuggle drugs 7. confessed ____ for 8. frightened ____ admitted e. The word smuggle means bring drug into a country illegally. Other words can be formed from smuggle by adding suffixes. Let’s practice using them accordingly. Example: Smuggling is a crime. 1. The van driver was a ________________.(smuggler, smuggling, smuggle, smuggled) 2. He was used to _______________ cocaine.(smuggler, smuggle, smuggling, smuggle) 3. The police questioned them for hours: “Did you __________that cocaine?” (smuggler, smuggle, smuggling, smuggled) 4. Colombians are famous for ____________ drugs. (smuggling, smuggler, smuggled, smuggle) 5. He ___________________ drugs for years. Although illegal, that activity made him a rich man. (smuggling, smuggle, smuggled, smuggler) 44 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período CLUE GRAMMAR RECALL Relative Clauses Relative clauses are used to explain, describe, specify, detail a situation, express concepts and viewpoints. Who, whom, what, which, where, when or that introduce a relative clause and refer to a word previously expressed: The kidnapper, who was arrested, pleaded guilty. who was arrested = relative clause who = the kidnapper communicative function = detail a situation The city where the police caught them is named Tacaremba. where the police caught them = relative clause where = the city communicative function = indicate place Relative clauses can be paraphrased by simple sentences containing an adjective. The kidnapper, who is very intelligent, claimed innocence. The intelligent kidnapper claimed innocence. f. Let’s practice by completing the sentences below. Use the verbs in parentheses. Communicative function: expressing concepts. A cocaine smuggler is a person ____________________________ (smuggle). Hitchhikers are travelers ____________________________________ (hitchhike). Prisoners are criminals___________________________________________ (jail). A policeman is an officer________________________________________ (arrest).An ambassador is a diplomat _________________________________ (represent). g. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate relative pronoun: that, what, when, where, who, whom, which. The couple in jail said: “Smuggling is a crime ________ we did not commit.” A kidnapper is a person _______ takes people as hostages. The American couple says that they didn’t know the friend with___________ they were travelling was a criminal. Tourists are now used to visiting the jail ____________ the smugglers were kept. The van ________ we were riding in was driven by a Canadian man. Springtime is the time ________ most tourists go to Tacaremba. 45 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos TASK 3: WORK ON TEXT COMPREHENSION 1. Indicate the paragraphs where these ideas are found so that you have a general mapping of the text: Paragraph 1, 2, 3 ou 4 Ms. Monte describes the situation in detail. ( ) She explains the reasons for the arrest of the Americans. ( ) The sender asks the Embassy authorities for help. ( ) The sender describes where they are arrested. ( ) Nicole asks the authorities to inform her family about their condition. ( ) The American lady explains how the suspects met the driver of the van.( ) Mr. Monte’s wife introduces the subject. ( ) Guided Writing • The jumbled text below is the letter the Consul General wrote in reply to the prisoners request for help. Organize it to produce the actual letter. Very truly yours, Grant Moore Zimmer. We understand your concern and will do our best to assure you of a fair trial. Consul. October 22, 1998. At that time, I will give you a list of lawyers. We shall also try to notify your family. In reply to your letter of October 20, I’m writing to let you know that we have contacted Emílio Gonzáles, the Director General of Tacaremba Security. Dear Ms. Monte. He has arranged for me to visit the prison where you are being held on Monday of next week. American Embassy. Tacaremba. • Imagine that you are a foreigner in trouble abroad. Write a letter to the Embassy of your country describing the situation and asking for help. (15 to 20 lines) TASK 4: WORK ON APPLICABILITY Task – This theme unit has been dealing with diplomatic issues. The text you read covers the context of situation diplomacy and the citizen in trouble. Search for other contexts of situation covered by the diplomatic work. Task one: read the texts • Stretch your legs 1. THE KIDNAPPING GAME – HOW NOT TO BE KIDNAPPED Among the sentences below you can find some that advise you on how to avoid being kidnapped. Arrange them logically creating your list of do’s and don’ts. • Keep to a specific routine at the office or when on holiday. • Always travel in isolated areas. • Keep a low profile. • Carry identification papers and medical records. • Park in protected areas. • Wear jewelry in risk areas of the city. • Carry bags with your name and address on them. • Ignore the possibility of danger to your wife (husband) and children. • Stop regularly at the same restaurant or bar on your way home. • Tell your family and friends where you’re going. • From time to time change your route to and from work. • Let people see you carry large dollar bills in your wallet. • When travelling alone, phone home as soon as you have arrived at destination. • Arrange covert codes to use with your family on phone, in e-mails, when ringing the door bell or blowing your car horn. 46 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período • Be suspicious of people you do not know. • Think kidnapping will never happen to you. • Keep you car doors locked and windows closed. • Find about the safety conditions of the city or country you’re visiting, 2. Country Profile Imagine a nation bearing the conditions described below. Based on the information supplied, how would you rate such a country? • The country is largely dependent on mineral resources and agricultural production. • Men are responsible for family support. Many are not professionally prepared to start a business of their own. • Women still have domestic roles and some are not allowed to work outside home. • Birth rate is high. Life expectancy: 60 years. Health services are inadequate. • 55% literate. Few schools are in the rural areas. • Monetary unit has been slightly devaluated but inflation has been somehow under control in recent years. • Political prisoners have been recently released but strikes abound and illegal political movements are still active. • Crime rates are high. Drug abuse is a reality among teenagers and children. • Traffic is a mess. The country does not have a car industry and has lowered the number of imported cars in recent years. Excellent Good Fair Poor Appalling Use the stars above to rate the country for each of its aspects. Now justify your answers. Select from the words next to the stars and the others below to create your sentences: because, as, moreover, however, although, due to. Teamwork: Using the information in activities I and II, create a profile of your country. Be prepared to justify your choices. Source: Neves da Silva, Rosa Maria & Magalhães, Helena Maria Gramiscelli. Reading the World: COMPREHENSIVE COLLABORATIVE INTERACTION, 2001. Key to exercises in ANNEX 6 References NEVES DA SILVA , Rosa Maria & MAGALHÃES, Helena Maria Grramiscelli. Reading the world: comprehensive collaborative interaction, 2001. 47 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos Summary UNIT 1 This unit contains: • An overview of the concepts, scope, means and purposes of Applied Linguistics; • A discussion about the various definitions of the object of teaching and learning language, including the nature and scope of language supported by quotes from well-known researchers. • A brief overview of regional and social dialects. • A discussion of the implications of the various competencies involved in foreign language learning. • A discussion of the various types of competencies: communicative, grammatical, strategic, pragmatic, cultural, sociolinguistic. • Activities based on selected texts and cartoons aimed to give you an opportunity to apply and exercise the foregoing discussions. UNIT 2 This unit contains: • A broad discussion of the core concepts of learning • A discussion of acquisition and learning as some form of informal and formal foreign language learning • A discussion of learning and performance strategies used by foreign language learners, like interference, transfer, overgeneralization, avoidance, overuse, fossilization, error and mistake, pragmatics. • A discussion of the various learning styles as used by foreign language learners, including visual, verbal, active, reflective, sensitive and intuitive learners. • A discussion of learning difficulties including an overview of Contrastive Analysis and its contribution to lesson planning, understanding and previewing learner’s errors • A discussion of the setting of a new self experienced by foreign language learners, as a result of having to adjust to a new culture and use proper communicative strategies. • Activities based on selected texts and cartoons aimed to give you an opportunity to apply and exercise the foregoing discussions. UNIT 3 This unit contains: • A discussion of the basic notions of approaches, methods, activities, procedures. • A description of the Structural Approach, followed by a detailed overview of the foundations and scope of the Audio-Lingual Method showing its contribution to foreign language teaching, the types of activities included: drilling, repetition, gap filling,and the introduction of the audio-visual lab. • A discussion of the foundations and scope of the communicative approach; communicative approach as un umbrella term, recommendations of the PCNs, 48 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período • A discussion of interactive methods including an overview of the foundations and scope of Strategic Interaction, as proposed by Robert Di Pietro, including a sample scenario; priority given to speaking while developing the other skills as support to speaking. • A discussion of the foundations and scope of The Lexical Approach, as proposed by ichael Lewis; the notion of meaningful chunks; the notion of language as grammaticalized lexis and not lexicalized grammar; the notion of collocation. • A discussion of a reading approach including the pedagogical reasons supporting the recommendations of the PCN for the choice of a reading approach to English teaching in Brazilian schools. • A brief overview of ESP (English for Specific Purposes) as one of the trends under the Communicative Approach • A discussion of writing, including guided and free writing followed by a suggestion of activities. • Activities based on selected texts and cartoons covering the various approaches and methods presented, aimed to give you an opportunity to apply and exercise the foregoing discussions. UNIT 4 This unit contains: • A sample lesson prepared to meet the provisions of the PCNs, following the Communicative Approach, where you learn by completing the activities, preparing a similar unit, and commenting on the lesson. 49 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos References Basic BRASIL. Secretaria de Ensino Fundamental/MEC. Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais – língua estrangeira. Brasília, 1998. JORDÃO, Clarissa Menezes A língua estrangeira na formação do indivíduo. Paraná: UFPR, 2004. LOPES, Luiz Paulo M. A nova ordem mundial, os parâmetros curriculares nacionais e o ensino de inglês no Brasil: a base intelectual para uma ação política. In: BARBARA & RAMOS OLIVEIRA, Marta Kohl de. Jovens e Adultos como sujeitos de conhecimento aprendizagem. Faculdade de Educação/USA. XXII Reunião Anual da ANPED, 1999. Supplementary BROWN, K. (Editor). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. 2. ed. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005. BROWN, H.D. 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Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning. London: Edward Arnold, 1978. HALLIDAY, M.A.K. Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold, 1973. KLEIMAN, A.B. Afinal o que é Linguística Aplicada? In: Intercâmbio. São Paulo: LAEL/PUC, 1990. KRASHEN, S. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, Pergamon, 1982. LACKMAN, Ken. Lexical Approach Activities: A Revolutionary Way of Teaching, available at. Disponível em: http://www.kenlackman.com/files/LexicalActivitiesBook102.pdf. Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012. 50 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período LEWIS, Michael. The Lexical Approach: The State of ELT and a Way Forward. LTP Language Teaching Publication, 1983. LEWIS, Michael. Implementing the Lexical Approach: Putting Theory Into Practice. Hove: Language Teaching Publications,1997. MAGALHÃES, Helena Maria Gramiscelli. Anglo American Culture. Caderno Didático da UAB, 2011. 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Oxford University Press, 1996. TORO, José Bernardo. Os códigos da modernidade. Trad. e adaptação: Antonio Carlos da Costa. Colômbia: Fundación Social, 1997. TRAGER, G. The Field of Linguistics. Norman: Battenberg Press, 1949. Additional SOARES, Doris Almeida. Introdução à Linguística Aplicada e sua utilidade para as pesquisas em sala de aula de língua estrangeira. Available at: http://www.filologia.org.br/ revista/40suple/introdao_a_linguistica%20.pdf CELANI, M.A.A. Afinal o que é Linguística Aplicada? In: PASCHOAL, M.S.Z. & CELANI, M.A.A. (Org.) Linguística Aplicada: da aplicação de linguística à linguística transdisciplinar. São Paulo: EDUC. ERDOĞAN, Vacide. Contribution of Error Analysis to Foreign Language Teaching. Available at: http://efd.mersin.edu.tr/dergi/meuefd_2005_001_002/pdf/ meuefd_2005_001_002_0261-0270_erdogan.pdf. MATTOS E SILVA, Rosa Virgínia. Diversidade e Unidade: A Aventura Linguística do Português. Disponível em http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/biblioteca/diversidade.pdf. KRIEGER, Daniel, Corpus Linguistics: What It Is and How It Can Be Applied to Teaching. Available at http://iteslj.org/ The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. IX, No. 3, March 2003. MOITA LOPES, L.P. da. Oficina de Linguística Aplicada: A natureza social e educacional dos processos de ensino/aprendizagem. Campinas: Mercado das Letras, 1996. PIAGET, Jean. A Linguagem e o Pensamento na Criança. Trad. Manuel Campos. Rio de Janeiro: Fundo de Cultura, 1959. VYGOTSKY, Lev. Pensamento e linguagem. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 1987. 51 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos WALTER, Henriette. A aventura das línguas no ocidente. Mandarim, 1997. WHITMAN, Walt. Slang In America, 1892. Sites: Cartoon Center for the American Progress: http://www.americanprogress.org/ cartoons/2008/10/100308.html http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/biblioteca/diversidade.pdf . http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_vocabularies_of_American_English By Steve Kelley, Times-Picayune: http://www.cartoonistgroup.com/ 082211 (1) By Nick Anderson: http://www.cartoonistgroup.com/ http://www.rumoatolerancia.fflch.usp.br/node/7 Linguística e Preconceito http://www.fujishima-h.ed.jp/teacher/materials/American%20Gestures.pdf http://youtu.be/7Ehnci3fJXs - Popeye Private Eye http://www.frugalmarketing.com/dtb/xcultcomm.shtml http://iteslj.org/ http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/applied-linguistics.htm http://efd.mersin.edu.tr/dergi/meuefd_2005_001_002/pdf/meuefd_2005_001_002_0261-0270_erdogan.pdf http://serc.carleton.edu/images/NAGTWorkshops/earlycareer/teaching/learning_styles.jpg http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/608/02/ http://www.powershow.com/view/147203-ZGM3Z/Teaching_Techniques_and_Strategies_in_Foreign_ Languages_flash_ppt_presentation http://www.kenlackman.com/files/LexicalActivitiesBook102.pdf http://esl.about.com/od/smalltalk/Small_Talk.htm http://www.mnispi.org/cartoon/2001/index.htm http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/03/Writing_3_Activity_1.pdf http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/reading/stratread.htm http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/672 http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/03/Writing_3_Activity_1.pdf http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/04/L2%20W%20task1%20activity3.pdf http://www.brainstuck.com/ 53 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos Learning Activities - AA 1) In 500 words provide a brief overview, in English, of what you learned about the scope of Applied Linguistics. 2) In your opinion, should the teacher give priority to one or more competences in relation to the others? Explain. 3) Review the concepts of fossilization, interference, transfer, overgeneralization, avoidance, overuse, simplification and provide five actual English examples of each. 4) How does the choice of methodology impact the development of those competencies? 5) What level of competence should be expected from foreign language learners? 6) How can foreign language users achieve proper interaction? 7) What distinguishes a communicative activity from a non-communicative learning activity? Create one learning communicative activity and one non-communicative activity that you could apply in your classroom. 8) Design a communicative lesson giving first priority to speaking. 9) What type of learning evaluation would you propose for your learners? Create a communicative evaluation activity for your students. 10) Suppose you offer your students this simple question for which you want affirmative answers: Do you like apples? and you get the following answers: Yes, I do. Yes, I like apples. Yes, I do like apples. Yes. Sure. A lot. I like apples. Which answers would you accept if you are using a structural approach to teaching? Which answers would you accept if you are using a communicative approach to teaching? Are there right/wrong answers, better/worse, more/less frequently used, more/less formal, polite/impolite? How would you grade your students? 55 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos APPENDIX Annex 1 In this section I have attached a few resources obtained for free download in the Internet. The idea is to guarantee your access to those resources, as they can be removed from the Web. When “Yes” means “No” or “Maybe”-- Avoiding Cross-Cultural Misunderstandings in Global Business An American businesswoman comes away from a meeting delighted; she finally got her Japanese supplier to agree to a price. A few days later, she receives questions about price. It’s almost as if she imagined the meeting. «What’s going on here?» she asks. «We agreed on the price already, didn’t we?» The businesswoman recalls all the Um-hmms and Yesses she heard in the meeting. “They agreed to the price, they said yes,” she mutters to herself. “They even nodded and smiled.” Welcome to the world of intercultural business communication -- a world fraught with frequent misunderstandings, frayed tempers and mistrust. This American Businesswoman is not the first or last to feel frustrated in this way. Other people have misunderstood a “yes” response. Ways of Communication The businesswoman needs to understand that irrespective of language, different cultures communicate in different ways. Good communication American style is to say what you mean precisely, in as straightforward a manner as possible. Be direct, get to the point, say what the bottom line is. For other cultures, this style is rude, abrasive and self-centered. Many cultures--including Japanese, go to great lengths not to be direct. The risk of disharmony with other group members is too great to be outspoken. It’s better to agree to somebody face and negotiate with them afterwards than to blatantly disagree. In our opening scenario, the Japanese supplier appeared to say yes, but continued to negotiate a price, days after the supposed agreement. Direct communicators like Americans in general, consider this indirectness deceptive, two-faced and lacking in integrity. What do you think? Goals of Communication The goals of communication vary across culture and languages. In the US, speech is often used to demonstrate eloquence, power or lack thereof. The presidential debates are good examples of this. So too are the expressions “For the sake of argument” or “I’ll play the devils advocate and...” But in many Asian cultures, the goal of communication is to achieve consensus of opinion and to promote group harmony. “Yes” can mean “no,” “maybe,” or even “we’ve got to think a little more about this and we don’t want to fall out with you.” Styles of Communication So how do you know when yes really means no? Simply listen to the silent messages and read the invisible words. US culture, with its long tradition of rhetoric, values verbal messages greatly. Other cultures are more sensitive to non-verbal means of communication, such as: • Body posture; • Hand gestures; • Facial expressions; • Eye contact; • How close people stand to each other. • Misunderstandings and blunders result from failing to recognize and understand many forms of non-verbal communication. Going back to our opening scenario, the businesswoman remembers the nods and smiles. But what did they mean in the context of that business meeting? Not what the American businesswoman thought. They meant disagreement, displeasure, uncertainty. The lesson to be learnt here is that similar gestures and facial expressions are often used differently across cultures. The meaning of a smile is not universal. Neither is a frown. So, avoid misunderstandings in communicating across cultures: Be conscious of body language and non-verbal messages 56 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período What message is communicated in the smiles, frowns, head movements or silence? Watch eye contact Reserve judgment on the correct amount of eye-contact. Some cultures encourage plenty, others frown upon it. You may have to adjust the amount of eye contact according to the status of the person you’re talking to. Listen without interrupting Americans are often considered too talkative. People from other cultures may interpret many interruptions as disrespectful. Summarize what you hear often Keeping in mind point #3, clarify what you think you have heard, rephrasing as simply as possible. Speak slowly, enunciate and avoid idioms Only 5% of the world population speaks English as a first language. You may be doing business with a person who speaks fluent English but who has difficulty understanding your accent, the idioms, jargon or slang you use. Remember, the simpler the English, the better. Source: http://www.frugalmarketing.com/dtb/xcultcomm.shtml Annex 2 Motivating Learners: Understanding Language Acquisition To become engaged learners, students need to understand that learning a language is not the same as learning about a language. When students think of the language as a school subject like any other, they may learn a great deal about its vocabulary, grammar, and sentence and discourse structure, but the language will not become a true medium of communication for them and won’t engage them very deeply. Students need to understand that learning a languagemeans becoming able to use it to comprehend, communicate, and think – as they do in their first language. Students also need to recognize that language learning takes place in stages. Interpretive skills (listening, reading) develop much more quickly than expressive skills (speaking, writing), and the ability that students covet most -- the ability to speak the second language fluently -- requires the longest period of growth. All language learners have to work through a sequence of «approximate» versions called interlanguages (ILs), each of which represents a level of understanding of the target language. Understanding the features of ILs can help teachers and learners understand and monitor the language learning process. Uniqueness: ILs vary significantly from learner to learner in the early stages of language learning. Learners impose rules of their own on the oral and written input they receive. Each learner does this differently, combining emerging understanding of the rules of the new language with ideas derived from the first language and other information that comes from their individual situations and backgrounds. Systematicity: As learners begin to develop proficiency in a language, they make errors in systematic ways. For example, once students learn the inflections for a single class of verbs, they may apply them to all classes indiscriminately. These errors are based on systematic assumptions, or false rules, about the language. When students become aware of this aspect of their language skill development, they often appreciate and even ask for overt error correction from the instructor. Fossilization: Some false rules become more firmly imprinted on the IL than others and are harder for learners to overcome. Fossilization results when these false rules become permanent features of a learner’s use of the language. Convergence: As learners’ rules come to approximate more closely those of the language they are learning, convergence sets in. This means that learners who come from different native language backgrounds make similar assumptions and formulate similar hypotheses about the rules of the new language, and therefore make similar errors. Instructors can help students understand the process of language skill development in several ways. (a) Focus on interlanguage as a natural part of language learning; remind them that they learned their first language this way. 57 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos (b) Point out that the systematic nature of interlanguage can help students understand why they make errors. They can often predict when they will make errors and what types of errors they will make. (c) Keep the overall focus of the classroom on communication, not error correction. Use overt correction only in structured output activities. (See Planning a Lesson for more on structured output.) (d) Teach students that mistakes are learning opportunities. When their errors interfere with their ability to communicate, they must develop strategies for handling the misunderstanding that results. If you maintain the attitude that mistakes are a natural part of learning, you will create a supportive environment where students are willing to try to use the language even though their mastery of forms is imperfect. Source: http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/motivating/acquisition.htm Annex 3 The Audio-Lingual Method 1. The Audio-Lingual Method (1) is an oral-based approach. (2) drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. (3) has a strong theoretical base in linguistics and psychology. 2. How has the behavioral psychology influenced the Audio-Lingual Method? (1) It was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the target language was through conditioning—helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement. (2) Learners could overcome the habits of their native language and form the new habits required to be target language speakers. 3. Define a backward build-up drill (expansion drill). State its purpose and advantages. (1) Definition: The teacher breaks down a line into several parts. The students repeat a part of the sentence, usually the last phrase of the line. Then, following the teacher›s cue, the students expand what they are repeating part by part until they are able to repeat the entire line. The teacher begins with the part at the end of the sentence (and works backward from there) to keep the intonation of the line as natural as possible. This also directs more student attention to the end of the sentence, where new information typically occurs. (2) Purpose: The purpose of this drill is to break down the troublesome sentence into smaller parts. (3) Advantages: (a) The teacher is able to give the students help in producing the troublesome line. (b) Having worked on the line in small pieces, the students are also able to take note of where each word or phrase begins and ends in the sentence. 4. Define a repetition drill. Students are asked to listen carefully to the teacher’s model, and then they have to repeat and attempt to mimic the model as accurately and as quickly as possible. 5. Define a chain drill. State its advantages. (1) Definition: The chain of conversation that forms around the room as students, one-by- one, ask and answer questions of each other. The teacher begins the chain by greeting a particular student, or asking him a question. That student responds, and then turns to the student sitting next to him. 58 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período (2) Advantages: (A) A chain drill gives students an opportunity to say the lines individually. (B) The teacher listens and can tell which students are struggling and will need more practice. (C) A chain drill also lets students use the expressions in communication with someone else, even though the communication is very limited. 6. Define a single-slot substitution drill. State its purpose. (1) Definition: The teacher says a line, usually from the dialog. Next, the teacher says a word or a phrase—called the cue. The students repeat the line the teacher has given them, substituting the cue into the line in its proper place. (2) Purpose: The major purpose of this drill is to give the students practice in finding and filling in the slots of a sentence. 7. Define a multiple-slot substitution drill. State its purpose. This drill is similar to the single-slot substitution drill. The difference is that the teacher gives cue phrases, one at a time, that fit into different slots in the dialog line. The students must recognize what part of speech each cue is, or at least, where it fits into the sentence, and make any other changes, such as subject-verb agreement. They then say the line, fitting the cue phrase into the line where it belongs. 8. Define transformation drill. Students are asked to change one type of sentence into another—an affirmative sentence into a negative or an active sentence into a passive. 9. Define Question-and-answer drill. This drill gives students practice with answering questions. The students should answer the teacher’s questions very quickly. 10. Define contrastive analysis. Contrastive analysis is the comparison of two languages (a comparison between the students› native language and the language they are studying). 11. What is the importance of contrastive analysis in the Audio-Lingual Method? It helps the teacher to locate the places where s/he anticipates her/his students will have trouble. Also, a contrastive analysis between the students’ native language and the target language will reveal where a teacher should expect the most interference. 12. Statethe main principles of the Audio-Lingual Method. 1. Language forms do not occur by themselves; they occur most naturally within a context. 2. One of the language teacher›s major roles is that of a model of the target language. 3. Language learning is a process of habit formation. 4. It is important to prevent learners from making errors. Errors lead to the formation of bad habits. 5. Positive reinforcement helps the students to develop correct habits. 6. Students should ‹overlearn,› i.e. learn to answer automatically without stopping to think. 7. Students should acquire the structural patterns; students will learn vocabulary afterward. 8. The learning of a foreign language should be the same as the acquisition of the native language. 9. Speech is more basic to language than the written form. The ‹natural order’ of skill acquisition is: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. 10. Language cannot be separated from culture. Culture is the everyday behavior of the people who use the target language. 59 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos 13. What are the goals of teachers who use the Audio-Lingual Method? (1) Teachers want their students to be able to use the target language communicatively. (2) Students need to overlearn the target language. (3) Students need to learn to use the target language automatically without stopping to think. (4) Students achieve this by forming new habits in the target language and overcoming the old habits of their native language. 14. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students? (1) The teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing and controlling the language behavior of her students. (2) The teacher is also responsible for providing students with a good model for imitation. (3) Students are imitators of the teacher›s model or the tapes the teacher supplies of model speakers. (4) Students follow the teacher›s directions and respond as accurately and as rapidly as possible. 15. What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process? (1) New vocabulary and structural patterns are presented through dialogs. (2) The dialogs are learned through imitation and repetition. (3) Drills are conducted based upon the patterns present in the dialog. (4) Students› successful responses are positively reinforced. (5) Grammar is induced from the examples given; explicit grammar rules are not provided. (6) Cultural information is contextualized in the dialogs or presented by the teacher. (7) Students’ reading and written work is based upon the oral work they did earlier. 16. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student- student interaction? There is student-to-student interaction in chain drills or when students take different roles in dialogs, but this interaction is teacher-directed. Most of the interaction is between teacher and students and is initiated by the teacher. 17. How is the language viewed? How is the culture viewed? (1) Every language is seen as having its own unique system. (2) The system is comprised of several different levels: phonological, morphological, and syntactic. Each level has its own distinctive patterns. (3) Everyday speech is emphasized in the Audio-Lingual Method. (4) The level of complexity of the speech is graded, however, so that beginning students are presented with only simple patterns. (5) Culture consists of the everyday behavior and lifestyle of the target language speakers. 18. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized? (1) Vocabulary is kept to a minimum while the students are mastering the sound system and grammatical patterns. (2) A grammatical pattern is not the same as a sentence. For instance, underlying the following three sentences is the same grammatical pattern: Meg called, The Blue Jays won, The team practiced. (3) The natural order of skills presentation is adhered to: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. (4) The oral/aural skills receive most of the attention. (5) What students write they have first been introduced to orally. (6) Pronunciation is taught from the beginning, often by students working in language laboratories on discriminating between members of minimal pairs. 19. What is the role of the students› native language? (1) The habits of the students’ native language are thought to interfere with the students’ attempts to master the target language. Therefore, the target language is used in the classroom, not the students’ native language. (2) A contrastive analysis between the students’ native language and the target language will reveal where a teacher should expect the most interference. 60 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período 20. How is evaluation accomplished? It would be discrete-point in nature, that is, each question on the test would focus on only one point of the language at a time. Students might be asked to distinguish between words in a minimal pair, for example, or to supply an appropriate verb form in a sentence. 21. How does the teacher respond to student errors? Student errors are to be avoided if at all possible through the teacher›s awareness of where the students will have difficulty and restriction of what they are taught to say. 22. What are the main techniques associated with the Audio-Lingual Method? 23. Discuss ……… as a technique of the Audio-Lingual Method. 1) Dialog memorization a) Dialogs or short conversations between two people are often used to begin a new lesson. b) Students memorize the dialog through mimicry. c) In the Audio-Lingual Method, certain sentence patterns and grammar points are included within the dialog. d) These patterns and points are later practiced in drills based on the lines of the dialog. 2) Backward build-up (expansion) drill (see question No. 3) 3) Repetition drill (see question No. 4) 4) Chain drill (see question No. 5) 5) Single-slot substitution drill (see question No. 6) 6) Multiple-slot substitution drill (see question No. 7) 7) Transformation drill (see question No. 8) 8) Question-and-answer drill (see question No. 9) 9) Use of minimal pairs The teacher works with pairs of words which differ in only one sound; for example, ‘ship/ sheep.’ Students are first asked to perceive the difference between the two words and later to be able to say the two words. The teacher selects the sounds to work on after s/he has done a contrastive analysis. 10) Complete the dialog Selected words are erased from a dialog students have learned. Students complete the dialog by filling the blanks with the missing words. 11) Grammar game Games are used in the Audio-Lingual Method. The games are designed to get students to practice a grammar point within a context. Students are able to express themselves, although it is rather limited in this game. There is also a lot of repetition in this game. 24. Highlights of the Audio-Lingual Method. (1) Language acquisition results from habit formation. (2) The habits of the native language will interfere with target language learning. (3) The commission of errors should be prevented as much as possible. (4) The major focus should be on the structural patterns of the target language. (5) A dialog is a useful way to introduce new material. (6) A dialog should be memorized through mimicry of the teacher›s model. (7) Structure drills are valuable pedagogical activities. (8) Working on pronunciation through minimal-pair drills is a worthwhile activity. 61 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos Annex 4 Teaching Reading: Strategies for Developing Reading Skills Using Reading Strategies Language instructors are oftenfrustrated by the fact that students do not automatically transfer the strategies they use when reading in their native language to reading in a language they are learning. Instead, they seem to think reading means starting at the beginning and going word by word, stopping to look up every unknown vocabulary item, until they reach the end. When they do this, students are relying exclusively on their linguistic knowledge, a bottom- up strategy. One of the most important functions of the language instructor, then, is to help students move past this idea and use top-down strategies as they do in their native language. Effective language instructors show students how they can adjust their reading behavior to deal with a variety of situations, types of input, and reading purposes. They help students develop a set of reading strategies and match appropriate strategies to each reading situation. Strategies that can help students read more quickly and effectively include • Previewing: reviewing titles, section headings, and photo captions to get a sense of the structure and content of a reading selection; • Predicting: using knowledge of the subject matter to make predictions about content and vocabulary and check comprehension; using knowledge of the text type and purpose to make predictions about discourse structure; using knowledge about the author to make predictions about writing style, vocabulary, and content; • Skimming and scanning: using a quick survey of the text to get the main idea, identify text structure, confirm or question predictions; • Guessing from context: using prior knowledge of the subject and the ideas in the text as clues to the meanings of unknown words, instead of stopping to look them up; • Paraphrasing: stopping at the end of a section to check comprehension by restating the information and ideas in the text. • Instructors can help students learn when and how to use reading strategies in several ways. • By modeling the strategies aloud, talking through the processes of previewing, predicting, skimming and scanning, and paraphrasing. This shows students how the strategies work and how much they can know about a text before they begin to read word by word. • By allowing time in class for group and individual previewing and predicting activities as preparation for in-class or out-of-class reading. Allocating class time to these activities indicates their importance and value. • By using cloze (fill in the blank) exercises to review vocabulary items. This helps students learn to guess meaning from context. • By encouraging students to talk about what strategies they think will help them approach a reading assignment, and then talking after reading about what strategies they actually used. This helps students develop flexibility in their choice of strategies. When language learners use reading strategies, they find that they can control the reading experience, and they gain confidence in their ability to read the language. Reading to Learn Reading is an essential part of language instruction at every level because it supports learning in multiple ways. • Reading to learn the language: Reading material is language input. By giving students a variety of materials to read, instructors provide multiple opportunities for students to absorb vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and discourse structure as they occur in authentic contexts. Students thus gain a more complete picture of the ways in which the elements of the language work together to convey meaning. • Reading for content information: Students’ purpose for reading in their native language is often to obtain information about a subject they are studying, and this purpose can be useful in the language learning classroom as well. Reading for content information in the language classroom gives students both authentic reading material and an authentic purpose for reading. • Reading for cultural knowledge and awareness: Reading everyday materials that are 62 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período designed for native speakers can give students insight into the lifestyles and worldviews of the people whose language they are studying. When students have access to newspapers, magazines, and Web sites, they are exposed to culture in all its variety, and monolithic cultural stereotypes begin to break down. When reading to learn, students need to follow four basic steps: 1. Figure out the purpose for reading. Activate background knowledge of the topic in order to predict or anticipate content and identify appropriate reading strategies. 2. Attend to the parts of the text that are relevant to the identified purpose and ignore the rest. This selectivity enables students to focus on specific items in the input and reduces the amount of information they have to hold in short-term memory. 3. Select strategies that are appropriate to the reading task and use them flexibly and interactively. Students’ comprehension improves and their confidence increases when they use top-down and bottom-up skills simultaneously to construct meaning. 4. Check comprehension while reading and when the reading task is completed. Monitoring comprehension helps students detect inconsistencies and comprehension failures, helping them learn to use alternate strategies. Source: http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/reading/stratread.htm Annex 5 English for Specific Purposes: What does it mean? Why is it different? Laurence Anthony Dept. of Information and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Okayama University of Science, 1-1 Ridai-cho, Okayama 700, Japan anthony ‘at’ ice.ous.ac.jp 1. Growth of ESP From the early 1960’s, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has grown to become one of the most prominent areas of EFL teaching today. Its development is reflected in the increasing number of universities offering an MA in ESP (e.g. The University of Birmingham, and Aston University in the UK) and in the number of ESP courses offered to overseas students in English speaking countries. There is now a well-established international journal dedicated to ESP discussion, “English for Specific Purposes: An international journal”, and the ESP SIG groups of the IATEFL and TESOL are always active at their national conferences. In Japan too, the ESP movement has shown a slow but definite growth over the past few years. In particular, increased interest has been spurred as a result of the Mombusho’s decision in 1994 to largely hand over control of university curriculums to the universities themselves. This has led to a rapid growth in English courses aimed at specific disciplines, e.g. English for Chemists, in place of the more traditional ‘General English’ courses. The ESP community in Japan has also become more defined, with the JACET ESP SIG set up in 1996 (currently with 28 members) and the JALT N-SIG to be formed shortly. Finally, on November 8th this year the ESP community came together as a whole at the first Japan Conference on English for Specific Purposes, held on the campus of Aizu University, Fukushima Prefecture. 2. What is ESP? As described above, ESP has had a relatively long time to mature and so we would expect the ESP community to have a clear idea about what ESP means. Strangely, however, this does not seem to be the case. In October this year, for example, a very heated debate took place on the TESP-L e-mail discussion list about whether or not English for Academic Purposes (EAP) could be considered part of ESP in general. At the Japan Conference on ESP also, clear differences in how people interpreted the meaning of ESP could be seen. Some people described ESP as simply being the teaching of English for any purpose that could 63 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos be specified.Others, however, were more precise, describing it as the teaching of English used in academic studies or the teaching of English for vocational or professional purposes. At the conference, guests were honored to have as the main speaker, Tony Dudley-Evans, co- editor of the ESP Journal mentioned above. Very aware of the current confusion amongst the ESP community in Japan, Dudley-Evans set out in his one hour speech to clarify the meaning of ESP, giving an extended definition of ESP in terms of ‘absolute’ and ‘variable’ characteristics (see below). Definition of ESP (Dudley-Evans, 1997) Absolute Characteristics 1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners 2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves 3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre. Variable Characteristics 1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines 2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of General English 3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level 4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. 5. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems The definition Dudley-Evans offers is clearly influenced by that of Strevens (1988), although he has improved it substantially by removing the absolute characteristic that ESP is “in contrast with ‘General English’” (Johns et al., 1991: 298), and has included more variable characteristics. The division of ESP into absolute and variable characteristics, in particular, is very helpful in resolving arguments about what is and is not ESP. From the definition, we can see that ESP can but is not necessarily concerned with a specific discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at a certain age group or ability range. ESP should be seen simple as an ‘approach’ to teaching, or what Dudley-Evans describes as an ‘attitude of mind’. This is a similar conclusion to that made by Hutchinson et al. (1987:19) who state, “ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning”. 3. Is ESP different to General English? If we agree with this definition,, we begin to see how broad ESP really is. In fact, one may ask ‘What is the difference between the ESP and General English approach?’ Hutchinson et al. (1987:53) answer this quite simply, “in theory nothing, in practice a great deal”. When their book was written, of course, the last statement was quite true. At the time, teachers of General English courses, while acknowledging that students had a specific purpose for studying English, would rarely conduct a needs analysis to find out what was necessary to actually achieve it. Teachers nowadays, however, are much more aware of the importance of needs analysis, and certainly materials writers think very carefully about the goals of learners at all stages of materials production. Perhaps this demonstrates the influence that the ESP approach has had on English teaching in general. Clearly the line between where General English courses stop and ESP courses start has become very vague indeed. Rather ironically, while many General English teachers can be described as using an ESP approach, basing their syllabi on a learner needs analysis and their own specialist knowledge of using English for real communication, it is the majority of so-called ESP teachers that are using an approach furthest from that described above. Instead of conducting interviews with specialists in the field, analyzing the language that is required in the profession, or even conducting students’ needs analysis, many ESP teachers have become slaves of the published textbooks available, unable to evaluate their suitability based on personal experience, and unwilling to do the necessary analysis of difficult specialist texts to verify their contents. 64 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período 4. The Future of ESP If the ESP community hopes to grow and flourish in the future, it is vital that the community as a whole understands what ESP actually represents. Only then, can new members join with confidence, and existing members carry on the practices which have brought ESP to the position it has in EFL teaching today. In Japan in particular, ESP is still in its infancy and so now is the ideal time to form such a consensus. Perhaps this can stem from the Dudley-Evans’ definition given in this article but I suspect a more rigorous version will be coming soon, in his book on ESP to be published in 1998. Of course, interested parties are also strongly urged to attend the next Japan Conference on ESP, which is certain to focus again on this topic. 5. References Dudley-Evans, Tony (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A multi- disciplinary approach. Cambridge University Press. (Forthcoming) Hutchinson, Tom & Waters, Alan (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learner-centered approach. Cambridge University Press. Johns, Ann M. & Dudley-Evans, Tony (1991). English for Specific Purposes: International in Scope, Specific in Purpose. TESOL Quarterly 25:2, 297-314. Strevens, P. (1988). ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal. In M. Tickoo (Ed.), ESP: State of the art (1-13). SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Source: http://www.antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp/abstracts/ESParticle.html Annex 6 Writing and English as a Second Language Strategies for helping English Language Learners throughout the writing process. THE WRITING PROCESS AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS The process approach to writing is ideally suited to the second language learner since listening, speaking, and reading can be so naturally integrated with it. Pre-writing Pre-writing is essential for the writer whose first language is not English. Especially at the lower levels of proficiency, students have a limited lexicon and therefore often have difficulty expressing their ideas. Therefore, teachers or other students may need to assist second language students to generate vocabulary and grammatical structures relevant to the topic. Models and samples are often helpful. • Brainstorming — depending on the students’ level of language, the writing down of ideas can be done by the teacher or by native English speaking students; the teacher may need to provide some guidance by asking questions to elicit vocabulary and structures associated with the selected topic. • Word banks generated by the students or as assigned by the teacher • Drawing and sketching — enable students to illustrate ideas for which they do not have the language • Discussion with native English-speaking peers or with the teacher • Note-taking (often with the use of charts) • Graphic organizers for eliciting, organizing and developing background knowledge • Dictations — give learners some alternative models for addressing a writing task • Researching and gather data by viewing videos, reading, talking, interviewing, and searching reference books or internet 65 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos Drafting At the drafting stage students write their ideas down using some of the notes, language, and structures generated during the pre-writing activities. Second language students especially need to be aware that their first draft does not have to be perfect and that the purpose of this activity is to get words on paper. Spelling will often not be accurate and there may be many grammatical errors. Some students may also insert words in their native language. • Using notes taken during pre-writingactivities — provides students with a starting point and a skeleton of ideas; especially useful for second language learners whose ideas are restricted by their limited vocabulary • Sentence completions — may address the different ways to begin or end a paragraph or a story or may focus on vocabulary needed to describe or narrate a story • Journal writing — allows students to take risks and experiment with language; it can provide a starting point for a longer writing assignment Revising/editing Second language learners will also need assistance during the revising/editing stage from teachers and from other students. Changes in writing will need to address word usage and clarification of ideas, as well as grammatical accuracy, punctuation, spelling and capitalization. It is important to remember that second language students may have difficulty recognizing their own errors or the errors of their peers. A self-assessment checklist may help them monitor their own writing. However, care should be taken with peer editing groups. In addition, it is important that correction be done in a comfortable environment. • Peer or group reviews of mixed ELLs and native English speakers • Language expansion and sentence combining activities — enable students to move beyond subject/verb/object format by encouraging students to combine two or three different statements in various ways to make their sentences more complex • Rearranging words within sentences • Using dictionaries, including personal dictionaries, and other resource materials such as grammar books and textbooks Word processing Second language learners should be encouraged to use word processing programs throughout the writing process. The programs facilitate the process and are especially helpful with the composing, revising, and editing stages because they do not require students to rewrite their work. They help students format their work and produce copies which are clearly legible and professional looking. These programs are especially helpful for students who are accustomed to a different alphabet (i.e. Chinese, Russian) and are only beginning to learn to write using the romanized alphabet for English. Translating Translating is the least useful strategy for writing in a second language. There is often a wide discrepancy between what students can express in their first language and what their limited foreign language lexicon enables them to do. They frequently resort to using a dictionary to look up every word and end up with a literal translation that may be completely incomprehensible and even embarrassing. RELATING STRATEGIES TO PROFICIENCY How well English Language Learners can write is directly related to their level of English language proficiency in writing. It is important to note that language learners often make mistakes in vocabulary and grammar. As they take risks and experiment, their accuracy level may be negatively affected. It is important to realize that this is a normal part of the language development process. If too much attention is placed on accuracy, students will not progress. The following table indicates what students can do at each level of proficiency. 66 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período Proficiency Level Description Strategies/Activities Novice Students can copy words and phrases and write them from memory. They can identify, list, and label. They can write one of more familiar phrases, statements, or questions in context. Simple descriptions to accompany visuals; paragraph completion, cloze passages, dictations, filling- in forms, poetry, organization of information on graphic organizers Intermediate Students can create statements and questions well enough to meet practical needs and limited social demands. They can write short messages, notes, letters, paragraphs, and short compositions and can take simple notes. They can compose a series of related sentences that describe or compare. They can narrate a sequence of events and write one or more sentences that classify, summarize, or predict. Descriptions with visuals, cloze passages, sentence combining, elaboration, guided descriptions and narrations, compositions based on interviews, journals Advanced Students can write social and more formal correspondence, discourse of several paragraphs, cohesive summaries with some details, and narrative and descriptive passages. They can take notes. They can express feelings and preferences and give supporting details. They can develop an organized composition, report, or article of more than one paragraph. They can explain their point of view simply. Detailed descriptions, sentence combining, elaboration, guided descriptions and narrations, compositions with rewrites, free compositions, dialogue journals Source: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/672 Annex 7 Key to exercises in Unit 4 Text organization a. Take out from the text discourse markers that carry the ideas of: Place - in jail, on the border, in Santa Maria, Tacaremba, in the van, in two small cells, in a cell duration of time - when addition - and purpose - so that cause – because alternative - perhaps Guided writing October 22, 1998. Dear Ms. Monte. In reply to your letter of October 20, I’m writing to let you know that we have contacted Emílio Gonzáles, the Director General of Tacaremban Security. He has arranged for me to visit the prison where you are being held on Monday of next week. At that time, I will give you a list of lawyers. 67 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos We shall also try to notify your family. We understand your concern and will do our best to assure you of a fair trial. Very truly yours, Grant Moore Zimmer. Consul. American Embassy. Tacaremba. b. Rewrite these sentences in the simple present. 1. We know nothing about this cocaine. 2. The man seems to be so nice. 3. They don’t believe me. 4. He explains to the police that we had nothing to do with that smuggling. 5. The van that we are riding in is driven by a Canadian. c. Match the columns… 1. a small truck __6__ hitchhiking 2. authority __1__ van 3. dope smuggling ring __5__ concealed 4. on behalf of __2__ official. 5. hidden __8__ scared 6. asking for a ride __3__ people who smuggle drugs 7. confessed __4_ for 8. frightened __7__ admitted d. 1. The van driver was a smuggler. 2. He was used to smuggling cocaine. 3. The police questioned them for hours: “Did you smuggle that cocaine?” 4. Colombians are famous for smuggling drugs. 5. He smuggled drugs for years. Although illegal, that activity made him a rich man. e. A cocaine smuggler is a person who smuggles cocaine. Hitchhikers are travelers who hitchhike. Prisoners are criminals who are put in jail. A policeman is an officer who arrests people. An ambassador is a diplomat who represents his country abroad. f. The couple in jail said: “Smuggling is a crime that/which we did not commit.” A kidnapper is a person who takes people as hostages. The American couple say that they didn’t know the friend with whom they were travelling was a criminal. Tourists are now used to visiting the jail where the smugglers were kept. The van that we were riding in was driven by a Canadian man. Springtime is the time when most tourists go to Tacaremba. Text comprehension In paragraph 1 Ms. Monte describes the situation in detail. ( 2 ) In paragraph 2 she explains the reasons for the arrest of the Americans. ( 1 ) In paragraph 3 the sender asks the Embassy authorities for help. ( 4 ) In paragraph 4 the senderdescribes where they are arrested. ( 3 ) Nicole asks the authorities to inform her family about their condition.( 4 ) the American lady explains how the suspects met the driver of the van. (1 ) Mr. Monte’s wife introduces the subject. ( 1 ) 68 UAB/Unimontes - 8º Período Applicability Diplomacy and international relations Diplomacy and international law Diplomacy and territory Diplomacy and environment Diplomacy and population Diplomacy and crime Diplomacy and commerce Diplomacy and technology Diplomacy and science Diplomacy and propaganda 69 Letras/Inglês - Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino do Inglês para Jovens e Adultos visual students _PictureBullets By way of presentation UNIT 1 What is applied linguistics? 1.1 Background 1.2 The Object of Teaching and Learning: Language References UNIT 2 What does it mean to learn a foreign language? 2.1 The Learning Process: Core Concepts 2.2 Learning Styles 2.3 Learning Difficulties 2.4 Your new self References UNIT 3 What does it take to teach a foreign language? 3.1 Approaching Language Teaching 3.2 Learning assessment References UNIT 4 How is the foregoing material applicable to the classroom? 4.1 Sample unit 4.2 General task References Summary References Learning Activities - AA APPENDIX Annex 1 Annex 2 Annex 3 Annex 4 Annex 5 Annex 6 Annex 7
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