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DESCRIPTION
The syntactic function of the elements of a sentence, concerning role and form, and considering
traditional-discursive approach versus syntactic approach.
PURPOSE
This study aims to understand and analyze the sentence structure from a syntactic perspective,
focusing on its nucleus elements, the sentence predicators, and the constituents required by
them, besides analyzing modifier semantic roles. Understanding the sentence structure is a
helpful instrument for writing and speaking grammatical, cohesive, and clear sentences and
more coherent texts in consequence.
GOALS
SECTION 1
To describe predicates and subjects
SECTION 2
To define the syntactic functions of verbs
SECTION 3
To identify other syntactic functions
WARM-UP
In the 1980s, the American duo The Weather Girls released a song that would become one of
the greatest dance hits of all time: the hit song entitled It’s Raining Men. If you try to translate
this song title to some Romance language, like Spanish or Portuguese, you notice that the
subject-pronoun “it” has no equivalent in these languages. Why does English have to express
the pronoun “it”, whereas Spanish and Portuguese do not? In the following sections, you will
find out the syntactic reason for this difference and you will also discover the subtlety and
wonder of sentence structure, figuring out that words and phrases are not randomly ordered. On
the contrary, they are systematically structured so that we can create grammatically intelligible
sentences and texts.
SECTION 1
 To describe predicates and subjects
THE PREDICATOR ROLE IN THE SENTENCE
STRUCTURE
Every time people write or speak, they organize words in a certain structure and order. They
cannot gather words randomly in a sentence.
(1)
A. MY NEIGHBOR JOHN LOVES BLACK CATS SINCE
HIS CHILDHOOD.
B. * LOVES JOHN NEIGHBOR MY CATS BLACK HIS
SINCE CHILDHOOD.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
For instance, the sentence in (1a) seems grammatically right and understandable.
 
However, its same words cannot be in the order and organization of (1b), once they are not
properly structured and organized.
The elements of the noun phrase [my neighbor John] are not in their proper position:
 
The pronoun “my” and the noun “neighbor” must precede “John”, the head of the noun phrase.
 
The affirmative sentence cannot begin with the verb “loves”.
 
The adjective and adverbial phrases are also not properly structured.
 
Thus (1b) is considered an ungrammatical sentence. (Note that real mistake and conventionally
ungrammatical sentences are preceded by the symbol (*) in contemporary studies.)
The examples above prove that words and groups of words (noun phrases, adjective
phrases, prepositional phrases, adverbial phrases, and verb phrases) must be organized
hierarchically and in a specific position determined by their syntactic functions. They
show the importance of learning English Syntax. This is the area dedicated to the study of word
and phrase order, organization, and relation in a sentence.
 ATTENTION
Do note that phrase is a false cognate of frase, in Portuguese. But these words have not the
same meaning! That’s why they are false cognates. A phrase is a word or group of organized
words forming a syntactic constituent with a single grammatical function.
In order to understand well the sentence structure and organization, students must find its
nucleus, its core, and its main syntactic element: the predicator.
Predicators are the words that construct and project the sentence structure, because they
select, determine, and require other syntactic functions. Typically, predicators can be a verb, a
noun, or an adjective.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
(2)
A. MY ATHLETIC SON PETER LOVES BRAZILIAN
SOCCER TEAM.
B.*MY FAVORITE TEACUP LOVES BRAZILIAN SOCCER
TEAM.
 
In the sentence (2a), the main syntactic element is the verb “loves”, because it requires other
syntactic functions based on its structure: someone loves something.
 
In (2a), the main syntactic element is not the noun phrase [my athletic son Peter] or [Brazilian
soccer team], because they do not require any words and do not project the sentence. Instead,
they are required by the predicator “loves”, the main syntactic element.
 
To prove that, imagine you are talking to your friend and he or she says a sentence like (2b).
Unless you both live in “Wonderland” or unless you are speaking connotatively, the sentence
(2b) does not make sense, because only animate creatures – humans, animals – can love.
 
In summary, only animate creatures can be the subject of the verb “love”. In this case, it is the
verb that determines who can love (subject) and what or who can be loved (object). This is
called the semantic selection performed only by the predicators.
For this reason, “loves” is the predicator of the sentence, the main and nucleus syntactic
element, because it projects and selects other elements of the sentence.
THE DISCURSIVE AND SYNTACTIC
CONCEPTIONS OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
All predicators make part of the predicate, a traditional syntactic term. Predicators are the
predicate nucleus, its most important element.
At this point, you might be wondering: what are predicates then?
Traditionally, the predicate concept is conceived this way: “what is said about someone or
something”, whereas the subject is conceived as “what/who is being talked about”.
Nevertheless, these conceptions of predicate and subject do not help to understand well the
sentence structure. For example:
(3)
A. THE DANGEROUS DOG BIT THE BOY YESTERDAY.
B. THE BOY, THE DANGEROUS DOG BIT HIM
YESTERDAY.
 
Foto: PxHere/Creative Commons Zero (CC0) license
 
In the sentence (3a), the term “bit the boy yesterday” is the predicate, because it explains the
noun phrase [the dangerous dog] that functions as the subject of (3a).
 
However, in the sentence (3b), the term “the boy” is “who is being talked about”, but it does not
function as the subject of the sentence. It functions as the topic of the sentence, that is, what is
being talked about, the sentence subject-matter (theme).
 
Moreover, the term “the dangerous dog bit him yesterday” represents “what is said about” the
boy, but it does not function as the predicate of the sentence. It is a comment on the topic [the
boy]
 ATTENTION
The analysis of the examples (3a) and (3b) shows a problem in the traditional conceptions of
subject and predicate: “what/who is being talked about” and “what is said about someone or
something” are respectively the conceptions of “topic” and “comment” and very often they do
not relate and fit the real subject and predicate of the sentence.
In (3a) the conception of the topic fits and relates to the real subject [the dangerous dog]. But
in (3b), it does not. Actually, the terms “the boy” and “the dangerous dog bit him yesterday”
function respectively as the “topic” and the “comment” of the sentence. It means that the topic
“the boy” does not fit the real subject of the sentence [the dangerous dog]. This example
shows a clear problem with traditional conceptions of subject and predicate.
Based on it, students must deal with the syntactic conceptions of subject and predicate to
understand well the structure of a sentence.
From a syntactic perspective, they can think about subjects as the term that agrees with the
verb.

And predicates as the term composed by the verb and its following complements or
modifiers.
If there are not any complements or modifiers, the predicate is composed only by the verb.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
Moreover, students must think about the subject as a function required by the predicator, just
like an object and any other function. This means avoiding starting the syntactic study by
analyzing first the subjects, as many teachers usually do. Instead, students must start their
syntactic analysis by the predicators which make part of the predicate. Hence the firststep of
syntactic analysis is identifying the predicator and then the functions required by it.
Applying these steps and the syntactic conceptions above to the sentence (3b), it is possible to
correctly find the subject and predicate of the sentence. Let’s remind the sentence: The boy,
the dangerous dog bit him yesterday.
1
Firstly, students find out that the verb “bit” is the predicator because it is the main word that
requires and projects the other functions of the sentence: someone bit something/someone.
2
Then students observe that the noun phrase [the dangerous dog] agrees with the verb “bit”,
functioning as the subject of the verbal predicator.
3
Then the predicate is composed by the verb and its complements and modifiers: “bit him
yesterday”.
To summarize the discussion, take a look at the following table that comprises the conceptions
of subject and predicate:
Term Discursive conception Syntactic conception
Subject
What/who is being talked
about (topic conception).
The term that agrees with the verb.
Predicate
What is said about someone
or something (comment
conception).
The term composed by the verb and
its following complements and
modifiers.
 Attention! For full view of the table use the horizontal scroll
 Table: Conceptions of subject and predicate according to discursive or syntactic
approaches 
 Prepared by: Antonio Anderson Marques de Sousa
THE TYPES OF PREDICATES BY A
TRADITIONAL PERSPECTIVE
In traditional grammar, predicates are usually classified into three types:
1
Simple
2
Complete
3
Compound
The simple predicate is basically only the verb, without regarding its complements and
modifiers.
(4)
A. THEIR AMAZING FRIENDS HAVE DANCED A LOT.
B. MY LOVELY MOTHER HAS BAKED A CAKE FOR ME.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
 
In sentence (4a), the simple predicate is only the verb “danced”, because simple predicates are
composed only by the verbs, without any of the other words that come after it.
 
However complete predicates are composed by the verb and its complements and modifiers.
 
In the sentence (4b), the complete predicate is “baked a cake for me”, because the predicate is
composed by the verb “baked” with all the words and phrases that come along with it: the
complements [a cake] and [for me].
Compound predicates are two or more predicates about the same subject. They are composed
of two or more verbs and very often the clauses are linked by a conjunction. In sentence (5),
there are two predicates about the same subject [my little brother]: the first predicate is “did
the homework” and the second is “played soccer in the afternoon”. Observe that these two
predicates are linked by the additional conjunction “and”:
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
(5) MY LITTLE BROTHER DID THE HOMEWORK AND
PLAYED SOCCER IN THE AFTERNOON.
From a contemporary perspective, this traditional classification does not help to understand well
the structure of the sentence because it is not based on the conception of predicator, the main
syntactic element of the sentence. What is anyway the point of classifying predicates into simple
or complete? Furthermore, other functions, like subjects or objects, can be compound. In
sentence (6a), there is a compound subject and in (6b) there is a compound object. The
possibility of being compound (coordinated) applies to every syntactic function, not only
to predicates.
(6)
A. SARA AND JOHN ARE SIBLINGS. [COMPOUND
SUBJECT]
B. HE HAS EATEN A HAMBURGER AND FRENCH
FRIES. [COMPOUND OBJECTS]
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
With this in mind, we assure that students must start their syntactic analysis by the nucleus of
the predicate: the predicators. In the following paragraphs, the predicator types are described
and exemplified.
THE PREDICATE NUCLEUS IN ENGLISH: THE
PREDICATORS
Predicators are the main words of a sentence. They are the ones that project and require other
essential functions of the sentence, like subject or object. Predicators can be a verb, an
adjective, or a noun. In sentence (7), below, the predicator is the verb “kicked”, because it
requires who kicks, the subject [the strong football player], and requires what is kicked, the
object [the ball]. In this case, we say that the verb “kicked” requires two arguments, that is, two
noun phrases that will function as a subject and as an object.
(7)
The strong football player kicked the ball.
 
Imagem: Shutterstock.com
(7) THE STRONG FOOTBALL PLAYER KICKED THE
BALL.
 TIP
Once students find the predicator of the sentence, they can find the other functions and they
can easily understand the sentence structure.
The conception of argument structure is very important to understand the role of verbs as
predicators. Verbal predicators can select, that is, require one, two, or three arguments in
English, that is, one, two, or three syntactic functions. In sentence (7), above, we have an
example of a verb with two arguments: a subject and an object.
(8)
A. THE BIG WHITE CAT JUMPED.
B. MY MOTHER HANDED ME A PRINT BOOK.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
In (8a), the verb “jumped” selects only one argument, the subject [the big white cat] and in
(8b), the verb “handed” selects three arguments: the subject [my mother], the indirect object
[me], and the direct object [a print book].
Besides verbs, predicators can also be an adjective or a noun, when there is a linking verb, also
called copula verb, like to be, to become, to seem, etc. In this type of structure, the linking
verb is not the predicator. These verbs join the subject to the predicative, usually an adjective or
a noun, which are the real predicators.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
(9)
A. MY BEST FRIEND IS SMART.
B. *THE BIG ROCK IS SMART.
C. MY SON BECAME A MAN.
D. *THE BIG BUG BECAME A MAN.
 
In sentence (9a), the predicator is the adjective “smart”, because it selects the subject [my best
friend].
 
To prove that the adjective is the predicator, a sentence like (9b) is semantically ungrammatical,
because “smart” cannot require [the big rock] as its subject.
 
In (9c), the predicator is the noun “man”, and it selects the noun phrase [my son] as its subject
and the verb “became” is the linking verb, not the predicator, as we can see in (9d) because the
noun man cannot select [the big bug] as its subject.
 ATTENTION
Even though linking verbs are not the predicators in this type of structure, their role is very
important, because they take all the verb inflections and their semantic meanings. Through
linking verbs, it is possible to identify semantic categories like tense (simple present tense,
simple past tense) or the number of the subject (plural or singular).
THE SUBJECT CONCEPTIONS
The subject is a very important syntactic function selected by the predicator of the sentence. We
have seen that subjects are traditionally conceived as “what/who is being talked about” and the
problems related to this discursive conception that is more suitable to the conception of topic.
Moreover, there is another traditional conception of subject that can raise problems for syntactic
analysis. It is the semantic conception which subjects are “who performs the action of the
sentence”. Then the subject is the “doer”, the “maker”, the agent, which not always happens. In
fact, in sentence (10a), the subject performs an action, but in (10b) the subject receives the
action, it is a patient, not an agent.
(10)
A. MARINA’S CHILDREN JUMPED TOGETHER.
B. THE MAYOR HAS SUFFERED A SURPRISING
ACCIDENT.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
Based on the examples above, it is clear that the discursive and semantic conceptions of
subject given by the traditional grammar do not help to find the real subject in many sentences.
Thus, it is necessary to apply a syntactic conception for an adequate analysis, not a semantic
one or a discursive one.
THE SYNTACTIC SUBJECT CONCEPTION AND
ITS FUNCTION IN LEARNING ENGLISH
When it comes to learning English, many students strugglein improving their competence in
speaking or writing grammatically acceptable sentences due to the fact they lack the conception
and function of a fundamental, but not the most important, syntactic function: the subject.
From a grammatical perspective, subjects are the elements (like noun phrases, pronouns) that
agree with a verb.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
(11)
A. [THOSE CHILDREN] ARE FUSSY EATERS!
B. [HE] HAS BEEN MY BEST FRIEND SINCE THE
CHILDHOOD.
 
In the sentences above, the noun phrase [those children] and the pronoun [He] are the
subjects, once they are the elements that agree with the verbs are and has.
 
In (11a), the verb are is related to the noun phrase [those children] and agrees with it.
 
The same occurs in (11b) because the auxiliary verb has is related to the pronoun [He], agrees
with it, and does not agree with any other element inside the sentence.
 
The main verb in (11b) remains in the base form and does not take the inflectional morphemes.
Only the auxiliary can receive the verbal inflections and the agreement marks.
Based on it, why is so hard for many students to speak or write grammatically adequate
sentences, regarding the subjects?
 ANSWER
They simply “forget” to indicate the subject of a verb, because they transfer to English a
property of their first (native) language. For example, in Portuguese, speakers can drop the
subject of a sentence and this is not an option in English. Every sentence in English requires
a subject, even when the subject is semantically empty.
In Portuguese, one can create clauses without a phonetically expressed subject to indicate
weather or natural events because Portuguese has not developed an expletive pronoun.
Languages like English and French have developed expletive pronouns, respectively it and il,
to be expressed even in sentences related to weather or natural events, even though these
pronouns have no meaning.
In the following examples, we can see the difference between English and Portuguese:
EXPLETIVE PRONOUN
An expletive pronoun, also known as a “dummy” pronoun or pleonastic pronoun, is a
required syntactic pronoun, but it has no semantic content, no meaning.
(12)
A. IT RAINS A LOT IN RIO DE JANEIRO WHEN THE
SUMMER IS ENDING.
B. CHOVE MUITO NO RIO DE JANEIRO QUANDO O
VERÃO ESTÁ TERMINANDO.
javascript:void(0)
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
In (12a), it is used the expletive pronoun “it” to fulfill a syntactic requirement of English.
In (12b), it is not necessary, because Portuguese does not need to fulfill every subject of a
sentence.
As we can see, Portuguese and English are different regarding the subject expression. This is
related to the Null Subject Parameter postulated by Chomsky (1981).
A parameter is a grammatical property that distinguishes natural languages of the world:
whereas some languages are positively marked for a parameter, that is, have specific
grammatical properties, other languages are not and consequently do not the properties related
to a parameter.
As for the Null Subject Parameter, some languages – like Italian and Spanish – allow null
subjects, that is, not phonetically expressed subjects. However other languages – like English –
do not allow null subjects. When a student is aware of this difference, he or she can avoid
mistakes like the following sentence which is an ungrammatical sentence, that is, an
unacceptable or malformed sentence in English grammar:
(13) * __ RAINS A LOT IN RIO DE JANEIRO WHEN THE
SUMMER IS ENDING.
The main mistake about the sentence (13) – produced by many students of the word — is to
drop the subject and forget to use the expletive or “dummy” pronoun it.
 TIP
Remember: English is not a Null Subject language. Thus, it is necessary to express all subjects,
even when its meaning is empty, just like in the classic hit song It’s raining men, performed by
The weather girls. We cannot simply say “*is raining men”, dropping the dummy pronoun.
 ATTENTION
That is why is so important to know the syntactic conception and function of the subject in
English and observe how it is different in other languages because students can avoid mistakes
and create sentences grammatically acceptable and well-formed in writing assignments or
spoken production.
Null subjects in English, by the way, are possible in very few specific cases. For instance, it can
happen in compound predicates, when the subject of different predicates is obviously the same
or in informal speaking to refer to the first person of singular I.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
(14)
A. [THE ARTIST] SANG AND [Ø] DANCED AT THE
SAME TIME.
B. WANNA A BEER. (INSTEAD OF “I WANT A BEER”)
 
In the example (14a), the subject [the artist] agrees with the verbs sang and danced, but in
second predicate there is a null subject referring to same subject.
 
The symbol [Ø]I represents the null subject and refers back to the noun phrase [the artist].
 
In the example (14b), the subject I is not expressed, because in some informal context of
speech or textual genres like song lyrics the subject I is usually obvious and omitted.
TRADITIONAL APPROACH X SYNTACTIC
APPROACH
“Wanna” review the main points of this section?
LEARNING CHECK
1. WE HAVE LEARNED THAT THE MAIN SYNTACTIC ELEMENT OF THE
SENTENCE IS THE PREDICATOR, AND THE SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS
SHOULD START BY IDENTIFYING IT BECAUSE IT DETERMINES THE
ARGUMENT STRUCTURE, THAT IS, IT SELECTS OTHER SYNTACTIC
FUNCTIONS LIKE THE SUBJECT OR THE OBJECT. BASED ON IT, CHOSE
THE OPTION IN WHICH THE PREDICATOR IS CORRECTLY UNDERLINED:
A) Brazilian Carnival is one of the biggest festivals of the world.
B) A new restaurant in Copacabana offers futuristic dishes for costumers.
C) Queen Elizabeth II is the oldest British monarch on the throne.
D) Some people recycle plastic bags for artistic purpose.
E) You are beautiful?
2. SOME LANGUAGES ALLOW NULL SUBJECTS, THAT IS, SUBJECTS
WHICH ARE NOT PHONETICALLY EXPRESSED. NEVERTHELESS,
LANGUAGES LIKE ENGLISH TEND TO EXPRESS EVERY SUBJECT OF
THE SENTENCE, EVEN WHEN THEY ARE SEMANTICALLY EMPTY,
FUNCTIONING AS AN EXPLETIVE PRONOUN, ALSO REFERRED TO AS A
DUMMY PRONOUN. BASED ON IT, CHOOSE THE OPTION IN WHICH THE
SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE IS CORRECTLY UNDERLINED.
A) As for Sara, her mother tried to convince her to go to college.
B) In the high mountains, the temperature is very low.
C) It is snowing right now in New York.
D) The Jonson’s son, I met him last week.
E) It’s time to go to bed.
GABARITO
1. We have learned that the main syntactic element of the sentence is the predicator, and
the syntactic analysis should start by identifying it because it determines the argument
structure, that is, it selects other syntactic functions like the subject or the object. Based
on it, chose the option in which the predicator is correctly underlined:
"D " is correct.
 
The only correct option is letter (d) because the verbal predicator is correctly underlined: the
verb recycle selects the subject [some people] and the object [plastic bags]; its argument
structure is “someone recycles something”. The prepositional phrase [for artistic purpose] is a
modifier of the verb “recycle”, expressing the meaning of “purpose” and it does not belong to
the argument structure of the predicator. Option (a) is not correct, because its predicator is the
noun “festivals”, the head of the noun phrase [one of the biggest festivals of the world].
Option (b) is incorrect because “offers futuristic dishes for costumers” is the predicate
(predicator and its complements) of the sentence, not the predicator. Option (c) is incorrect
because the noun phrase [Queen Elizabeth II] is the subject, required by the noun “monarch”,
the sentence predicator, meanwhile the verb “is” is a linking verb that takes the inflectional
morphemes. And “beautiful” is the predicator of the last sentence.
2. Some languages allow null subjects, that is, subjects which are not phonetically
expressed. Nevertheless,languages like English tend to express every subject of the
sentence, even when they are semantically empty, functioning as an expletive pronoun,
also referred to as a dummy pronoun. Based on it, choose the option in which the
subject of the sentence is correctly underlined.
"C " is correct.
 
The only option that presents a correctly underlined subject is letter (c) because it is used the
expletive pronoun “it” as the subject in a sentence that expresses a natural event: it is snowing.
Even though “it” is semantically empty – because it refers to anything or anyone –, speakers or
writers must use it in English.
SECTION 2
 To define the syntactic functions of verbs
THE VERB PHRASE
Through semantic definition, verbs are words that express actions, states of being, natural
events, and other mental or physical processes. Regarding parts of speech, verbs – beside
nouns, adjectives, and adverbs – belong to the major word classes, meanwhile, prepositions,
conjunctions, articles, and pronouns belong to minor word classes.
THEN WHAT DOES MEAN TO SAY THAT VERBS ARE A
MAJOR WORD CLASS?
It means that they can carry a lot of the sentence meaning, a fact that already shows a very
important role of verbs, and they can take different inflections which are important for subject-
verb agreement as we are going to discuss later. As for English affirmative sentences, verbs
also usually come after subjects and before their complements and modifiers in a word-order
perspective.
Verbs are also the constituents of verb phrases, usually composed by an auxiliary and the main
verb or simply by one main verb.
(1)
A. ALL OF MY STUDENTS CAN PLAY THE PIANO.
B. THEY HAVE BEEN TO SOUTH AMERICA.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
 
In (1a) the verb phrase is composed by the auxiliary verb “can” and the main verb “play”.
 
In (1b) the auxiliary verb is “have” and the main verb is “been”.
 
In the first example, the auxiliary verb functions as a modal verb that expresses the meaning of
ability and in the second example the auxiliary verb conveys the meaning of present perfect
tense.
 
Although they are not the head of the verb phrase, auxiliary verbs are semantically very
important to convey different meanings.
 
Modal verbs can convey possibility, permission, ability, obligation, but they do not take
inflectional morphemes like other auxiliary verbs.
As for syntactic roles, verbs can function as the nucleus of the sentence: they can be the
predicator and project different types of sentences.
 
In the role of predicator, verbs require their arguments, that is, their subjects and complements.
Based on Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999), there are six types of verbs determined by
their syntactic role and their argument structure.
Syntactic
verb type
Structure pattern Example
Intransitive
verbs
Subject + verb The president arrived.
Transitive Subject + verb + direct object I have baked a cake.
verbs
Ditransitive
verbs
Subject + verb + indirect object +
direct object 
(or) Subject + verb + direct object +
oblique complement
Our mother will give us
new shoes. 
Our mother will give new
shoes to us.
Prepositional
verbs
Subject + verb + oblique
complement
Britney glanced at her son.
Linking
verbs
Subject + verb + subject predicative You are beautiful.
Complex
transitive
verbs
Traditional perspective: subject +
verb + direct object + object
predicative
She wants me (Default
tooltip) sober (Default
tooltip) .
Contemporary perspective: subject
+ verb + small clause
I judge [you
intelligent (Default
tooltip) ].
 Attention! For full view of the table use the horizontal scroll
 Table: Six types of verb 
 Prepared by: Antonio Anderson Marques de Sousa
To start, some verbs require and select only one argument, more specifically, a subject. These
verbs function as intransitive verbs because they do not select any complement.
 
Foto: SShahjehan / Shutterstock.com
 Usain Bolt perform at the Olympic Summer Games in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil.
(2)
A. IN 2016 OLYMPIC GAMES, [THE ATHLETE USAIN
BOLT] RAN.
B. FINALLY [THE FAN’S LETTERS] HAVE ARRIVED.
 
In (2a), the verb “ran” is the predicator and it functions as an intransitive verb because it only
selects one argument: the subject [the athlete Usain Bolt].
 
In sentence (2b), the verb “arrived” is also a type of intransitive verb and it also selects one
argument: the subject [the fan’s letters].
 
Note that in (2b), the predicator is the main verb “arrived”, because it selects and projects the
sentence, while the auxiliary verb “have” expresses the present perfect tense.
In modern syntactic studies, there are two types of intransitive verbs: the unergative verbs
and the unaccusative verbs.
UNERGATIVE VERBS
UNACCUSATIVE VERBS
Unergative verbs require one subject responsible for the action of the verb. In (2a), the athlete
Usain Bolt decided to run, but in (2b) the fan’s letters did not decide to arrive. They were
brought by someone. The [the fan’s letters] is not the agent of the verb process of arriving. They
are not responsible for the action.
In (2a) the subject is the agent of the running action. Hence verbs like run and jump are
unergative verbs because the subject is an agent. Verbs like fall (the child fell) or die (the flower
died) are unaccusative verbs because their subjects are not the agents of verb action, they do
not voluntarily initiate the action.
THE TRANSITIVE, DITRANSITIVE, AND
PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
Verbs can also function as a predicator that selects two arguments: a subject and a direct
object. This verb type is classified as transitive verbs.
(3)
A. THE PARTY GUESTS DRANK SODA ALL NIGHT
LONG.
B. MY MOTHER GAVE ME THIS SHIRT IN THE
CHRISTMAS.
C. MY MOTHER GAVE THIS SHIRT TO ME IN THE
CHRISTMAS.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
In sentence (3a), the verb “drank” is the predicator and requires two arguments: the subject [the
party guests] and the direct object [soda], a verbal complement without a preposition. The time
expression “all night long” is not selected by the verb, it is not one of its arguments, but it is a
modifier of the verb whose argument structure is: someone drunks something. Therefore
“drank” is a transitive verb.
DITRANSITIVE VERB
In addition to transitive and intransitive verbs, a third syntactic type is the ditransitive verb. The
prefix di- means “two”, “twice”, “double”, it comes from Ancient Greek and it also happens in
words like diphthong, diatomic, and dipolar. This third type of verb predicator selects three
arguments: one subject and two objects. That is why they are called ditransitive because they
project two arguments. In sentence (3b), the verb “gave” selects three arguments: the subject
[my mother] and the two objects: the indirect object [me] and the direct object [this shirt].
In English, indirect objects come before the direct object and are not preceded by a preposition.
If one says a sentence like (3c), the prepositional phrase [to me] is not considered as an
indirect object, but it is considered an oblique complement, always expressed by a prepositional
phrase right after the direct object. For further description and analysis of the verbal
complements, read the next section, dedicated to more properties of them.
PREPOSITIONAL VERB
The fourth syntactic type of verb is the prepositional verb. Prepositional verbs select two
arguments: the subject and the oblique complement. Oblique complements are expressed by
prepositional phrases and their presence is obligatory. In sentence (4), the verb “look” selects
two arguments: the subject [the teacher] and the oblique complement [at us].
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
(4) THE TEACHER LOOKED AT US SERIOUSLY.
LINKING VERBS
The fifth syntactic function of verbs is to perform the role of linking verbs, also referred to as
copula verbs. In the previous section, we have seen that linking verbs are not predicators,
because they do not select theelements of the sentence. In this type of structure, linking verbs
link and join the subject to its predicator, the predicative (also known as predicative
complement) of the subject. In sentence (5), verb “are” is a linking verb and join the subject
[Jaguars] to its predicator, the noun phrase [the biggest predators in Latin America] in which
the noun “predators” is the main element of the noun phrase, its head.
(5) JAGUARS ARE THE BIGGEST PREDATORS IN
LATIN AMERICA.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERB
At last, but not least, the sixth syntactic type is the complex transitive verb. Verbs like believe,
consider, declare, elect, find, judge, keep, know, label, make, name, presume, pronounce,
prove, rate, regard, and think can make part of this type of verb and in traditional grammar,
they select a subject, a direct object, and an object predicative. In sentence (6), the verb
“considers” is a complex transitive verb that selects a subject, the noun phrase [the judge], and
the direct object [the smuggler] followed by its predicative “guilty” through a traditional
perspective.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
(6) THE JUDGE CONSIDERS THE SMUGGLER GUILTY.
This type of structure presents simultaneously a verbal predicator and a noun or an adjective
predicator. In contemporary syntactic studies, complex predicative verbs select two arguments,
regarding this argument structure: someone considers something. Following this perspective in
the analysis of the example (6), the predicator “considers” selects the subject [the judge] and
the small clause [the smuggler guilty].
In contemporary studies, small clauses are clauses composed only by a subject and its
predicative, without a linking verb, for instance:
[THE GIRL BEAUTIFUL]
INSTEAD OF
“THE GIRL IS BEAUTIFUL”
[THE MAN SMART]
INSTEAD OF
“THE MAN IS SMART”.
In this sense, small clauses can be the complements of verbs like “consider”. Applying this to
example (6), we have simultaneously the verbal predicator “considered”, which selects the
subject and the small clause, and the adjective predicator “guilty” inside the small clause [the
smuggler guilty], responsible for requiring [the smuggler]. If we develop the sentence (6), the
elliptical linking verb emerges, thenoun phrase [the smuggler] becomes the subject and the
adjective “guilty” becomes the subject predicative:
(7) THE JUDGE CONSIDERS THAT THE SMUGGLER IS
GUILTY.
THE SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT IN
ENGLISH
A very important morph-syntactic role of verbs is to take the inflectional morphemes of person
and number which establish the subject-verb agreement process, also referred to as subject-
verb concord. Compared to Romance Languages like Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian whose
verbal inflection systems are rich, the subject-verb agreement inflections in English are quite
simple: basically, there are the verb to be inflections and the third person singular inflection in
the present tense. Although the subject-verb agreement is a quite simple process in English,
some problems may appear in the process of learning this language.
THIRD PERSON SINGULAR AGREEMENT
In the present tense, every verb – except to be and modal verbs – must be inflected in the
third person singular, taking the inflectional morpheme -s (or -es in some morphological
contexts), added to verb ending. The table below shows how simple this subject-verb
agreement is, considering the verb “run” and “kiss”:
Singular Plural
1st Person I run; I kiss We run; We kiss
2nd Person You run; You kiss You run; You kiss
3rd Person He/She/It runs; He/She/It kisses They run; They kiss
 Attention! For full view of the table use the horizontal scroll
 Table: Third person singular agreement 
 Prepared by: Antonio Anderson Marques de Sousa
Although this subject-verb agreement seems simple, students occasionally make some of these
mistakes in English learning process. For instance, many students drop inflectional morphemes
-s and -es if the subject is a noun phrase or a proper noun, especially people names, that refers
to the third person singular.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
(8)
A. *BRAZILIAN NATURE OFFER LOTS OF TOURISTIC
RESOURCES. (INSTEAD OF “OFFERS”)
B. *CRISTINA RUN SO FAST. (INSTEAD OF “RUNS”)
In (8a), the noun phrase [Brazilian nature] refers to the third person singular “it” and the proper
noun “Cristina” refers to “she”. Therefore, the verbs should be inflected and take the -s or -es.
THE SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT WITH
VERB TO BE
In English, the most variable verb, regarding the number, person, and tense is definitely the
verb to be, also referred to as copula be.
This variety of verb forms may lead many students to make some grammatical mistakes
regarding the copula be agreement.
(10)
A. *YOU IS BEAUTIFUL/ *THEY WAS HERE.
B. *DO YOU ARE A TEACHER?
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
First, some students chose the wrong verb form for a certain person like in (10a), in which the
form “is” cannot agree with the 2nd person singular in the present tense and “was” cannot agree
with the 3rd person plural in the past tense.
A syntactic characteristic of copula be is to function as an auxiliary verb for forming questions
and negation. Whereas other verbs require the addition of do/does auxiliary in the simple
present or did auxiliary in the simple past, copula be does not. Some students may overuse
the function of do/does and did and create an ungrammatical sentence like (10b), forgetting
that copula be already functions syntactically as auxiliary verbs.
So, let’s remember the forms of the verb to be. In the present tense, there are three forms (am,
are, and is) and in the past tense there are two forms (was and were) to establish the subject-
verb agreement as we can see below:
Present tense Past tense
Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st Person I am We are I was We were
2nd Person You are You are You were You were
3rd Person He/She/It is They are He/She/It was They were
 Attention! For a complete view of the table, use a horizontal scroll
 Table: Conjugation of the verb to be 
 Prepared by: Antonio Anderson Marques de Sousa
THE VERB PHRASE
Do you remember the six types of verbs? Let’s look back on them!
LEARNING CHECK
1. IN ENGLISH, VERBS MAKE PART OF THE MAJOR WORD CLASSES
AND PERFORM DIFFERENT SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS IN THE SENTENCE.
IN THE ROLE OF PREDICATOR, VERBS PROJECT DIFFERENT
STRUCTURES AND ARGUMENTS. BASED ON IT, CHOSE THE OPTION
THAT CORRECTLY PRESENTS A DITRANSITIVE VERB, THAT IS, A VERB
THAT SELECTS ONE SUBJECT AND TWO OBJECTS:
A) A group of strong athletes has climbed.
B) Peter has given Mary a bouquet of flowers.
C) My mother did not like the movie.
D) All of the people considered that guy guilty for what he’s done.
E) He wants me to be there with him.
2. IN ENGLISH, THE SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT SEEMS A QUITE
SIMPLE MORPHO-SYNTACTIC PROCESS: VERBS ARE INFLECTED IN
THIRD PERSON SINGULAR IN PRESENT TENSE OR IN COPULA BE
FORMS. NEVERTHELESS, SOME MISTAKES MAY APPEAR IN THE
LEARNING PROCESS. BASED ON IT, CHOOSE THE OPTION WITH THE
RIGHT SENTENCE, REGARDING THE SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT:
A) My children lives very well here.
B) You is amazing, my friend!
C) He cans dance like Michael Jackson.
D) His teeth is so white.
E) It thunders so loud over there.
GABARITO
1. In English, verbs make part of the major word classes and perform different syntactic
functions in the sentence. In the role of predicator, verbs project different structures and
arguments. Based on it, chose the option that correctly presents a ditransitive verb, that
is, a verb that selects one subject and two objects:
"B " is correct.
 
The only option that correctly presents a ditransitive verb is letter (b), because “given” in the
verb phrase “has given” is the predicator that requires three arguments: a subject and two
objects: the indirect object [Mary] and the direct object [a bouquet of flowers]. Letter (a)
presents an intransitive verb that selects onlyone argument: the subject [a group of strong
athletes]. Letter (c) presents a transitive verb – the verb like – that selects two arguments: a
subject and one direct object. And finally, letters (d) and (e) present the complex transitive verbs
“considered” and “want”.
2. In English, the subject-verb agreement seems a quite simple morpho-syntactic
process: verbs are inflected in third person singular in present tense or in copula be
forms. Nevertheless, some mistakes may appear in the learning process. Based on it,
choose the option with the right sentence, regarding the subject-verb agreement:
"E " is correct.
 
The right option is letter (e) because the verb “to thunder” must agree with its subject, the
expletive pronoun “it”. In this case, the inflectional morpheme -s must be added to the verb
ending, forming “it thunders”. This subject-verb agreement must always occur in the present
tense with the third person singular, including “he” and “she” pronouns, besides “it”. Letters (a)
and (d) are incorrect because the subject [my children] and [His teeth] refer to the pronoun
“they”; letter (b) is incorrect, once 2nd person singular/plural “you” must agree with “are”; and
letter (c) is incorrect, because verb phrases with modal verbal, such as “can”, should not be
inflected.
SECTION 3
 To identify other syntactic functions
SUBJECT FUNCTION
In this section, we will analyze more deeply subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, predicative
complements, prepositional complements, or oblique complements functions and analyze other
syntactic functions like the modifiers, more specifically the adverbial form.
LET US START WITH THE SUBJECT.
We have seen that subjects are some of the main arguments of verbal predicator. Every
sentence in English must express its subject. We have also seen that subjects are not
necessarily “someone/something is being talked about” (a conception that is more suitable to
“topic”). Moreover, subjects are not necessarily the agent of a verb action:
First not all verbs convey action.
First not all verbs convey action.
&
Second, subjects can also suffer the effect of an action (patient), besides other semantic roles.
Based on this, there must be other ways to identify the subject of a sentence. Primarily, subjects
are the constituents that agree with the verb, a syntactic property that helps us to find them out.
But there are also two tests that help us in this task. Besides subject-verb agreement –
according to Kim and Sells (2008) – subjects can be identified by:
The tag-question test
&
The subject-auxiliary inversion test
The subject-auxiliary inversion test consists of tagging a short question at end of the sentence,
like in the example (1a):
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
(TEST 1)
A. JOHN HAS PUT THE BOOKS IN THOSE BOXES,
HASN’T HE?
B. *JOHN HAS PUT THE BOOKS IN THOSE BOXES,
HAVEN’T THEY/ *HASN’T THEY?
 
The pronoun “he” in the tag question refers to the subject [John] because they agree in person,
number, and gender.
 
It does not refer to [the books] or [boxes], which explains why (1b) is incorrect, because the
pronoun “they” in the tag question cannot refer to the real subject.
The latter test consists of forming a question, inverting the order subject-auxiliary to auxiliary-
subject. In example (2a) the auxiliary verb “has” comes before the subject [John], but it cannot
be before the object like we see in (2b):
(2)
A. HAS JOHN PUT THE BOOKS IN THOSE BOXES?
B. *HAS THE BOOKS JOHN PUT IN THOSE BOXES?
DIRECT OBJECT FUNCTION
Direct objects are syntactic constituents selected by transitive, ditransitive – and traditionally
also by complex transitive – verbs or simply by verb predicators with two or three arguments.
Semantically they can be patient (the element affected by the verb action or process) or they
can even be the element that experiences or cause something. The best way for identifying a
direct object is the syntactic process of “passivization”: the direct object of an active voice
sentence becomes the subject in the passive voice.
(3)
A. MY BOYFRIEND DRANK A HOT CHOCOLATE. A HOT
CHOCOLATE WAS DRUNK BY MY BOYFRIEND.
B. THIS BOOK BELONGS TO JOHN *JOHN IS
BELONGED TO THIS BOOK.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
 
In the first sentence of (3a), we have a case of active voice in which the verb “drank” agrees
with the subject [my boyfriend] and requires the direct object [a hot chocolate].
 
In the second sentence of (3a), through the passivization process, [a hot chocolate] becomes
the subject of the passive voiced sentence.
 
Nevertheless, oblique complements – expressed by prepositional phrases – cannot undergo
passivization, like in example (3b), in which the prepositional complement “to John” cannot
become subject.
INDIRECT OBJECT FUNCTION
Verbal predicators of three arguments or ditransitive verbs can select an indirect object that
always comes before a direct object. Unlike the Portuguese language, the indirect object in
English is not preceded by a preposition. Indirect objects are noun phrases that have the
semantic roles of goal, recipient, or benefactive:
(4)
A. MY FRIEND (DEFAULT TOOLTIP) SENT
ME (DEFAULT TOOLTIP) A LETTER (DEFAULT
TOOLTIP) .
B. I (DEFAULT TOOLTIP) GAVE (DEFAULT TOOLTIP)
JOHN (DEFAULT TOOLTIP) THE CAMERA (DEFAULT
TOOLTIP) .
C. THE PRINCIPAL (DEFAULT TOOLTIP)
AWARDED (DEFAULT TOOLTIP) A
STUDENT (DEFAULT TOOLTIP) A BONUS.
In (4a), the predicator “sent” selects three arguments: the subject [my friend], the direct object
[a letter] and the indirect object [me] which has the semantic role of goal, because it is the aim
(the location/destination) of an action. In (4b) the predicator “gave” selects three arguments and
one of them is the indirect object [John] with the semantic role of the recipient because it is
someone who receives something, it is the “receiver”. In (4c) the indirect object [a student],
selected by the predicator “awarded”, has the semantic role of benefactive, because it is
someone who gets benefits from an action, a process.
 ATTENTION
It is important to say that one indirect object can have more than one semantic role, not
necessarily only one.
Like direct objects, indirect objects can also undergo the passivization process and become the
subject of a sentence in the passive voice. The sentences in (4a, b, c) are transformed into
passive voice in (5a, b, c) bellow: the indirect objects [me], [John], and [a student] become the
subjects of the following sentences. In spite of it, they have not become the agent of the
action/process described in the passive voice. The agents are [by my friend], [by me] and [by
the principal], prepositional constituents that usually are omitted for specific purposes: either
the speaker does not want to reveal the agent’s identity or he or she does not know who the
agent is:
(4)
a. My friend sent me a letter.
b. I gave John the camera.
c. The principal awarded a student a bonus.

(5)
a. I was sent a letter (by my friend).
b. John was given the camera (by me).
c. A student was awarded a bonus (by the principal).
OBLIQUE COMPLEMENT FUNCTION
Predicators that require two or three arguments (transitive or ditransitive verbs) can select a
prepositional complement that is neither a direct object nor an indirect object. They are referred
to as oblique complements. Their presence in the sentence is essential and obligatory and their
semantic roles (meaning) usually can be similar to adverbial semantic roles. Different from
indirect object order, oblique complements come after a direct object in a sentence
structure by a ditransitive verb.
(6)
A. I AM GOING TO SEND (DEFAULT TOOLTIP) THIS
CHARMING SHIRT (DEFAULT TOOLTIP) TO MY
MOTHER (DEFAULT TOOLTIP) .
B. SHE PUT (DEFAULT TOOLTIP) SOME
BOOKS (DEFAULT TOOLTIP) IN THE BOXES (DEFAULT
TOOLTIP) .
In sentence (6a), the predicator “send” selects the direct object [this charming shirt] – that
comes first – and then theoblique complement [to my mother], a prepositional phrase, that can
turn into an indirect object in another type of sentence without a preposition:
I AM GOING TO SEND MY MOTHER (DEFAULT
TOOLTIP) THIS CHARMING SHIRT.
In sentence (6b), the ditransitive verb “put” selects two arguments: the direct object [some
books] and one oblique complement, the prepositional phrase [in the boxes]. In this case, [in
the boxes] is not simply a locative adverbial, that is, a verb modifier that expresses location.
PREDICATIVE FUNCTION
The predicative is the main or nucleus constituent of a predicate with a linking verb. Predicative
is the predicator of sentences with linking verbs. Traditionally they can be related to the subject
(subject predicative) or the direct object (object predicative). The predicative can have three
forms. It can be:
A NOUN PHRASE
AN ADJECTIVE PHRASE
A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
 
Imagem: Shutterstock.com
(7)
A. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE WAS AN ENGLISH POET.
B. THE CHARACTER ELIZABETH BENNET, FROM
PRIDE AND PREJUDICE, WAS EXTREMELY BRAVE.
C. HALF OF THE STUDENTS WERE IN THE
CLASSROOM.
 
In (7a), the predicative is the noun phrase [an English poet] because the head (main word) is
the noun “poet”.
 
In (7b), the predicative is the adjective phrase [extremely brave] because the head is the
adjective “brave” preceded by the intensifier “extremely”.
 
In (7c), the predicative is the prepositional phrase [in the classroom], because the head is the
preposition “in” that expresses locative meaning.
SUBJECT PREDICATIVE FUNCTION
If the predicative is related to the subject and comes after a linking verb, like to be, to seem, to
become, we have a subject predicative. Although the predicative is not a verb, it is the
predicator and the nucleus of the predicate, because it requires the subject of the sentence.
(8) THE AMAZON IS THE WORLD’S LARGEST RAIN
FOREST.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
 
In the example (8), the noun phrase [the world’s largest rain forest] – whose head is the noun
“forest” - functions as a subject predicative, because it relates to the subject [The Amazon].
 
The noun phrase is the predicator because it requires the subject. Hence the linking verb “is”
takes the inflectional morphemes and expresses semantic categories like tense, aspect, person,
and number.
OBJECT PREDICATIVE FUNCTION
In a traditional perspective, complex transitive verbs project a sentence in which the predicative
is not related to the subject, but the direct object. In this case, we have an object predicative
that usually takes the noun phrase form, but it can also have other forms like the adjective
phrase.
 
Imagem: Shutterstock.com
(9) MANY LITERARY CRITICS NAME MACHADO DE
ASSIS THE GREATEST BRAZILIAN WRITER.
In example (9a), the complex transitive verb “name” selects the direct object [Machado de
Assis] followed by the noun phrase [the greatest Brazilian writer] that functions as an object
predicative.
Unlike direct and indirect objects, the object predicative cannot go through the passivization
process. Moreover, some ditransitive verbs – like to make – can also function as a complex
transitive verb. In this case, it is important not to confuse an object predicative with a direct
object.
(10)
A. I MADE JOHN [A COOL TOY][= DIRECT OBJECT].
B. I MADE JOHN [AN EXCELLENT DOCTOR][=OBJECT
PREDICATIVE].
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
 
In example (10a), the verb “made” is ditransitive and selects the indirect object [John] and the
direct object [a cool toy].
 
Nevertheless, in (10b), the same verb functions as a complex verb and selects the direct object
[John] followed by the object predicative [an excellent doctor].
 
In (10a), [a cool toy] is not related to [John], but in (10b) the noun phrase [an excellent
doctor] is related to [John].
MODIFIERS
The functions analyzed previously are syntactically essential: they must be in the sentence;
they belong to the syntactic sentence structure. However, some functions are not syntactically
essential, because their presence is not required by the predicators. Their absence does not
turn the clauses ungrammatical. Therefore, they are referred to as modifiers.
 ATTENTION
Although modifiers are not syntactically required, they are semantically important, because they
can offer more information about the sentence.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
(11) MY LOVELY MOTHER BOUGHT ME A BEAUTIFUL
PAIR OF SHOES IN PARIS.
 
The sentence (11a) is projected by the predicator “bought” that selects three arguments: the
subject [my lovely mother], the indirect object [me], and the direct object [a beautiful pair of
shoes].
 
The argument structure of “to buy” is: someone buys someone something or someone buys
something for someone. The prepositional phrase [in Paris] is not syntactically required by the
predicator, it does not belong to its argument structure.
 
Thus [in Paris] is a type of modifier. But it does not mean that modifiers are not important. In the
example above, [in Paris] expresses the position (place) where something happens, so it is
very important from a semantic or discursive perspective because it provides more details to the
sentence.
ADVERBIAL FORM AND MEANING
An adverbial also referred to as an adverbial adjunct, is a verb modifier that can occur in the
beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the sentence. But there are some adverbials that occur
more frequently at the end of the sentence. Adverbials with the meaning of:
POSITION
MANNER
TIME
FREQUENCY
PURPOSE
REASON (CAUSE)
… are more frequent in the sentence-final position, although they can be sentence-initial
adverbials too.
They can also have three forms:
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
ADVERBIAL PHRASE
ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
 COMMENT
By the way, not only adverbials can have clause form: subjects, verb complements, and
predicative can also have clause form.
As for the adverbial form, in the previous example (11), the adjunct [in Paris] takes the
prepositional form. And it functions as a position adverbial.
(11)
My lovely mother bought me a beautiful pair of shoes in Paris.
(12)
A. MY LINGUISTICS PROFESSOR SPOKE TO ME VERY
PEACEFULLY.
B. MY LINGUISTICS PROFESSOR SPOKE TO ME
WHILE I WAS TAKING THE TEST.
javascript:void(0)
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
 
In (12a), the adverbial [very peacefully] takes the adverbial phrase form, because the head is
the adverb “peacefully”.
 
In (12b), the adverbial [while I was taking the test] takes the adverbial clause form because it
is a sentence with the role of a time adverbial.
 
Imagem: Pedro Tamburro
(13)
A. IN HIS CONCERTS, MICHAEL JACKSON DANCED
WITH LOVE.
B. MY SISTER ARRIVED AT NINE O’CLOCK.
 
In example (13a), above the verb “danced” functions as an intransitive verb and selects only
one subject: the noun phrase [Michael Jackson].
 
The prepositional phrase [with love] is not selected by the predicator. It modifies the predicator
with extra information: the way someone danced. Hence [with love] has the semantic role of
manner.
 
In (13b), the verb “wake up” is also an intransitive verb that selects only one subject, the noun
phrase [my sister].
 
In this case, the prepositional phrase [at nine o’clock] is not a required syntactic function, but it
is a modifier, it says “when” the subject arrived. So it is an adverbial with time meaning.
As for frequency, purpose, and reason (cause) adverbials, let us analyze the following
examples:
(14)
A. LAUREN VISITS HER BOYFRIEND EVERY
WEEKEND.
B. MANY PEOPLE WORK HARD FOR THE GLORY.
C. CARLA WAS LATE FOR AN APPOINTMENT
BECAUSE OF THE TRAFFIC JAM.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
 
In (14a), the predicator “visits” selects two arguments: the subject [Lauren] and the direct object
[her boyfriend], but not the prepositional phrase [every weekend] that is a frequency
adverbial.
 
In (14b), the predicator “work” only selects one argument: the subject [many people]. Theprepositional phrase [for the glory] represents the goal, the aim of working hard. Thereby it is a
purpose adverbial.
 
In (14c), the prepositional phrase [because of the traffic jam] is an adverbial with the meaning
of reason (cause) because it explains why Carla was late. Hence it is not a required syntactic
constituent. It is a modifier that provides more details to the sentence.
SENTENCE-INITIAL ADVERBIALS: FORM
AND MEANING
Some adverbials typically come before subject and predicate and have the three forms of
sentence-final adverbials (prepositional phrase, adverbial phrase, and adverbial clause).
Nevertheless, sentence-initial adverbials tend to be more frequently short adverbial phrases
composed only by one word, like:
FORTUNATELY
OR
PERHAPS
Unlike the sentence-final adverbial, in the previous section, the sentence-initial adverbials
modify the whole sentence, not only the verb. It means that they have a scope extended to the
whole sentence, expressing different meanings and also the speaker's attitude or opinion about
something. Based on Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999), they can belong to the four
meaning categories below. In the example, observe how the meaning and speaker attitude or
opinion changes regarding the use of sentence-initial adverbials:
Meaning
category
Sentence-initial adverbials Example
Probability Maybe, perhaps, certainly, surely Perhaps I eat broccoli.
Usuality
Occasionally, usually, typically,
generally
Usually, I eat broccoli.
Presumption
Obviously, clearly, of course,
evidently
Obviously, I eat
broccoli.
Desirability Luckily, (un)fortunately, hopefully
Fortunately, I eat
broccoli.
 Attention! For full view of the table use the horizontal scroll
 Table: Sentence-initial adverbials 
 Prepared by: Antonio Anderson Marques de Sousa
NOUN MODIFIERS: THE ADNOMINAL
ADJUNCTS
As for adjuncts, so much is said about the adverbial adjuncts, the verb modifiers. However,
there are also syntactic functions that modify the noun: the adnominal adjuncts. They are the
elements that make part of the noun phrase: determiners, quantifiers, attributive adjectives,
pronouns, prepositional phrases.
(15) THE ENGLISH LADY GAVE ME A BEAUTIFUL
PRESENT FROM BRAZIL.
 
Foto: Shutterstock.com
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In example (15), we have two noun phrases: [the English lady] whose head is the noun “lady”.
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And [a beautiful present from Brazil] whose head is the noun “present”. In this case, the
adnominal adjuncts are the determiners “the” and “a”, the attributive adjective “English” and the
prepositional phrase [from Brazil].
SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS
Watch the video to recap the main points of the syntactic functions.
LEARNING CHECK
1. LIKE DIRECT OBJECTS, INDIRECT OBJECTS CAN ALSO UNDERGO A
PASSIVIZATION PROCESS AND BECOME THE SUBJECT IN THE PASSIVE
VOICE. BASED ON IT, CHOSE THE OPTION IN WHICH THE INDIRECT
OBJECT OF THE SENTENCE “MY BOYFRIEND GAVE ME A CHANCE”
BECOMES THE SUBJECT IN THE PASSIVE VOICE:
A) A chance was given to me by my boyfriend.
B) My boyfriend gave a chance to me.
C) My boyfriend was given a chance by me.
D) I was given a chance by my boyfriend.
E) I have given a chance by my boyfriend.
2. SENTENCE-FINAL ADVERBIALS HAVE DIFFERENT FORMS
(PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE, ADVERBIAL PHRASE, OR ADVERBIAL
CLAUSE) AND CONVEY DIFFERENT MEANINGS: PURPOSE, MANNER,
CAUSE, ETC. AMONG THE OPTIONS BELOW, WHICH IS THE ONE WITH A
TIME SENTENCE-FINAL ADVERBIAL?
A) Claudette has bought her mother a beautiful skirt in Salvador.
B) Anthony has given his sister a necklace, because of her birthday.
C) Many people marvel at the Amazon forest during their trip to Brazil.
D) I was given a notebook by my parents in order to do my homework.
E) He comes here twice a day.
GABARITO
1. Like direct objects, indirect objects can also undergo a passivization process and
become the subject in the passive voice. Based on it, chose the option in which the
indirect object of the sentence “my boyfriend gave me a chance” becomes the subject in
the passive voice:
"D " is correct.
 
In the sentence “my boyfriend gave me a chance”, the indirect object is the pronoun “me”. So, in
the passive voice, “me”must become the subject like this: I was given a chance by my friend. In
letter (a), the direct object [a chance] has become the subject, instead of the indirect object, so it
is not the correct option. Letter (b) is incorrect because it is not even in the passive voice. It is in
the active voice and there not any indirect object function, because [to me] is an oblique
complement. Letter (c) is incorrect because the subject [my boyfriend] from the active voice
cannot be the subject in the passive voice again. Instead, it should be the agent preceded by
the preposition “by”.
2. Sentence-final adverbials have different forms (prepositional phrase, adverbial phrase,
or adverbial clause) and convey different meanings: purpose, manner, cause, etc. Among
the options below, which is the one with a time sentence-final adverbial?
"C " is correct.
 
The right option is letter (c) because the prepositional phrase [during their trip to Brazil]
expresses the notion of time, more specifically it shows when people marvel at the Amazon
forest. The prepositional phrase [in Salvador], in letter (a), has a position meaning. The
prepositional phrase [because of her birthday] conveys cause (reason) meaning. In letter (d),
the adverbial clause [in order to do my homework] expresses the meaning of purpose, it is
the aim or goal of giving a notebook. In (e), the prepositional phrase [twice a day] is a
frequency adverbial.
CONCLUSION
FINAL ISSUES
In summary, we have learned that every single sentence has a predicator, that is, a nucleus
word that requires other syntactic functions. This nucleus can be a verb, a noun, or an adjective.
So, the aim of this study was to understand and analyze the sentence structure from a syntactic
perspective, focusing on its nucleus elements, the sentence predicators, and the constituents
required by them, besides analyzing modifier semantic roles.
That is why we have passed through some subjects as: role and forms of predicators;
traditional-discursive approach versus syntactic approach on predicates and subjects; the
traditional predicate classification; the Null Subject parameter in English, as well as verb
phrases, verb syntactic functions, and subject-verb agreement.
At last, we have analyzed subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, predicative complements,
prepositional complements, and oblique complements functions and modifiers.
AVALIAÇÃO DO TEMA:
REFERENCES
CELSE-MURCIA, Marianne; LARSEN-FREEMAN, Diane. The Grammar book: An ESL/EFL
Teacher’s Course 2. ed. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1999.
CHOMSKY, Noam. Lectures on Government and Binding. Dordrecht: Foris, 1981.
KIM, Jon-Bok; SELLS, Petter. English Syntax: an introduction. Stanford: CSLI Publication,
2008.
QUIRK, Randolph et al. A Comprehensive Grammar of English Language. London:
Longman, 2003.
GO FURTHER
A very efficient and funny tool for learning English is the BBC Learning English website, which is
a department of BBC World Service dedicated to English teaching. It provides many free
activities and recourses (podcast, radio programs, etc.) not only for students but also for
teachers.
CONTENT AUTHOR
Antonio Anderson Marques de Sousa
 CURRICULUM LATTES
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