Modulo de Inglês (1) (1)

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MANUAL DO CURSO DE LICENCIATURA 
do 
TRONCO COMUM 
 
1º Ano 
Disciplina/Módulo: INGLÊS 
Código: ISCED11-LIECFC001 
Total Horas/1o Semestre: 100 
Créditos (SNATCA): 4 
Número de Temas: 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
INSTITUTO SUPER 
 
 
 
 INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DE CIÊNCIAS E EDUCAÇÃO A DISTÂNCIA - ISCED 
 
Direitos de autor (copyright) 
Este manual é propriedade do Instituto Superior de Ciências e Educação a Distância (ISCED), 
e contêm reservados todos os direitos. É proibida a duplicação ou reprodução parcial ou 
total deste manual, sob quaisquer formas ou por quaisquer meios (electrónicos, mecânico, 
gravação, fotocópia ou outros), sem permissão expressa de entidade editora (Instituto 
Superior de Ciências e Educação a Distância (ISCED). 
A não observância do acima estipulado o infractor é passível a aplicação de processos 
judiciais em vigor no País. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Instituto Superior de Ciências e Educação a Distância (ISCED) 
Coordenação do Programa de Licenciaturas 
Rua Dr. Lacerda de Almeida. No 211, Ponta - Gea 
Beira - Moçambique 
Telefone: 23323501 
Cel: +258 823055839 
Fax: 23323501 
E-mail: direcção@isced.ac.mz 
Website: www.isced.ac.mz 
 
Agradecimentos 
 
O Instituto Superior de Ciências e Educação a Distância (ISCED) e o autor do presente manual 
agradecem a colaboração dos seguintes indivíduos e instituições na elaboração deste 
manual: 
 
Pela coordenação 
 
Direcção Acadêmica do ISCED 
 
Pelo design Direcção de Qualidade e Avaliação do ISCED 
Financiamento e logística 
 
Instituto Africano de Promoção da Educação 
à Distância (IAPED) 
 
Pela revisão final Dr. Conde Estunco 
 
 
 
 
 
Elaborado por: 
Dr. Fernando Audusto Fazenda – Licenciado em Ensino de Inglês pela Universidade 
Pedagógica 
 
 
 
 
Table of contents 
Instituto Superior de Ciências e Educação a Distância (ISCED) 1 
Appendixes: Websites ............................................................................. 2 
Visão geral 1 
Bem-vindo ao Módulo de Inglês .................................................................................... 1 
Objectivos do Módulo ................................................................................................... 1 
Quem deveria estudar este módulo .............................................................................. 3 
Como está estruturado este módulo ............................................................................. 3 
Ícones de actividade ...................................................................................................... 4 
Habilidades de estudo ................................................................................................... 4 
Precisa de apoio? .......................................................................................................... 6 
Tarefas (avaliação e auto-avaliação) .............................................................................. 7 
Avaliação ....................................................................................................................... 7 
Possible variations of the basic form: ........................................................... 43 
Possible variations of the basic form: ........................................................... 43 
Possible variations of the basic form: ........................................................... 44 
Possible variations of the basic form: ........................................................... 44 
STEP 1. CHOOSE A TOPIC 66 
Tasks and exercises 66 
i. Made in Mozambique 66 
 67 
Tasks and exercises 67 
STEP 3. STATE YOUR THESIS 70 
STEP 4. MAKE A TENTATIVE OUTLINE 70 
STEP 5. ORGANIZE YOUR NOTES 71 
STEP 6. WRITE YOUR FIRST DRAFT 73 
The Car-jacking 82 
The Car-jacking 83 
Here are some general rules about spelling .................................................... 84 
Websites .......................................................................................... 95 
http://dictionary.cambridge.org ................................................................ 95 
http.//digital.library.upenn.edu/books ......................................................... 95 
http://free-esl.comwww.eslall.com ............................................................ 95 
www.antimoon.com ............................................................................. 95 
www.britishcouncil.org .......................................................................... 95 
www.esl.tower.com ............................................................................. 95 
www.examenglish.com .......................................................................... 95 
www.english-hilfen.com ......................................................................... 95 
www.englishclub.com ........................................................................... 95 
 
www.englishjet.com ............................................................................. 95 
www.esl-galaxy.com ............................................................................. 95 
www.piffe.com ................................................................................... 95 
www.studyenglishtoday.net .................................................................... 95 
www.usingenglish.com .......................................................................... 95 
www.webenglishteacher.com/research ........................................................ 95 
 
Unit 10 practice and exercise 64 
Exercise and practice ............................................................................................................ 65 
Exercise and practice ........................................................................................................... 66 
Exercise and Practice ........................................................................................................... 70 
Unit 11 Preparing for writing assignment 71 
 Writing the popic ................................................................................................................. 72 
 Making an outline ............................................................................................................... 77 
 Organizing your notes ......................................................................................................... 78 
 Example of the outline ......................................................................................................... 79 
 Writing the first draft .......................................................................................................... 80 
 Writing the first draft .......................................................................................................... 81 
Unit 12 Recognising types of errors 82 
Vocabulary ........................................................................................................................... 84 
Grammar ............................................................................................................................. 87 
Spelling ................................................................................................................................92 
Punctuation .......................................................................................................................... 95 
Sentence order in paragraph ............................................................................................... 99 
Exercises and revison.......................................................................................................... 101 
 
 References ............................................................................................................. 105 
 Appendixes: Websites 
 
 
Visão geral 
Bem-vindo ao Módulo de Inglês 
 
Objectivos do Módulo 
Ao terminar o estudo deste módulo de Inglês deverás ser capaz de 
Desenvolver e consolidar as quatro competências linguísticas – 
reading, writing, listening, speaking; 
Sensibilizar para a aprendizagem da língua estrangeira como 
componente-base da boa prática laboral, extensiva a aspectos 
culturais; 
Objectivos Específicos 
 
Resultados de Aprendizagem 
Espera-se que o estudante: 
Listening: Seja capaz de compreender os pontos essenciais de um 
discurso em língua-padrão sobre assuntos correntes da vida 
pessoal ou profissional, incluindo muitos programas de rádio e 
televisão quando o débito da fala é relativamente lento e claro; 
Reading: Seja capaz de compreender textos em língua-padrão e 
linguagem corrente sobre assuntos do dia-a-dia pessoal ou 
profissional; 
Speaking: Seja capaz de articular discursos de forma simples para 
descrever experiências, acontecimentos, planos ou desejos, para 
explicar e justificar opiniões, e para, sem preparação prévia, lidar 
com situações e conversas sobre assuntos conhecidos do âmbito 
pessoal ou profissional; 
Writing: Seja capaz de escrever um texto articulado de forma 
simples sobre assuntos conhecidos ou de interesse pessoal ou 
profissional; 
Seja capaz de utilizar métodos e técnicas de estudo, de 
apropriação de conhecimentos e de pesquisa e cooperação em 
língua inglesa através de consulta e utilização de diferentes tipos 
de materiais e suportes documentais com relevância na futura 
vida profissional; 
Tenha autonomia no desenvolvimento de estratégias de 
superação de dificuldades e resolução de problemas. 
This subject, on the other hand, aims specifically, to enable 
students to know, develop and use the four skills (reading, writing, 
speaking and listening); to enable and inculcate on the students, 
knowledge and abilities about grammatical aspects of English 
language, so that they can be able to use the English language 
effectively: to enable them to know and use( in speaking and 
writing), terms related to the professional perspective of the 
course, spare time, travel and journeys, making friends, education 
and learning, time, weather and climate, health and nutrition, 
customs and traditions, and on. 
 
 
 
 
Objectivos 
Específicos 
 Reconhecer palavras e expressões básicas que se usam 
habitualmente em relação a si mesmo, à família e entorno 
imediato; 
 Compreender palavras e nomes conhecidos e frases muito 
simples, por exemplo, as que se encontram em catálogos e 
cartazes; 
 Participar de conversações simples sobre temas habituais 
ou necessidades imediatas, descrever o lugar onde mora e 
as pessoas que conhece; 
Escrever postais e e-mails simples, preencher formulários 
com dados pessoais, nome, nacionalidade, endereço etc. 
 Propiciar a reflexão, teórico e crítica para a intervenção nas 
expressões da questão social. Reconhecer palavras e 
expressões básicas que se usam habitualmente em relação 
a si mesmo, à família e entorno imediato; 
 Compreender palavras e nomes conhecidos e frases muito 
simples, por exemplo, as que se encontram em catálogos e 
cartazes; 
 Participar de conversações simples sobre temas habituais 
ou necessidades imediatas, descrever o lugar onde mora e 
as pessoas que conhece; 
 Escrever postais e e-mails simples, preencher formulários 
com dados pessoais, nome, nacionalidade, endereço etc. 
 
Resultados de Aprendizagem 
Espera-se que o estudante: 
Listening: Seja capaz de compreender os pontos essenciais de um 
discurso em língua-padrão sobre assuntos correntes da vida 
pessoal ou profissional, incluindo muitos programas de rádio e 
televisão quando o débito da fala é relativamente lento e claro; 
Reading: Seja capaz de compreender textos em língua-padrão e 
linguagem corrente sobre assuntos do dia-a-dia pessoal ou 
profissional; 
Speaking: Seja capaz de articular discursos de forma simples para 
descrever experiências, acontecimentos, planos ou desejos, para 
explicar e justificar opiniões, e para, sem preparação prévia, lidar 
com situações e conversas sobre assuntos conhecidos do âmbito 
pessoal ou profissional; 
Writing: Seja capaz de escrever um texto articulado de forma 
simples sobre assuntos conhecidos ou de interesse pessoal ou 
profissional; 
Seja capaz de utilizar métodos e técnicas de estudo, de 
apropriação de conhecimentos e de pesquisa e cooperação em 
língua inglesa através de consulta e utilização de diferentes tipos 
 
de materiais e suportes documentais com relevância na futura 
vida profissional; 
Tenha autonomia no desenvolvimento de estratégias de 
superação de dificuldades e resolução de problemas. 
This subject, on the other hand, aims specifically, to enable 
students to know, develop and use the four skills (reading, writing, 
speaking and listening); to enable and inculcate on the students, 
knowledge and abilities about grammatical aspects of English 
language, so that they can be able to use the English language 
effectively: to enable them to know and use( in speaking and 
writing), terms related to the professional perspective of the 
course, spare time, travel and journeys, making friends, education 
and learning, time, weather and climate, health and nutrition, 
customs and traditions, and on. 
 
Quem deveria estudar este módulo 
Este Módulo foi concebido para estudantes do 1º ano de todos os 
cursos de licenciatura do ISCED. Poderá ocorrer, contudo, que haja 
leitores que queiram se actualizar e consolidar seus 
conhecimentos nessa disciplina, esses serão bem-vindos, não 
sendo necessário para tal se inscrever. Mas poderá adquirir o 
manual. 
 
Como está estruturado este módulo 
 
Este módulo de Inglês, para estudantes do 1º ano dos cursos do 
ISCED está estruturado como se segue: 
 
Páginas introdutórias 
 Um índice completo. 
 Uma visão geral detalhada dos conteúdos do módulo, 
resumindo os aspectos-chave que você precisa conhecer para 
melhor estudar. Recomendamos vivamente que leia esta 
secção com atenção antes de começar o seu estudo, como 
componente de habilidades de estudos. 
Conteúdo desta Disciplina / módulo 
Este módulo está estruturado em Temas. Cada tema, por sua vez 
comporta certo número de unidades temáticas visualizadas por 
um sumário. Cada unidade temática se caracteriza por conter uma 
introdução, objectivos, conteúdos. No final de cada unidade 
temática ou do próprio tema, são incorporados antes exercícios de 
auto-avaliação, só depois é que aparecem os de avaliação. Os 
exercícios de avaliação têm as seguintes características: Puros 
exercícios teóricos, Problemas não resolvidos e actividades 
práticas algumas incluído estudo de casos. 
 
 
Outros recursos 
A equipa dos académicos e pedagogos do ISCED pensandoem si, 
num cantinho, mesmo o recôndito deste nosso vasto Moçambique 
e cheio de dúvidas e limitações no seu processo de aprendizagem, 
apresenta uma lista de recursos didácticos adicionais ao seu 
módulo para você explorar. Para tal o ISCED disponibiliza nas 
bibliotecas física e virtual do seu centro de recursos mais material 
de estudos relacionado com o seu curso como: Livros e/ou 
módulos, CD, CD-ROOM, DVD. Para além deste material físico ou 
electrónico disponível nas bibliotecas física e virtual, pode ter 
acesso a Plataforma digital moodle para alargar mais ainda as 
possibilidades dos seus estudos. 
 
Auto-avaliação e Tarefas de avaliação 
Tarefas de auto-avaliação para este módulo encontram-se no final 
de cada unidade temática e de cada tema. As tarefas dos 
exercícios de auto-avaliação apresentam duas características: 
primeiro apresentam exercícios resolvidos com detalhes. Segundo, 
exercícios que mostram apenas respostas. 
Tarefas de avaliação devem ser semelhantes às de auto-avaliação 
mas sem mostrar os passos e devem obedecer o grau crescente de 
dificuldades do processo de aprendizagem, umas a seguir a outras. 
Parte das tarefas de avaliação será objecto dos trabalhos de 
campo a serem entregues aos tutores/docentes para efeitos de 
correcção e subsequentemente nota. Também constará do exame 
do fim do módulo. Pelo que, caro estudante, fazer todos os 
exercícios de avaliação é uma grande vantagem. 
Comentários e sugestões 
Use este espaço para dar sugestões valiosas, sobre determinados 
aspectos, quer de natureza científica, quer de natureza diadáctico-
pedagógica, etc sobre como deveriam ser ou estar apresentadas. 
Pode ser que graças as suas observações, o próximo módulo 
venha a ser melhorado. 
 
Ícones de actividade 
Ao longo deste manual irá encontrar uma série de ícones nas 
margens das folhas. Estes icones servem para identificar 
diferentes partes do processo de aprendizagem. Podem indicar 
uma parcela específica de texto, uma nova actividade ou tarefa, 
uma mudança de actividade, etc. 
 
Habilidades de estudo 
O principal objectivo deste capítulo é o de ensinar aprender a 
aprender. Aprender aprende-se. 
Durante a formação e desenvolvimento de competências, para 
facilitar a aprendizagem e alcançar melhores resultados, implicará 
empenho, dedicação e disciplina no estudo. Isto é, os bons 
 
resultados apenas se conseguem com estratégias eficientes e 
eficazes. Por isso é importante saber como, onde e quando 
estudar. Apresentamos algumas sugestões com as quais esperamos 
que caro estudante possa rentabilizar o tempo dedicado aos 
estudos, procedendo como se segue: 
1º Praticar a leitura. Aprender a Distância exige alto domínio de 
leitura. 
2º Fazer leitura diagonal aos conteúdos (leitura corrida). 
3º Voltar a fazer leitura, desta vez para a compreensão e 
assimilação crítica dos conteúdos (ESTUDAR). 
4º Fazer seminário (debate em grupos), para comprovar se a sua 
aprendizagem confere ou não com a dos colegas e com o padrão. 
5º Fazer TC (Trabalho de Campo), algumas actividades práticas ou 
as de estudo de caso se existir. 
IMPORTANTE: Em observância ao triângulo modo-espaço-tempo, 
respectivamente como, onde e quando, estudar, como foi referido 
no início deste item, antes de organizar os seus momentos de 
estudo reflicta sobre o ambiente de estudo que seria ideal para si: 
Estudo melhor em casa/biblioteca/café/outro lugar? Estudo 
melhor à noite/de manhã/de tarde/fins-de-semana/ao longo da 
semana? Estudo melhor com música/num sítio sossegado/num 
sítio barulhento!? Preciso de intervalo em cada 30 minutos, em 
cada hora, etc. 
É impossível estudar numa noite tudo o que devia ter sido 
estudado durante um determinado período de tempo; Deve 
estudar cada ponto da matéria em profundidade e passar só ao 
seguinte quando achar que já domina bem o anterior. 
Privilegia-se saber bem (com profundidade) o pouco que puder ler 
e estudar, que saber tudo superficialmente! Mas a melhor opção é 
juntar o útil ao agradável: Saber com profundidade todos 
conteúdos de cada tema, no módulo. 
Dica importante: não recomendamos estudar seguidamente por 
tempo superior a uma hora. Estudar por tempo de uma hora 
intercalado por 10 (dez) a 15 (quinze) minutos de descanso 
(chama-se descanso à mudança de actividades). Ou seja que 
durante o intervalo não se continuar a tratar dos mesmos assuntos 
das actividades obrigatórias. 
Uma longa exposição aos estudos ou ao trabalho intelectual 
obrigatório, pode conduzir ao efeito contrário: baixar o rendimento 
da aprendizagem. Por que o estudante acumula um elevado 
volume de trabalho, em termos de estudos, em pouco tempo, 
criando interferência entre os conhecimentos, perde sequência 
lógica, por fim ao perceber que estuda tanto mas não aprende, cai 
em insegurança, depressão e desespero, por se achar injustamente 
incapaz! 
Não estude na última da hora; quando se trate de fazer alguma 
avaliação. Aprenda a ser estudante de facto (aquele que estuda 
 
sistematicamente), não estudar apenas para responder a questões 
de alguma avaliação, mas sim estude para a vida, sobre tudo, 
estude pensando na sua utilidade como futuro profissional, na área 
em que está a se formar. 
Organize na sua agenda um horário onde define a que horas e que 
matérias deve estudar durante a semana; Face ao tempo livre que 
resta, deve decidir como o utilizar produtivamente, decidindo 
quanto tempo será dedicado ao estudo e a outras actividades. 
É importante identificar as ideias principais de um texto, pois será 
uma necessidade para o estudo das diversas matérias que 
compõem o curso: A colocação de notas nas margens pode ajudar 
a estruturar a matéria de modo que seja mais fácil identificar as 
partes que está a estudar e Pode escrever conclusões, exemplos, 
vantagens, definições, datas, nomes, pode também utilizar a 
margem para colocar comentários seus relacionados com o que 
está a ler; a melhor altura para sublinhar é imediatamente a seguir 
à compreensão do texto e não depois de uma primeira leitura; 
Utilizar o dicionário sempre que surja um conceito cujo significado 
não conhece ou não lhe é familiar; 
Precisa de apoio? 
Caro estudante, temos a certeza que por uma ou por outra razão, o 
material de estudos impresso, lhe pode suscitar algumas dúvidas 
como falta de clareza, alguns erros de concordância, prováveis 
erros ortográficos, falta de clareza, fraca visibilidade, páginas 
trocadas ou invertidas, etc). Nestes casos, contacte os serviços de 
atendimento e apoio ao estudante do seu Centro de Recursos (CR), 
via telefone, sms, e-mail, se tiver tempo, escreva mesmo uma carta 
participando a preocupação. 
Uma das atribuições dos Gestores dos CR e seus assistentes 
(Pedagógico e Administrativo), é a de monitorar e garantir a sua 
aprendizagem com qualidade e sucesso. Dai a relevância da 
comunicação no Ensino a Distância (EAD), onde o recurso as TIC se 
torna incontornável: entre estudantes, estudante – Tutor, 
estudante – CR, etc. 
As sessões presenciais são um momento em que você caro 
estudante, tem a oportunidade de interagir fisicamente com staff 
do seu CR, com tutores ou com parte da equipa central do ISCED 
indigitada para acompanhar as sua sessões presenciais. Neste 
período pode apresentar dúvidas, tratar assuntos de natureza 
pedagógica e/ou administrativa. 
O estudo em grupo, que está estimado para ocupar cerca de 30% 
do tempo de estudos a distância, é muita importância, na medida 
em que permite lhe situar, em termos do grau de aprendizagem 
com relação aos outros colegas. Desta maneira ficará a saber se 
precisa de apoio ou precisa de apoiaraos colegas. Desenvolver 
hábito de debater assuntos relacionados com os conteúdos 
 
programáticos, constantes nos diferentes temas e unidade 
temática, no módulo. 
Tarefas (avaliação e auto-avaliação) 
O estudante deve realizar todas as tarefas (exercícios, actividades e 
autoavaliação), contudo nem todas deverão ser entregues, mas é 
importante que sejam realizadas. As tarefas devem ser entregues 
duas semanas antes das sessões presenciais seguintes. 
Para cada tarefa serão estabelecidos prazos de entrega, e o não 
cumprimento dos prazos de entrega, implica a não classificação do 
estudante. Tenha sempre presente que a nota dos trabalhos de 
campo conta e é decisiva para ser admitido ao exame final da 
disciplina/módulo. 
Os trabalhos devem ser entregues ao Centro de Recursos (CR) e os 
mesmos devem ser dirigidos ao tutor/docente. 
Podem ser utilizadas diferentes fontes e materiais de pesquisa, 
contudo os mesmos devem ser devidamente referenciados, 
respeitando os direitos do autor. 
O plágio1 é uma violação do direito intelectual do(s) autor(es). Uma 
transcrição à letra de mais de 8 (oito) palavras do texto de um 
autor, sem o citar é considerado plágio. A honestidade, humildade 
científica e o respeito pelos direitos autorais devem caracterizar a 
realização dos trabalhos e seu autor (estudante do ISCED). 
Avaliação 
Muitos perguntam: como é possível avaliar estudantes à distância, 
estando eles fisicamente separados e muito distantes do 
docente/tutor!? Nós dissemos: Sim é muito possível, talvez seja 
uma avaliação mais fiável e consistente. 
Você será avaliado durante os estudos à distância que contam com 
um mínimo de 90% do total de tempo que precisa de estudar os 
conteúdos do seu módulo. Quando o tempo de contacto presencial 
conta com um máximo de 10%) do total de tempo do módulo. A 
avaliação do estudante consta detalhada do regulamento de 
avaliação. 
Os trabalhos de campo por si realizados, durante estudos e 
aprendizagem no campo, pesam 25% e servem para a nota de 
frequência para ir aos exames. 
Os exames são realizados no final da cadeira disciplina ou modulo e 
decorrem durante as sessões presenciais. Os exames pesam no 
mínimo 75%, o que adicionado aos 25% da média de frequência, 
determinam a nota final com a qual o estudante conclui a cadeira. 
A nota de 10 (dez) valores é a nota mínima de conclusão da 
cadeira. 
Nesta cadeira o estudante deverá realizar pelo menos 2 (dois) 
trabalhos e 1 (um) (exame). 
 
1 Plágio - copiar ou assinar parcial ou totalmente uma obra literária, propriedade 
intelectual de outras pessoas, sem prévia autorização. 
 
Algumas actividades práticas, relatórios e reflexões serão utilizados 
como ferramentas de avaliação formativa. 
Durante a realização das avaliações, os estudantes devem ter em 
consideração a apresentação, a coerência textual, o grau de 
cientificidade, a forma de conclusão dos assuntos, as 
recomendações, a identificação das referências bibliográficas 
utilizadas, o respeito pelos direitos do autor, entre outros. 
Os objectivos e critérios de avaliação constam do Regulamento de 
Avaliação. 
 
 9
 
 
UNIT-1 
 
Present Simple and Present Continuous 
 
 
 
LESSONS-1/2 
Present simple and present continuous 
Tasks and exercises 
I 
Match activities with images: Example: 1. play piano = (c) 
 
1. play piano / 2. go to the movies / 3.listen to music / 4. cook / 5. read books 6. play 
guitar / 
 7. play computer games / 8. go dancing / 9. go bicycle riding 10. go for a walk / 
 11. run / 12 . play cards / 13. watch TV / 14. swim / 15. go fishing / 16. play 
basketball / 17. play piano / 18 . play chess : 
 
a) b) c) d) 
 
e) f) g) h) i) 
 
 10
 
 
k) l) m) n) 
 
o) p) q) r) s) 
 
 
 
II 
What do the following people like to do during their leisure time? 
Example: My uncle likes to play computer games. 
NOW YOU: 
1. I like to …….. 
2. My mother (or father) likes to…………. 
3. My best friend likes to …… 
4. My wife/husband (or companion) likes to ……. 
5. My brother likes to …… 
6. My sister likes to …… 
 
 
 11
Task three 
 
Ask 5 classmates what they like to do. Fill in the chart below: 
 
Example: 
 
Student Name 
Do you like to 
play 
basketball? 
Do you like to 
read books? 
Do you like to 
go for a walk? 
Do you like to 
go surfing? 
Do you like to 
play chess? 
Alison Yes No Yes Yes No 
Bruce No Yes No No Yes 
Kevin No Yes Yes Yes Yes 
Tammy Yes Yes Yes No Yes 
Tim No No Yes Yes No 
 
 
NOW YOU: 
Student Name Do you like to 
play computer 
games? 
Do you like to 
read books? 
Do you like to 
go dancing? 
Do you like to 
watch TV? 
Do you like to 
swim? 
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. etc 
 
 
 
 
 
LESSONS-3/4 
Adverbs Of Frequency 
 
Adverbs Of Frequency 
Adverbs of frequency tell how often or how frequently somebody does something. 
Study this: 
 
Amount Of Time 
 
 
Adverb 
100% Always 
80% Usually 
70% Often 
50% Sometimes 
30% Seldom 
10% Rarely 
0% Never 
Adverbs of frequency come between the subject and the verb: 
Subject + Adverb Of Frequency + Verb 
Oscar usually plays cards on Friday night. 
 
 
 12
Blanche always works in the garden on weekends. 
 
 
Tasks and exercises 
 
I 
Add the frequency adverbs to the sentences below. 
 
Example: (always) John always goes bicycle riding on his day off. 
 
1. (rarely) Henry ___________ plays guitar on Sunday morning. 
2. (never) Benjamin __________ collects stamps. 
3. (usually) Kim __________ knits when she has free time. 
4. (always) Barbara and Roger __________ play bingo on Saturday afternoon. 
5. (often) Patricia __________ makes scrapbooks on weekends. 
6. (sometimes) Barry __________ runs after work. 
7. (seldom) Mary __________ swims at the city pool. 
 
 
 
II 
Use the information between brackets to fill in the blank with the correct adverb. 
 
Example: (80%) Melanie _usually_ reads books during her leisure time. 
 
(100%) Leonard ___________ plays soccer on Saturday afternoon. 
(10%) Theresa __________ plays piano. 
(0%) Harry __________ plays basketball on Monday morning. 
(30%) Andrea __________ watches TV after work. 
(50%) Tom __________ goes rollerblading on his day off from work. 
(70%) Alice __________ swims in the pool at the gym. 
(80%) Sonya __________ listens to music when she has free time. 
 
III 
 
Read these dialogs. Practice these dialogs with a classmate. 
 
Dialog 1 
Mary: Billy, name something that you always do on Friday night. 
Billy: I always play cards on Friday night. 
Dialog 2 
Billy: Mary, name something that you never do on Saturday afternoon. 
Mary: I never go rollerblading on Saturday afternoon. 
Dialog 313
Mary: Billy, name something that you sometimes do on Sunday morning. 
Billy: I sometimes go fishing on Sunday morning. 
Dialog 4 
Robert: How often do you watch TV when you have free time? 
Greg: I usually watch TV when I have free time. 
Dialog 5 
Leslie: How often do you work in the garden on weekends? 
Audrey: I often work in the garden on weekends. 
Dialog 6 
Joan: How often do you go bungee jumping on you day off from work? 
Mark: I never go bungee jumping on my day off from work. 
Dialog 7 
Ben: How often do you cook? 
Harvey: I seldom cook. 
 
 
 
IV 
(Speaking) 
Answer these questions with a complete sentence that contains an adverb of frequency. 
 
Example: Name something that you always do on Saturday morning. > I always run on 
Saturday morning. NOW YOU /CHOOSE AT LEAST 10 OF THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES 
BELOW: 
 
Name something 
that you always do 
on Saturday 
morning. 
 
Name something 
that you usually do 
on Saturday 
afternoon. 
 
Name something 
that you often do 
on Saturday night. 
 
Name something 
that you 
sometimes do on 
Saturday morning. 
 
Name something 
that you seldom do 
on Saturday 
afternoon. 
Name something 
that you rarely do 
on Saturday night. 
Name something 
that you never do 
on Saturday 
morning. 
Name something 
that you rarely do 
on Saturday 
afternoon. 
Name something 
that you always do 
on Saturday night. 
Name something 
that you seldom do 
on Sunday 
morning. 
 
 
 
 
 LESSONS-5/6 
Present Progressive 
 
 The Present Progessive Tense, Information Questions, Short Answers 
 
 
 14
The present progressive is used to talk about what is happening right now. 
Subject + Be + Main Verb + ing 
She is pouring a cup of tea. 
She is drinking a cup of coffee. 
 
A sentence in the present progressive can begin with a contraction. 
 
Contraction Of Subject And Be + Main Verb + ing 
 
 She’s pouring a cup of tea. 
She’s drinking a cup of coffee. 
 
 
Tasks and exercises 
I 
(speaking) 
 
What’s she doing? What’s she doing? 
She’s pouring a cup of tea. She’s drinking a cup of coffee. 
Is she pouring a cup of tea? Is she drinking a cup of coffee? 
Yes, she is. Yes, she is. 
Is she drinking a cup of tea? Is she pouring a cup of coffee? 
No she isn’t. No, she isn’t. 
What’s she doing? What’s she doing? 
She’s pouring a cup of tea. She’s drinking a cup of coffee. 
 
 
Information questions in the present progressive begin with a question word. 
 
What + Be + Subject + Main Verb + ing? 
What is she doing? 
 
Sometimes information questions begin with a contraction. 
 
 
 15
Contraction of What And Be + Subject + Main Verb + ing? 
What’s she doing? 
 
Short Answer questions in the present progressive begin with Be. 
 
Be + Subject + Main Verb + ing 
Is she drinking a cup of tea? 
Are you pouring a cup of coffee? 
 
Short Answers contain the subject and Be. A negative short answer 
usually has a 
contra
ction. 
Yes/No + Subject + Be + (Not) No, + Subject + Contraction Of 
Be And 
 
Not 
Yes, she is. No, she isn’t. 
No, she is not. 
 
 
II 
(Speaking) 
 
 
What are you doing? 
I’m holding a cat. 
Are you holding Fred? 
Yes, I am. 
Is Fred a cat? 
Yes, he is. 
Are you holding a dog? 
No, I’m not. 
Is Fred a dog? 
No, he isn’t. 
 
 
 
 16
What is Fred doing? 
Fred is playing with a ribbon. 
Is he sleeping? 
No, he’s isn’t. 
Is he playing with a ribbon? 
Yes, he is. 
 
 
What’s he doing? 
He’s sleeping. 
Is he playing? 
No, he isn’t. 
Is he sleeping? 
Yes, he is. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
What are you doing? 
We’re taking pictures. 
Are you watching TV? 
No, we aren’t. 
Are you taking pictures? 
Yes, we are. 
 
 
 
 
 
Sometimes the main verb has a spelling change in the present progressive tense. 
Spelling Rules 
 
1. When a verb ends in a consonant and e, drop the e and add ing. 
 
take = taking dance = dancing ride = riding use = using drive = driving 
 
2. When a verb ends in one vowel and one consonant, double the consonant and add 
ing. 
 
run = running hug = hugging 
 
 
 17
But, there is an exception to this rule. When a verb ends in w, x, or y, do not double 
these consonants. 
 
play = playing fix = fixing sew = sewing 
 
 
3. When a verb ends in two consonants, do not double the consonant. 
drink = drinking hold = holding watch = watching fish = fishing 
jump = jumping talk = talking walk = walking 
4. When a verb ends in two vowels and one consonant, do not double the consonant. 
 
pour = pouring eat = eating feed = feeding sleep = 
sleeping cook = cooking read = reading 
 
III 
 
Match the expressions with the pictures: I 
Example: 1) they’re jumping in the pool = . picture j 
1. They’re jumping into the pool. / 2.He’s talking. / 3. He’s driving. / 4. They’re 
walking. 
5. He’s cooking. / 6. He’s reading. / 7. They’re walking. / 7. She’s sleeping. / 8. 
He’s sewing . / 9. They’re riding horses. / 10. They’re running. / 11. He’s using 
the computer. 
a) b) 
c) d) e) 
 
 18
f) g) h) 
 
i) j) 
k) 
 
IV 
Write questions for each of the images in the previous exercise. 
Example: 
Image a ) > What are they doing? 
 
1. 
Now answer your own questions with complete sentences. 
Example: They’re jumping into the pool. 
 
2. 
Answer the questions with complete sentences: 
Examples: Image a) Are they running? >> Yes, they are. 
 Image b) Are they eating? >> No, they aren’t. 
 
 19
a) b) 
c) d) e) 
 
 
 
 
Is he Playing the piano? Is she sleeping? Is he using the computer? 
f) g) h) 
 
Is he sewing? Is he fishing? Is he riding a 
bike? 
i) j) k) 
Are they walking? Are they dancing? Is he reading? 
 
 20
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LESSONS-7/8 
 Verb to Have 
 
 Talking About Health Problems 
 
 When someone has a health problem, the verb have is often used. 
 
 
 
 I have an allergy. 
You have an 
allergy. 
He has an allergy. 
She has an 
allergy. 
We have an allergy. 
All of you have an 
allergy. 
They have an allergy. 
 
 
 
Tasks and exercisesI 
Health Problems 
Write the health problems using the following expressions for each picture. 
earache / toothache / backache /stomachache / asthma / cold / cough / fever / 
headache 
/ sore throat (<they’re in a mixed order!) 
 
 
 
Example: a) She has a cold 
 
 21
 
 
 
a c) d) e) 
f) g) i) j) 
k) l) 
 
II 
 
 Fill in the blank with the correct form of have. 
1. I__________ a backache. 8. He __________ asthma. 
2. You __________ an earache. 9. You __________ a headache. 
3. She __________ a fever. 10. He __________ a sore throat. 
4. We __________ an allergy. 11. She __________ a burn. 
5. He __________ a cough. 12. I __________ a cold. 
6. They _________ a stomach ache. 13. They __________ chicken pox. 
7. We __________ a toothache. 
 
 
 
 
 
III 
 
 
 22
Read each sentence and review any vocabulary that you do not know. Then, fill in the 
blank with the correct form of have. 
1. His ear hurts. He __________ an earache. 
2. My tooth hurts. I__________ a toothache. 
3. Jill is short of breath. She __________ asthma. 
4. Your back hurts. You __________ a backache. 
5. Your throat hurts. You __________ a sore throat. 
6. Bill and Don ate too much food. They __________ a stomach ache. 
7. My nose is congested. I __________ a cold. 
8. Kelly and I __________ a temperature over 100F. We __________ a fever. 
9. I spilled hot water on my hand. I __________ a burn on my hand. 
10. Mary __________ red spots on her skin. She __________ chicken pox. 
11. Carl takes cough medicine. He __________ a cough. 
12. Erin’s head hurts. She __________ a headache. 
13. I sneeze when I am outside. I __________an allergy. 
LESSONS-9/10 
 Exercises-revision of the unit 
 
Simple Present and present progressiveTense 
Tasks and exercises 
1. Every 10 years, the U.S. Census (nscout) ___counts____ every resident in the 
United 
 
States. 
2. The federal government (ksema) _____________ political decisions. 
3. Richard (rdinsk) ___________ a large cup of coffee at work every morning. 
4. Cathy (si) ____________ a census taker. 
5. Census takers (od) ____________ many things. 
6. Each day, census takers (rnut ni) ____________ their completed work to the 
crew leader. 
7. He is now (wiknorg) ____________ at the U.S. Census office. 
8. A census taker (resdorc) _____________ the responses on paper. 
9. The U.S. Census Bureau (sha) _____________ many temporary job positions for 
census 
 
takers. 
10. A census taker (nocduts) _____________ interviews. 
 
 UNIT-2 Past Simple 
 
 
 
LESSONS-11/12 
 
 
 23
Irregular Past Tense Verbs 
And Question Formation In The Past Tense 
 
 Some English verbs have irregular past tense forms. For example, the past tense form of 
eat is ate. This is the past tense of is conjugation of eat: 
I ate 
You ate 
He ate 
She ate 
We ate 
They ate 
 
Example 
 
 Tim, Rita, and Karin ran the marathon yesterday. (from the verb “run”) 
 
The past tense forms of these verbs are irregular. 
 
bring –
brought 
 break - broke buy – bought catch – caught come – came do – did 
drink – drank drive - drove fly - flew get – got go – went have – had 
hear - heard meet - met pay -paid put – put ride - rode run - ran 
see – saw send - sent sleep – slept stand – stood think – 
thought 
write – wrote 
 
Tasks and 
exercises 
 
 
I 
Write the past tense form of the verb in the blank. 
 
Example: Melinda __came__ (come) home at 5:00 yesterday afternoon. 
1. Julianne _______________ (see) a movie Saturday afternoon. 
2. We _______________ (do) the laundry this morning. 
3. Mia _______________ (sleep) for 9 hours last night. 
4. Joe _______________ (eat) a hamburger for lunch. 
5. Mark _______________ (stand) in line at the post office for 30 minutes this morning. 
 
 24
6. Lisa _______________ (get) up at 7:30 this morning. 
7. Linda _______________ (write) in her journal every day last month. 
8. Barry _______________ (go) downtown last week. 
9. Nick _______________ (bring) his dictionary to class yesterday. 
10. Annette _______________ (have) supper at 6:00 yesterday. 
11. Marie _______________ (buy) new clothes last week. 
12. Josh _______________ (put) his coat in the closet. 
13. Frank _______________ (catch) a fish at the lake. 
14. Ben and Yolanda _______________ (think) about their family this morning. 
15. Charlie _______________ (run) a marathon in October. 
16. Harry _______________ (drink) 5 cups of coffee this morning. 
17. Stanley _______________ (drive) to the beach last summer. 
18. Deborah _______________ (ride) her bicycle in the park on Sunday. 
19. David _______________ (fly) to Chicago last week. 
20. Jordan ________________ (send) his mother a birthday present. 
21. We _______________ (hear) a baby cry this morning. 
22. I ________________ (pay) the rent on the first of May. 
23. I _______________ (break) my arm two years ago. 
24. She_______________(drink) tea this morning. 
25. Bill ________ (meet) his best friend at school. 
 
 
II. 
Write 6 sentences using the verbs in the right box; put them in the past tense! 
 Forms of Transportation 
bicycle boat bus car helicopter motorcycle 
pickup truck snowmobile sports car train jet 
ski 
 Verbs 
Drive fly 
ride take 
1. My brother …………………. a truck to …………………… last week. 
2. My sister ………………….. a motorcycle to ……………………. yesterday. 
3. My ………… ………………… helicopter to ……………………. ……………….. 
4. etc. etc. 
 
III 
 
Write a sentence in the past tense for each of the following pictures adding the word 
“yesterday”: 
(Choose from the following past tense forms: drove rode slept –these are in 
mixed order!) 
The policemen …..horses….. / My little My friend ………. a truck … 
 
 25
 
 
 
 
 
 
Lessons-13/14 
 
Irregular Past Tense Verbs And Question Formation In The Past Tense 
 
Questions In The Past Tense 
Questions about the past use a question word, the past tense of do (did), the subject, 
and the main verb. 
The answer uses the past tense of the main verb. 
 
When and What time ask for information about time. 
 
Question Word + Did + Subject + Main Verb 
When did Julianne see a movie? Julianne saw a movie Saturday afternoon. 
 
Question Word + Did + Subject + Main Verb 
What time did Lisa get up? Lisa got up at 7:30 this morning? 
 
Where asks for information about a place. 
 
Question Word + Did + Subject + Main Verb 
Wheredid Bill meet his best friend? Bill met his best friend at school. 
 
What asks for information about things. 
 
Question Word + Did + Subject + Main Verb 
 
 26
What did Joe eat for lunch? Joe ate a hamburger. 
 
Who asks about people. 
 
Question Word + Did + Subject + Main Verb 
Who did Bill meet at school? Bill met his best friend at school. 
 
Last is added to the question in order to ask about the most recent occasion that 
something happened. 
 
Question Word + Did + Subject + Last + Main Verb 
When did you last pay the rent? I paid the rent on the first of May. 
What time did you last see the doctor? I saw the doctor at 10:00 this morning. 
Where did you last go on vacation? I went to Spain. 
 
How many asks for a number. 
How many hours did you sleep last night? I slept 9 hours last night. 
 
How many cups of coffee did Harry drink this morning? 
Harry drank 5 cups of coffee this morning. 
 
 
Exercises and revision of the unit 
Tasks and exercises 
I 
 Fill in the blank with the correct form of the verb. 
Example #1: When did Julianne _see__ a movie? Example #2: When did you last write 
an e-mail? 
Julianne _saw_ a movie Saturday afternoon. I _wrote_ an e-mail this morning. 
1. When did you_______ the laundry? 17. When did you _______a baby cry? 
We________the laundry this morning? We_______a baby cry last night. 
2. How many minutes did Mark_______in line at the post office? 18. When did you last 
_______the rent? 
Mark________in line at the post office for 30 minutes this morning. I_______the rent 
on the first May. 
3. What time did Lisa_______up this morning? 19. When did you_______your arm? 
Lisa_______up at 7:30 this morning. I_______my arm two years ago. 
4. When did Barry_______go downtown? 20. Who did Bill_______at school? 
Barry_______downtown last week. Bill________his best friend at school. 
5. What did Nick________to class yesterday? 21. When did you last drink a Coca-Cola? 
Nick_______his dictionary to class yesterday. I________ a Coca-Cola yesterday. 
6. What time did Annette ___________ supper yesterday? 22. When did you last do the 
laundry? 
Annette __________ supper at 6:00 yesterday. I _______ the laundry on Tuesday. 
 
 27
7. When did Marie_______new clothes? 23. Where did you last stand in line? 
Marie_______new clothes last week. I_______in line at the grocery store. 
8. Where did Josh_______his coat? 24. Where did you go last weekend? 
Josh_______his coat in the closet. I________to the park. 
9. Where did Frank __________ a fish? 25. Where did you buy your shoes? 
Frank __________ a fish at the lake. I_______ my shoes at Macy’s. 
10. When did Ben and Yolanda______about their family? 26. When did you last drive a 
car? 
Ben and Yolanda __________ about their family this morning. I________a car this 
morning. 
11. When did Charlie __________ a marathon? 27. When did you last fly in an airplane? 
Charlie _______________ a marathon in October. I________in an airplane last year. 
12. How many cups of coffee did Harry __________ this morning? 28. When did you last 
hear a baby cry? 
Harry __________ 5 cups of coffee this morning. I_______ a baby cry this morning. 
13. When did Stanley ___________ to the beach? 29. Where did you last break a glass? 
Stanley __________ to the beach last summer. I_______a glass in the kitchen. 
14. Where did Deborah __________ her bicycle on Sunday? 30. Where did you put your 
wallet? 
Deborah __________ her bicycle in the park on Sunday. I_______my wallet in my 
pocket. 
15. When did David ___________ to Chicago? 31. How many e-mails did you send 
yesterday? 
David _______________ to Chicago last week. I_______6 e-mails yesterday. 
16. What did Jordan ___________ his mother? 32. When did you last catch a cold? 
Jordan ___________ his mother a birthday present. I _______ a cold 6 months ago. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Unit 3. The Past Perfect and past progressive 
 
 
Lessons-15/16 
 
 
 28
Grammar Structures: The past perfect 
O Past Perfect é formado pelo verbo auxiliar "have" no passado (had) e o Past Participle 
do verbo principal. 
Note que o Past Perfect deve estar sempre inserido em um contexto já no passado, ou 
sua utilização estará errada. 
The Past Perfect is quite simple and useful, we use it to show that one action in the past 
occurred before another action in the past. 
Use 
1. A completed action before another activity in the past 
2. a Third conditional sentences (see unit 5) 
b Reported speech (see unit 17) 
3. Dissatisfaction with the past 
 The Past Perfect is also used in a number of expressions like these: 
I wish / as if / though / if only 
 
I wish I hadn't gone there. 
John looked as if he had done something terrible. 
Form 
In positive sentences: 
Subject 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Past participle 
My train Had Left 
Examples: 
By the time I got to the station my train HAD left. (use 1) 
My mum asked me whether I had visited grandma the previous day. (Use 2b) 
By the time I got to the market, most of the stalls had already been closed. 
(Use 1) 
Use 3 is the so-called hypothetical past. We're talking about things that never 
happened. 
I wish I had fixed my umbrella. (but I didn't) 
If only I had known the answer to that question. (but I didn't) (Use 2a) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In questions: 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Subject 
+ 
Past participle 
had my train Left? 
Examples: 
Had he known some words before he started learning English? 
Had they had any pet before they bought the giraffe? 
 
 29
 
Common time expressions (time adverbials) in the Past Perfect: 
after, before, already, as soon as, just, yet, until, till, by the time that. 
 
In negative sentences: 
 
 
 
 
 
Tasks and exercises 
 
I. Put the verbs between brackets in the correct tenses: 
1. When we arrived, the concert __________________(already finish). 
2. It ______________(got) worse before it got better. 
3. By the time I watched my favorite program, I ________________(drink) a 
glass of beer. 
4. Mr.Johnson ___________ (read) the document carefully before he signed it. 
5. Before I was born, my grandfather __________ (go) to war. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Lessons-17/18 
 
 
 
 The past Perfect continuous 
 
The Past Perfect Continuous (Progressive) is very similar to the Past Perfect. However, 
while using this tense, we focus on the duration of an activity rather than the result of it. 
Use 
1. Duration of a past action up to a certain point in the past 
2. Third conditional sentences (a) and reported speech (b) 
 
Subject 
+ 
Auxiliary verb + not 
+ 
Past participle 
My train hadn't/ had not left. 
 
 30
 
 
Form 
In positive sentences: 
Subject 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Verb + ing 
I/a dog etc. Had been eating/swimming, etc. 
Examples: 
I had been running for an hour when it started raining. (Use 1) 
Mary said she had never been swimming so much in one day. (Use 2b) 
Kathy put on weight because she had been eating too much sugar (Use 1) 
When I saw him I knew that he had been training. (Use 1) 
 
In questions:Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Subject 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Verb + ing 
Had I/a dog etc. been eating/swimming, etc. 
Had Fred been painting the house for many hours when the ladder fell? (Use 1) 
How long had the player been playing before he scored? (Use 1) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In negative 
 
sentences: 
Subject 
+ 
Auxiliary verb + not 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Verb + ing 
I/a dog /Mary, etc. hadn't Been going/swimming, etc. 
He said he wasn't tired because he hadn't been preparing his car. (Use 2b) 
If it hadn't been raining, we would have played football. (Use 2a) 
Had I not been studying all night, I would have problems with this test now. (Use 2a) 
 
Exercise and revision of the unit 
Tasks and exercises 
I. 
Complete the gaps using the verbs between brackets (in the past perfect continuous 
tense): 
1. They ______________ (shout) for a few hours before their parent-arrived. 
2. They ______________ (eat noisily) for a few hours before their parents arrived 
 
 31
 
3.They ______________ (play music at full volume) for a few hours before 
their parents arrived. 
4. They ______________ (jump on their parents' bed) for a few hours before 
their parents arrived. 
5. They ______________ (try on Mary's clothes) for a few hours before their 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Unit 4. Modal Verbs 
 
 
 Lessons-19/20 
 
 
 
Reading 
At the Store 
"I'm going to the store." can have a variety of meanings in English because there are a 
wide variety of different stores. "Store" can be a Supermarket, a Convenience Store, a 
neighbourhood grocery store, a shoe store, a clothing store, a hardware store, a paint 
store, a book and magazine store, a butcher shop, a candy store, an automotive parts 
store, a toy store or a pet store. A store can be a tiny 2 m. by 3 m. Newspaper and 
magazine store or a huge "open 24 hours" Super Waymart as large as several football 
fields. 
"I'm going to the store." can mean you are going to buy a pack of cigarettes, a week's 
worth of groceries, a pair of shoes or a new television set. Sometimes it means that you 
are bored and just plan to "window shop" - walk along the street or walk up and down 
the aisles of a large store or mall looking at the merchandise on display. 
There are a few different ways to buy something from a store. You could pay for the 
items you want with cash - actual paper money and coins - or with a personal check. You 
could use a "charge card" issued by and only valid at specific stores - Sears, Penney's, 
Circuit City, Macy's, etc. - for which you receive a monthly bill showing all of your 
purchases during the previous month. You could pay for your items with a "debit card" - 
a plastic card that allows money in the amount of your purchase to be withdrawn from 
 
 32
your checking account. Finally, you could use a "credit card" such a VISA, Master Card, 
Discover or American Express, which is like a loan allowing you to purchase something 
now and pay for it later. Of course, if you cannot pay for it later, the credit card 
companies add large amounts of "interest" to the amount you owe so that the longer 
you take to pay, the greater the amount is that you have to pay. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Comprehension: 
Tasks and exercises 
 
I. 
Answer the following questions: 
1. What can the word “store” mean? Present synonyms. 
2. Mention a few ways in which you can pay when buying something. 
3. Which way do you prefer and why? 
 
Grammar Structures: MODALS 
Modals (can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would must) are verbs that are 
normally used together with one or more other verbs; never use ‘to’ between a modal 
and the following verb 
e.g. He can speak English. - Ele sabe falar inglês. 
(c.f. He likes to speak English. - Ele gosta de 
falar inglês.) 
Can I smoke here? - Posso fumar aqui? 
 (c.f. Do you want to smoke? - Você quer 
fumar? 
Note:"May", "might" e "must" são verbos, mas nunca terão sua forma alterada por 
conjugação. It is very important to study the use and meanings of the modals because 
they are used very frequently in English. Below is a list of the most important uses and 
meanings with examples: 
 a. can 
i. Ability: (=to be able) I can speak English - Eu consigo falar inglês. 
ii. Permission: Can I smoke here? - Posso fumar aqui? 
iii. Possibility: It can happen to anyone. - Isso pode acontecer com 
qualquer um. 
(See for Possibility also ‘may’ or ‘might’ .) 
b. could 
 
 33
i. Ability / Permission in the past: 
I couldn't speak English before going to England. -Eu não sabia falar 
inglês 
antes de ir para a Inglaterra. 
 I couldn't go. Não pude ir. 
You couldn't smoke in the presence of your parents at that time. Não se 
podia fumar na presença dos pais, 
naquela época. 
ii. Possibility in the present: We could send him a letter. 
iii. Unreal past ability or possibility: You could have called me. 
 Você poderia ter me ligado. 
iv. Polite request: Could you do me a favor? Você poderia me fazer um 
favor? 
c. may 
i. Permission: May smoke here? Posso fumar aqui? 
 Polite Request: May I have this dance? 
ii. Possibility: It may rain today. Pode ser que chova hoje. 
iii. To express a wish (um desejo): May all your dreams come true. - Que 
 todos seus sonhos se realizem. (This is quite formal 
English.) 
d. might 
(Remote) possibility: It might rain this weekend. É capaz de chover no próximo 
 fim de semana. 
 You might not like this film. 
e. will 
i. to express the future i.e. predictions of events or the weather: 
It will be rainy tomorrow. 
ii. to express personal intentions: 
 He will marry her after he has finished his studies. 
f. would 
Conditional sentences, i.e. in the main clause: 
I would buy a car, if I had enough money. 
g. shall 
suggestion or proposal (British English): 
Shall we go to the movies? Que tal, vamos ao cinema? 
(Note: Shall is only used in the interrogative and the first person singular ‘I’ or 
plural ‘we’). 
 
h. should /ought to 
advice: You should (ought to) study more. Você deveria estudar mais. 
 
i. must (past tense: ‘had to’) 
i. strong advice: You must stop drinking. 
 
 34
The windscreen is very dirty. You must clean it to drive 
safely. 
ii. personal obligation: I’m not feeling well. I must go and see a doctor. 
I must go to a bank today. I haven’t got any money. 
iii. prohibition (forbidden): You mustn't drive; you’ve been drinking. 
iv. inference, logical deduction: He has bought the Cardoso Hotel in 
Maputo. He must be very rich. 
j. have to 
i. External rule or obligation (generally considered as important or 
enforced by law) 
Our accountant says that we have to pay our tax monthly. 
I’ll be late for work tomorrow. I have to see a dentist. 
You have to pass a test before you can get a licence. 
ii. Manuel negative: don’t/doesn’t have = there is no need to 
I’m on holiday, so I don’t have to get up before 9. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Lessons-21/22 
 Exercises and Revision of the unit 
 
Tasks and exercises 
I. Underline all the modal verbs that you can find in the expressions below thatare commonly used in stores: 
1. How much does this cost?" 
2. "May I help you, Sir?" 
3. "May I help you, Ma'am" 
4. "No, thank you. I'm just looking." 
5. "Will that be cash or charge?" 
6. "Where are those jeans that were on 
sale?" 
17. "Do you have this blouse in a size 
16?" 
18. "Excuse me, do you work here?" 
19. "How fresh are these 
strawberries?" 
20. "Would you like to try those shoes 
in a larger size?" 
 
 35
7. "I'm sorry, but we're out of those. We 
have some very nice Wranglers, 
though." 
8. "What colour paint were you looking 
for, lady?" 
9. "Do you deliver?" 
10. "Would you like me to help you with 
that package, Ma'am?" 
11. "Where is the Electronics 
Department?" 
12. "Where can I find the children's 
clothing?" 
13. "Your ad showed some dresses on 
sale. Could you tell me where they 
are?" 
14. "When I got this CD player home, it 
wouldn't play." 
15. "Do you have your receipt?" 
16. "Will you take a personal check?" 
 
21. "Excuse me, Miss. Where can I 
find the cake mixes?" 
22. "Cake mixes are on the right at 
the far end of aisle five." 
23. "I'd like a chicken salad sandwich 
and a small Coke." 
24. "Are these the only colours you 
have?" 
25. "You can't take your packages 
into the dressing room, Ma'am." 
26. "Please don't squeeze the 
tomatoes." 
27. "How can I tell if these melons are 
ripe?" 
28. "I'm afraid we don't have that 
style in your size." 
29. "We sold out of that item. Would 
you like a rain check?" 
 
 
 
 
II. Translate the expressions below that have something to do with stores or 
shopping: 
credit card / salesperson / counter / display case / cash register / sale / credit / jewelry 
store / supermarket / receipt / Visa / mall / department store / discount store / barber 
shop / delivery / refund / discount 
 
III. Use each verb with a modal in a sentence that you make up: 
deliver / purchase / buy / charge / cash / accept / choose / select / borrow / try 
 
IV. Use modal verbs, either in the present or the past tense (affirmative or 
negative): 
1. Did you know that she …………… play the piano? 
2. Well, when I was young, I …………dance the tango, but I too old now. 
3. In this street you ……... park your car anywhere you like. 
4. She ………………. leave the airport in Harare because didn’t have a visa. 
5. Dercio didn’t pass his exam, so he …………. to do a re-sit. 
6. I ………… finish this work today or I’ll be fired tomorrow. 
7. Hurry up! We ……… be late for the meeting. 
8. If there is a fire in the building, you ……… use the lift. 
 
 36
9. ……………. you wait outside, please. 
10. …………….. you mind waiting a few minutes? 
11. ……………… I borrow your dictionary, please? 
12. You ………… stop contacting him! Can’t you see that he is abusing you? 
13. - I ………. get in. I have lost my key! – You …………… have bought a spare key when 
you still had the original. 
14. I’m not sure if I want to do the test now. I …………… do it next year after finishing 
my studies. 
15. I ………… join you; who knows. 
 
 
 
V. Use any of the modal verbs, either in the present or the past tense. 
1. Hey partner, next week we have a holiday; we ………………… plan a holiday trip to 
divert ourselves and refresh our minds. 
2. I’m not sure about our financial situation. ………… I go to the bank this afternoon 
and see how much we still have? 
3. O.K., meanwhile let’s decide about a few things. Where ………… we go and how 
……… we travel? - What about traveling abroad? 
4. I’m not too sure. South Africa is expensive. We …………. go to Zimbabwe, but isn’t 
it a bit unsafe there? 
5. Lake Niassa, perhaps ? I have always wanted to go there. I ………………. see it one 
day, before I am too old to travel. 
6. Too old! You ………………. be joking! You have still got a whole life before you. 
7. Don’t exaggerate. There are a lot of things I ………….do some 15 years ago, that I 
…………..do any longer these days. 
8. …………I ask you how old you are, actually? 
 
 
 
 
 
 Unit 5. Talking about the Future 
 
 
Lesson-23/24 
 
 The Future Tenses 
a. Present Progressive (plans :what somebody has already arranged or decided to 
do in the future:) 
 
Some examples: 
Are you doing anything this evening? 
I’m working on Thursday 
 
 37
We’re traveling along the Mozambican coast for two months. 
Our cousin is probably coming on Thursday. 
 
b. Be going to+ infinitive (plans and predictions) 
- PLANS 
e.g. I’m going to learn Chinese. 
What are you going to do next year? 
This is going to be our new office. 
 Is he going to be here today? 
- PREDICTIONS about (very) near and obvious future: 
e.g. It’s going to rain. 
The plan is going to crash. She’s going to have a baby. 
* Use Going to forms to express predictions based on observing the present situation. 
** Sometimes you may encounter the form gonna, which is a contraction of going to. 
Gonna is informal so should not be used in writing! 
 
c. Will 
I / you he etc. will (‘ll) go We / they will 
(‘ll) go 
I, you, etc. will not 
(won’t) go 
Will I / you, etc. go? 
e.g. I think Manchester will beat Liverpool 2 – 0. 
Something very strange will happen next Thursday. 
Tomorrow will be warm and sunny. 
If you don’t eat you’ll die. 
Use 
1. Promises (Use 1) 
2. Unplanned actions (spontaneous decisions) (Use 2) 
3. Predictions based on experience or intuition * (Use 3) 
 
 
Form 
In positive sentences: 
Subject 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Infinitive 
I/a dog etc. will go/take etc. 
 
CAUTION 
Remember, you should never use will to say what somebody has already arranged or 
decided to do in the future: 
 Mike is moving to New Jersey next month ( not "Mike will move") 
More 
I think he will regret his choice (Use 3) 
I will come back at 10 p.m. (Use 1) 
When I'm 60 years old, I will be totally bald (Use 3) 
I will go to Mary (Use 2 - the speaker decided to go to Mary in the moment of speaking.) 
Let's buy the snacks at the supermarket - they will be cheaper (Use 3) 
 
 38
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In questions: 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Subject 
+ 
Infinitive 
Will I/a dog etc. go/take etc. 
 
 
Will he be angry when he sees me? (Use 3). 
What do you think - will Mark arrive at 10 or 9? (Use 3) 
In negative sentences: 
Subject 
+ 
Auxiliary verb + not 
+ 
Infinitive 
I/a dog etc. will not/won't go/take etc. 
I won't take any equipment with me (Use 2). 
Mmmm... you know what? I won't be able to help you with your English today (Use 2) 
(The speaker didn't know you wouldn't be able to help his or her friend with English - 
that's why it's Use 2.) 
Remember 
We often use will with events that were in progress when another event happened. We 
often use when to link these two events: 
probably, most likely I'll probably drop in on uncle. 
I think This gift is great. I think we'll love it. 
I'm sure It's not going to be boring there. I'm sure there will be a lot of boys at your age. 
I wonder (if, what, when, 
etc.) It's a bit late. I wonder if he'll come. 
I expect I haven't seen Matthew today. I expect he'll call today. 
 
 
Lessons-25/26 
 
Summary: The three future forms (a, b, and c) 
PLANS PREDICTIONS 
We use both the Present 
Progressive or be goingto talk 
We use both be going to and will to predict (to 
say what we think or know will happen in the 
 
 39
about plans. We use the Present 
Progressive especially when we talk 
about times and places. 
Compare: 
future). We prefer going to when we can ‘see 
things coming’ – when it is very clear what is 
going to happen. 
Compare: 
I’m going to travel round the 
world. 
I’m traveling to France next week. 
Look! It’s going to rain. 
 
 
Exercises and revision of the unit 
Tasks and exercises 
I. Although will and going to may seem similar, in fact there's a world of 
difference between them. Will is used to express decisions (spontaneous), while going 
to - intentions. Complete the sentences using the verbs in the brackets: 
1. What ___________ (do) in the summer holidays? 
2. I ___________ (pass) my driving test at last. 
3. Oh, that's cool. I think __________ (go) to Chimoio to visit my grandparents. 
4. How long _________ (stay) there? 
5. Oh, I'm not sure. __________ (take;probably) at least a week. I _______ 
(visit;also) my uncle who lives nearby. 
6. And what __________(you;now;do)? 
7. ______________ (have, I) lunch in 30 minutes. 
8. Watch out! This car _____________ (explode) any minute. 
 
9. Can you remind me of my visit to the dentist tomorrow? _______ (I, forget, 
certainly) 
10. The bus is late. I have a feeling ___________ (not arrive) before 5 o'clock. 
11. Look at the engine! _______________ (never, we, repair) on time! 
12. Let's stop by the supermarket. _____________ (be, Coke, cheaper) 
13. Jane knows maths well. ___________ (help,she) you. 
 
II. Put the infinitives in the most correct future tenses: 
1. I think ……(there be) a lot of new investments in Sofala this year. 
2. They …….…(make a tour) around Africa from May to October. 
3. The weather forecast is that it ……… (rain) tomorrow. 
4. Careful, the baby ………(fall off) the table! 
5. He ………..(leave) for Durban at 8 tomorrow morning. 
6. I ………………..(borrow) some books from the library this afternoon. 
7. What ……… you (do) at the weekend? 
8. The provincial elections …………. (be) next year. 
9. My brother phoned me saying that he ……………… (visit) us later this year. 
 
 
 Unit 6. Talking about the Future - More Complex forms 
 
 
 40
 
 
 
Lessons-27/28 
 
 The Future Continuous (Progressive) 
 
We use the Future Continuous (Progressive) to indicate that we will be in the middle of 
doing something in a specified time in the future. 
Use 
1. Incomplete actions in the future 
Form 
In positive sentences: 
Subject 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Verb + ing 
I/you/we etc. Will be going/taking 
She will be having a bath when I'm back home. 
 
Tomorrow at nine, I will be hosing off (=washing with a hose) my car. 
 
I am going to (=will) be watching TV when my mother arrives. 
Tomorrow at this time, I will be getting bored at school! 
 
In questions: 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Subject 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Verb + ing 
will I/you/we etc. be going/taking 
Will she be cooking when we knock at the door? 
 
Will Mark be playing football at 6 p.m.? 
In negative sentences: 
Subject 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Verb + ing 
I/you/we etc. won't be going/taking 
We won't be having supper tomorrow before 8 o'clock. 
I won't be learning English tomorrow at this time because I'll be at disco. 
If you're here the first time, you might want to see a list of subjects that will make 
browsing this website more beneficial. 
 
2. We use the Future Perfect to express an action that will be finished before some 
point in the future. 
Use 
 Actions that will be finished before some point in the future 
Common time expressions used in the Future Perfect: 
 Before 
 By tomorrow/7 o'clock/next month 
 
 41
 Until/till 
Form 
In positive sentences: 
Subject 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Past participle 
I/a dog etc. Will have gone, seen, etc. 
They will have graduated from Cambridge by July 2009. 
I will have retired by the end of the year. 
I read 40 pages a day. If I keep up the pace, I will have read the book by Tuesday. 
In negative sentences: 
Subject 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Past participle 
I/a dog etc. won't have gone, seen, etc. 
They won't (will + not) have graduated from from Cambridge by July 2009. 
I won't have retired by the end of the year. 
In questions: 
 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Subject 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
+ 
Past participle 
Will I/a dog etc. have gone, seen, etc. 
Will they have graduated from Cambridge by July 2009? 
Will I have retired by the end of the year? 
 
 
 
 
 
Tasks and exercises 
I. Decide which form of “will” is the most suitable for the following sentences 
(a)will + infinitive, (b)will + be …ing, (c) will + have + past participle: 
 
1. I read 40 pages a day. If I keep up the pace, 
 I _________(read) the book by Tuesday. 
2. I think he _______(regret) his choice. 
3. _________________ she ______________(cook) when we knock at the door? 
4. I ___________________ (watch) TV when my mother arrives. 
5. You might want to see a list of subjects that ______________ (make) browsing 
this website more beneficial. 
6. I _______________(come) back at 10 p.m. 
7. When I'm 60 years old, I _______________(be) totally bold. 
8. I _______________(go) to Mary. 
9. I ________________ (retire) by the end of the year. 
10. Let's buy the snacks at the supermarket - they _______________(be) cheaper. 
11. _________________ he (be) angry when he sees me? 
12. What do you think - ________________ Mark (arrive) at 10 or 9? 
 
 42
13. She _________________ (have) a bath when I'm back home. 
14. Tomorrow at nine, I _________________ (hose off) (=wash with a hose) my car. 
15. Tomorrow at this time, I ______________ (get) bored at school! 
16. _____________ Mark ___________(play) football at 6 p.m.? 
17. We __________________ not (have) supper tomorrow before 8 o'clock. 
18. I ______________ be (learn) English tomorrow at this time because I'll be at the 
disco. 
19. _______________they(graduate) from Cambridge by July 2009? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Unit 7. Conditional Sentences 
 
 
Lesson-29/30 
 
Conditional Sentences 
Grammar Structures: 
Usamos os conditionals quando queremos dizer que uma coisa irá acontecer em função 
de outra, ou seja, quando se estabelece uma condição para que certas situações 
ocorram. 
 
Ex: If I have time, I will go. = Se eu tiver tempo, eu irei. 
 
O primeiro passo para conhecermos essas estruturas é saber distinguir as condições 
reais das irreais. Real conditionals são aquelas situações reais, enquanto as unreal 
conditionals são situações supostas e hipotéticas. Outro factor que facilita o 
entendimento é que quando se vem primeiramente a condição, depois vem o resultado, 
e vice-versa. 
 
Ex: If I have time (condição), I will go. (resultado) = Se eu tiver tempo, eu irei. 
I will go (resultado) if I have time. (condição) = Eu irei se tiver tempo. 
 
a. Real conditionals 
 Form 
main clause: (subject) will+infinitive…// condition: if +(subj.) present tense:43
- I willl go if you invite me.- Irei se me convidares. 
 Note: the condition can come first: If you invite me I will go. 
- If it doesn't rain, we willl go to the beach. - Iremos à praia se não chover. 
Use 
We use the First Conditional to talk about a future situation that is possible. 
The verb in the if-clause is in the present tense; the verb in the main clause is in the 
future simple. It doesn't matter which comes first. There is usually a comma between 
the two clauses. (Utilizados para expressar condições no presente, com resultados no 
presente ou no futuro.) 
Possible variations of the basic form: 
if + present + may (permission) or can (permission or ability) 
If your documents are in order, you may/can leave at once. (permission) 
If it stops raining, we can go out. (permission or ability) 
 
 
b. Instructions / General facts 
Form 
main clause: (subject) present tense…// condition: if +(subj.) present tense: 
 
- If you want to look slim, eat less meat." 
- If you heat ice, it melts." (will melt is also possible) 
- If there is a shortage of any product, prices of that product go up. 
Use 
if + two present tenses is used to express automatic or habitual results: 
Possible variations of the basic form: 
if + present + must, should or any expression of command, request or advice 
 - If you want to look slim, you must/should eat less meat. 
- If you want to look slim, you had better eat less meat. 
 
c. Unreal conditionals 
Form 
main clause: (subj.) would+ infinitive….. // condition: if + (subj.) past tense 
- I would give you a nice present if I had money. - Eu te daria um bom presente 
se tivesse dinheiro. 
- If I were you, I wouldn't buy a new car. - Eu não compraria um carro novo se 
fosse você. 
Use 
When we don't expect the action in the if-clause to happen: The time is present but the 
condition cannot be fulfilled because the action in the if-clause will not happen. 
 
 44
Possible variations of the basic form: 
Variations of the main clause might or could may be used instead of would: 
- If you tried again, you would succeed." (certain result) 
- If you tried again, you might succeed." (possible result) 
- If I knew her number, I could ring her up." (ability) 
- If he had a permit, he could get a job." (ability or permission) 
- If man and woman were machines, how easy would they be to operate? 
 
 
d. Past conditionals 
Form 
main clause: (subj.)would have +past participle…. // condition: if (subj.) past perfect 
tense: 
- I would have gone if you had invited me. - Eu teria ido se tivesses me 
convidado. 
- If you had studied harder, you would have passed the exam. - Terias passado 
no exame se tivesses estudado mais. 
Use 
The time is past and the condition cannot be fulfilled because the action in the if-clause 
didn't happen. 
Possible variations of the basic form: 
1. could or might may be used instead of would: 
- If the rescue crew had found him earlier they could have saved his life. (ability)- 
If the rescue crew had found him earlier they might have saved his life. (possibility) 
- If we had the necessary documents, we could have left at once. (ability or 
permission) 
 
 
 
 
 
Lessons-31/32 
reading 
If The Earth was A Village! 
If we could shrink the earth's population to a village of precisely 100 people, with all the 
existing human ratio remaining the same, it would look something like the following: 
 
 45
There would be: 
 57 Asians 
 21 Europeans 
 14 from the Western Hemisphere, both north and south 
 8 Africans 
 52 would be female 
 48 would be male 
 70 would be non-white 
 30 would be white 
 70 would be non-Christian 
 30 would be Christian 
 89 would be heterosexual 
 11 would be homosexual 
 6 people would possess 59% of the entire world's wealth and all 6 would 
be from the United States. 
 80 would live in substandard housing 
 70 would be unable to read 
 50 would suffer from malnutrition 
 1 would be near death 
 1 would be near birth 
 1 (yes, only 1) would have a college education 
 1 would own a computer 
When one considers our world from such a compressed perspective, the need for 
acceptance, understanding and education becomes glaringly apparent. 
The following is also something to ponder... 
If you woke up this morning with more health than illness...you are more blessed than 
many others. If you have never experienced the danger of battle, the loneliness of 
imprisonment, the agony of torture, or the pangs of starvation...you are ahead of 500 
million people in the world. 
If you can attend a church meeting without fear of harassment, arrest, torture, or 
death...you are more blessed than three billion people in the world. 
If you have food in the refrigerator, clothes on your back, a roof overhead and a place to 
sleep...you are richer than 75% of this world. 
If you have money in the bank, in your wallet, and spare change in a dish someplace ... 
you are among the top 8% of the world's wealthy. 
If your parents are still alive and still married ... you are very rare, even in the United 
States and Canada. 
If you can read this message, you are more blessed than over two billion people in the 
world that cannot read at all. 
 
Exercises and revision of the unit 
Tasks and exercises 
I. 
Decide for the conditional sentences in the above text which type they are (a, b , c or d) 
 
 46
 
II. 
Which two or three “facts” above did you find most surprising and why? 
 
III. 
Match the halves and also put the predicates in the right tenses: 
1. If you dial a free phone number a. you ………………(renew) it. 
2. If you type the wrong password b. it …………… (not cost) you anything. 
3. If the subscription expires c. tell her I …………… (call) her next week. 
4. If the weather is bad d. access ………………(be) denied. 
5. If you see Joanna e. the ferry ………… (not sail). 
 
 
IV. Match the Portuguese translations with their English counterparts and then 
indicate for each pair which type of conditional they are: 
1. Se eu tiver tempo, eu irei. a. If I don’t have to go to school, I will go to 
your home 
2. Se tiver dinheiro, eu comprarei 
este livro. 
b. If I had the chance, I would study in 
Harvard. 
3. Se não tiver que ir pra escola, eu 
irei para sua casa 
c. If I had studied more, I would have passed. 
4. Se eu tivesse oportunidade, eu 
estudaria em Harvard. 
d. If I have time, I will go. 
5. Se eu tivesse estudado mais, eu 
teria passado. 
e. If I have money, I will buy this book. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
V. Form complete conditional sentences by putting the infinitives between brackets in 
the correct tense; add ‘will’ or ‘would’ where needed : 
1. If he drives fast, he ………… (get) there in time. 
2. That dog will bite you, if you ……… (enter that gate. 
3. If you had done what we told you, this ………… (not happen). 
4. If we reduced the price we ………………… (sell) more bikes. 
5. If he didn’t lock his car, somebody ………….. (steal) it. 
6. If you have the right qualifications, they ………(offer) you a job. 
 
 47
7. They are going to give me a desk job. I would be much happier, if they 
………..(offer) me an ambulant post. 
8. If you asked them for that type of job, you ………. (get) it, Ithink. 
9. It is too late now. They would have considered giving me that position of sales 
representative, if I ………… (apply) for it earlier. 
10. If we had known that you were coming, we ……….… (prepare) an extra bedroom. 
 
VI. 
Put the predicates of both clauses in the right forms: 
1. If I …………… (buy) a house now, I ……………. (save) money in the long term. 
2. You …………… (arrive) later, if you ………………..(go) by train. 
3. We can’t accept your offer but we ……..… (accept) it, if you ………....(reduce) your 
price. 
4. I don’t know what I …………. (do) if they …………….. (cancel) the flight, but it still 
seems we are flying this afternoon. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Unit 8. . Basic Points about the Organization of Written Texts 
 
Lessons-33/34 
 
 
 Basic Points about the Organization of Written Texts 
Reading 
a. The Organisation of a text in paragraphs 
A text is divided into paragraphs to show the reader the steps in the argument. Usually 
each paragraph contains one topic defined at the beginning of the paragraph by a topic 
sentence. The division into paragraphs should be clearly observable by the layout , or 
visual arrangement of the words and lines of your text: each paragraph begins on a new 
line by indenting (leaving space open at the beginning of the line of about five letters). 
 
 
 48
b. The topic sentence 
The information contained within a paragraph is based on the topic sentence of a 
paragraph. The topic sentence is generally the first sentence and expresses the main 
idea to be developed within the paragraph. Every sentence following the topic sentence 
should be directly related to the topic sentence and not give distracting information. 
 A very common pattern in paragraphs is that the topic sentence is first followed 
by a major supporting point and then by one or a number of minor supporting points or 
examples. This type of paragraph is illustrated below: 
 
1 .Topic sentence: 
2.Major supporting 
point: 
 
3.Minor supporting 
points: 
(1)Computers are amazing machines and they seem to be able to 
do anything. (2)They execute tasks with enormous precision and 
can relieve us from many boring tasks. Companies can no longer 
be run without them. (3) For example, computers fly aircraft and 
spaceships, and control power stations and hazardous 
chemical plants. They serve lawyers and judges who seek 
evidence for trials and help scientists in informing immensely 
complicated mathematical computations. 
 
 
 
c. Links Between Paragraphs 
Like sentences, paragraphs rarely occur in isolation. They are parts of larger unit. Each 
paragraph usually ends with a sentence that paraphrases the main idea of the 
paragraph. This sentence also often leads the reader on to the next paragraph. 
 
I. Tasks and exercises 
 
The text below contains 6 short paragraphs. The topic sentences of the 6 paragraphs 
have been left out and listed below the text in a mixed order. Indicate which topic 
sentence fits in which gap by putting the numbers of these topic sentences in the gaps: 
 
 [Topic sentence number_____] …… This has become a very urgent matter since, as 
we all know, cars are one of the major sources of air pollution: the gases produced by 
the internal combustion engine leaving the car through the exhaust pipe are toxic and 
anywhere where people live on this earth we can find thousands or even millions of 
cars producing toxic gases 24 hours a day, year after year. We can mention five 
possibilities to reduce this air pollution: 
 [Topic sentence number_____] … For example, we can put higher taxes on petrol 
and on cars themselves, especially the larger ones that use a lot of petrol. 
 [Topic sentence number_____] …… For instance, we can make train and bus 
services cheaper and more convenient. And we can build a mass transit system in large 
cities, particularly an underground railway system, such as in London, New York, 
Moscow and Tokyo. 
 
 49
 [Topic sentence number_____] ……… Possibilities include natural gas, fuel cells, 
i.e. batteries and liquid hydrogen. 
 [Topic sentence number_____] ………… There are several possibilities being 
researched at present, such as electric, gas turbine and steam engines. However, each 
of these engine designs has its own disadvantages. 
 [Topic sentence number_____] ………………This, for example, can be done with a 
catalytic converter. It converts the most dangerous ingredients of the exhaust into 
harmless gases and water. The catalyst removes the oxygen from the nitrogen oxide and 
combines it with unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. The end products are 
water, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, all relatively harmless. 
 
 
 
Choose from the topic sentences below and fill in their numbers in the right 
gaps above: 
1. We can use a cleaner and different fuel for the internal combustion engine. 
2. Let’s focus our attention on the ways of controlling or reducing the amount of air 
pollution caused by the car. 
3. We are trying to control the emissions from the internal combustion engine 
much more strictly. 
4. We can encourage alternatives methods of transport, both between and within 
urban areas. 
5. We can discourage the use of cars. 
6. We can replace the present internal combustion engine with other designs. 
 
 
Lessons-35/36 
Tasks and exercises 
 
I-Form complete conditional sentences by putting the infinitives between 
brackets in the correct tense; add ‘will’ or ‘would’ where needed : 
11. If he drives fast, he …………………………………………………………………. (get) there in time. 
12. That dog will bite you, if you …………………………………………………. (enter) that gate. 
13. If you had done what we told you, this ……………………………………………………… (not 
happen). 
14. If we reduced the price we …………………………………………………………………… (sell) more 
bikes. 
15. If he didn’t lock his car, somebody ……………………………………………………… (steal) it. 
16. If you have the right qualifications, they ………………………………………………(offer) you 
a job. 
17. They are going to give me a desk job. I would be much happier, if they 
………..(offer) me an ambulant post. 
18. If you asked them for that type of job, you ……………………………………… (get) it, I 
think. 
 
 50
19. It is too late now. They would have considered giving me that position of sales 
representative, if I ………… (apply) for it earlier. 
20. If we had known that you were coming, we ……….……….. (prepare) an extra 
bedroom 
 
 
 
II. Read the following text and then decide where you would put the sub-headings 
(in the box) to reinforce paragraph divisions: 
 “Reasons for Optimism” / “For some, Optimism is too Early” / “South Africa the 
Exception” / “ Growth Rates” / “Africa's Insulated Economies less likely to Suffer” 
AFRICA AND THE CREDIT CRISIS 
……………………………………………………… 
Is the credit crisis about to send Africa into yet another downward spiral? Perhaps not. 
In fact it is possible that the continent could fare better than the rest of the world. This 
is at least in part because most African economies have been so marginal to the 
international economic system that they have been less affected than other regions of 
the globe. Davinder Sikand, managing partner for the Aureos Africa Fund, which has 
$400m (£236m) invested in the continent, says that Africa's banks have been so 
conservatively managed that they have almost no exposure to the sub-prime market 
that has caused such havoc elsewhere in the world. "Most of our financialinstitutions 
are not directly impacted," he says. "Many countries have regulations which prevented 
them from investing in the so-called 'toxic' financial products." The International 
Monetary Fund (IMF) takes a similar view and says there is no systemic risk to any 
African country in terms of banking. 
…………………………………………………… 
But if most African states have been relatively insulated from the credit crunch, the 
same cannot be said of the most developed economy on the continent - South Africa. 
South Africa is affected in at least two ways: Firstly, the rand has been severely hit, 
experiencing record falls as international investors claw back their money to meet more 
urgent needs at home. South Africa has run a sizeable balance of payments deficit in 
recent years, financed by foreign investment and this has been flowing out of the 
country. Besides, unlike many other African countries, South Africa has relied on raising 
large sums on international markets. The state's electricity supply company, Eskom, 
needs to raise more than $30bn (£17bn) over the next five years, but had to delay 
issuing bonds in the current market conditions. 
…………………………………………………………… 
But the rest of Africa does not get off scot free. If the world goes into a slump, demand 
for Africa's commodities will fall, taking export earnings with them. Oil prices have 
halved from $147 (£87) a barrel to $70 (£41). Although this will hit countries like Angola, 
Chad, Nigeria, and Sudan, most based their budgets on conservative oil prices and will 
not be too severely affected. Nigeria's budget - for example - is based on a benchmark 
price of $62.50 (£37) a barrel. Copper has also fallen, which will have a substantial effect 
on Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. But these are likely to be short-term 
 
 51
effects, as China has an almost insatiable appetite for minerals. It is likely to dent growth 
rates, which have averaged around 5% a year over the last 10 years. Before this 
autumn's financial meltdown, the IMF was predicting growth of 6.6% this year; now it is 
predicting a 3% growth. Mr Sikand agrees. "There is likely to be a slowdown in African 
economies, but instead of talking about a 6% or 7% growth rate, you are talking about 
3%, 4% or 5% growth." 
…………………………………………………………… 
Economists believe Africa's growth is more solidly based than it has been in previous 
years. And it is not just the obvious oil-producing countries that have been benefiting. 
Countries like Botswana, Ghana, Mozambique, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia have all 
done well in recent years. So what has really improved Africa's economic prospects? 
Major injections of foreign aid have helped, as have the billions sent back in 
remittances. But probably the most important factor has been the improvement in 
economic management. Razia Khan heads Standard Chartered Bank's African research 
effort. "In recent year's we've seen improved macro-economic management; bringing 
budget deficits down, not having high rates of inflation, bringing interest rates down," 
says Ms Khan. "This has helped change the prospects in Africa." Once the dust settles 
from the current credit crisis, the prospects for African growth look distinctly promising. 
It may just be that it can - at last - shrug off its label once given it by the Economist 
magazine as "the hopeless continent". 
…………………………………………………………………… 
But if the future looks brighter in some countries, the same cannot be said right across 
the continent. Africa still has its fair share of instability. There is Sudan's western region 
of Darfur, Somalia and eastern DR Congo for a start - and that is before anyone 
mentions Zimbabwe. Farouk Soussa deals with Africa for the international credit rating 
agency, Standard and Poor's. For someone like him - advising international investor son 
whether to put their cash into African projects - risk is a constant headache. "If you are a 
direct investor, and you are going to buy up a company, then political risk affects your 
every waking hour - from corruption, to changes in rules, to violence and crime," he 
says. 
By Martin Plaut(www.bbcworldservice.co.uk:15/11/2008) “Is the credit crisis 
about to send Africa into yet another downward spiral?” 
 
 
 
Lessons-37/38 
 
Coherence 
 
The sentences within a paragraph need to be connected to each other in such a way 
that they form a unified whole, i.e. they must be coherent. A writer should examine 
every sentence in relation to the others, checking whether each sentence follows 
logically from the preceding sentence and leads logically to the next one. 
 
 52
The coherence of paragraphs is also increased by the correct use of: vocabulary, 
reference words and connecting words or conjunctions. 
 
a. Choice of Vocabulary 
Coherence can be established by the choice of words in a paragraph, for instance 
by the use of repetition of key words, or by using words that belong to the same 
word families. 
For example, in the following passage, of which the topic is ‘how to speak English 
fluently’, all the underlined words are related to the idea of language learning: 
The student has probably got difficulty in speaking English fluently. He has 
the ideas, he knows what to say in his own language, but he doesn’t know how 
to say it in English. The advice here will seem difficult to follow, but it’s 
necessary. Firstly he must simplify his language so that he can express himself 
reasonably clearly. For example short sentences will be better than long ones. 
Secondly, he must try to think in English, not translate from his mother tongue. 
This will only begin to take place when his use of English becomes automatic. 
Using a language laboratory and listening to as much English as possible will 
help. In general, he should practise speaking as much as possible. 
b. Reference words 
Examples of reference words are: the / it / these / she etc..(articles and 
pronouns). 
In the previous passage the reference words that form coherence (presented in 
bold print) are: 
‘he’ ‘his’ ‘himself’ (referring back to the student) 
‘it’ (referring back to ‘ideas’) 
‘ones’ (referring back to ‘sentences 
‘this’ (referring to ‘thinking in English’) 
c. Connecting words or conjunctions 
Good paragraphs construction depends mainly on using appropriate connecting 
expressions or conjunctions. This means making each of the parts of the paragraph – the 
sentences – fit together properly. The sort of connecting words you need depends on 
the logical relationships given in a specific passage or paragraph. 
 
 
 
Grammar Structures: conjunctions 
Here follow some basic paragraph structures: 
i) reasons for a point of view 
ii) causes and consequences 
 
 53
iii) comparison or contrast 
iv) steps in a process or enumeration 
v) a description of a person, object or machine, etc. 
 
Some of the connecting words useful for these various thought processes are: 
 
 
Contrast But (mas) / however (no entanto, contudo, embora) / 
nevertheless (todavia) / on the other hand (por outro lado) / 
nevertheless , and yet (mesmo assim) / in contrast, on the 
contrary , while (enquanto)/ 
Comparison Likewise, similarly (assim) 
Concession Although (embora), though (embora), even though (mesmo 
que), despite (apesar de) 
Cause As (como) / because (porque) / since (uma vez que, já que) 
Addition and / besides (além de)/ furthermore (além do mais) / in 
addition (além disso) / moreover (além do mais, além disso) / 
also (também), 
Examples For example / for instance / in other words / in this case / in 
particular / specifically 
Conclusion Consequently (consequentemente) / hence , as a result (por 
essa razão), so (então, portanto) / then (então) / therefore 
(consequentemente) / thus (por essa razão) / aaccordingly , in 
brief, in short, in conclusion, on the whole, to sum up (em 
conclusão) 
Enumeration 
and time 
relationships 
first (of all), second(ly), then, next, finally 
when / while / meanwhile /as soon as / at the same time / as 
long as / after 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Note the difference between coordinating and subordinating conjunctions: 
- Coordinating conjunctions (logical): and, or, but 
 (correlative): both … and / either… or / neither … 
nor » 
They studied a lot and passed the exam. 
I went swimming. It was cold. I went swimming in spite of the cold 
weather. Although it was cold, I went 
swimming. 
Many people watch TV. I don't like to 
waste my time watching television. 
The quality of the programs is very 
poor. I'm going to read books. I'm 
not going to watch soap operas 
Although many people watch TV, I don't 
like to waste my time watching 
television because the quality of the 
programs is very poor. Therefore I'm 
going to read books instead of watching 
soap operas. 
 
 54
They studied a lot but failed the exam. // They both studied and cheated a lot so passed 
the exam. 
 
- Subordinating Conjunctions (all the other conjunctions) are followed by dependent 
sub-clauses.» 
They did not study a lot so (therefore) they failed the exam. 
He was talking to his wife on his cell-phone while driving his girlfriend home. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Lessons-39/40 
 
Tasks and exercises 
Reading 
I. 
The coherence of a text is clear, in the first place, by the repetition of key words. Decide 
what the main theme(s) of the following text is (are) and consequently list the words 
that are related to the main theme(s) (=key words): 
 
Women are getting married much earlier these days, at least some women. A 
recent raid on a spin-off Mormon sect in Texas was triggered by a 15-year-old girl 
notifying authorities that she had had a baby, and was presumably married when she 
conceived that baby. Oddly enough, we are more shocked that this young girl might be 
married, than by the fact that she has a baby. No surprise. Teen pregnancy is not exactly 
a new, or hidden, phenomenon; Jamie Lynn Spears, age 16, the latest poster child for 
unmarried teen pregnancy has been gracing all the tabloid magazines at the grocery 
store for months. We also know full well that as soon as girls reach reproductive 
maturity, signaled by the onset of menstruation which occurs any time between ages 11 
and 16, they can have sex and babies. But still, we are shocked by the teen wife and 
assume that sex at this age must be abuse. 
As a mother, and an anthropologist, I have conflicting feeling about this issue. If 
any man or boy so much as touched my young daughter, I would kill him. I know the 
damage such attention causes, how it scars an underage boy or girl for life. And if she 
went into such a relationship willingly, I would be stunned, baffled, and wonder what 
 
 55
was missing in my parenting to push her into sexual adulthood, or marriage, way before 
her time. 
But as an anthropologist, I also know that the age at which girls are ready for 
marriage is culturally constructed. In Western culture, we think that marriage is only 
appropriate for 20-year-olds, not teens, and that has been true for more than a hundred 
years. But with the introduction of the birth control pill, the feminist revolution and 
economic independence for women, the age at first marriage has risen sharply. In 1860, 
the median age for marriage in America was 22 for women, and now it's 26. As those 
numbers show, there simply is no connection between reproductive maturity and the 
accepted age of marriage for girls in Western culture; the median wait between first 
period and marriage is eight years. But in other cultures, that connection is much more 
explicit — the median wait is three years. 
More interesting, there is wild variation in what girls are allowed to do during 
those three years. For example, the Trobriand Islanders of Melanesia encourage girls to 
engage in premarital sex as a way to find a good match. The Efe of Zaire let girls have 
several trial marriages (which means, of course, sex with different men or boys), before 
they settle down. Other cultures marry off their girls at first period, or before, to 
eliminate the possibility of premarital relations, while some cultures strictly forbid any 
male contact until marriage and keep their girls under lock and key. 
These social rules are based on how each culture thinks about women as the 
instruments of passing on genes; controlling female sexuality is controlling female 
reproduction. Underneath it all, worry over the passing on genes, worry that a man 
might be cuckolded into caring for another man's child, worry about how much females 
like sex and what they might do with their desires, directs cultural norms. And maybe 
that's why marriage at a young age bothers us so much in Western culture. We 
appropriately worry that these girls are unprotected, abused, forced into passing on 
genes with some disgusting guy who doesn't have her best interests in mind. We know 
the cultural norm — marriage at 26 — and know it's there for a reason. When that age-
specific norm is violated, we all stand up and take notice because our girls are in trouble 
and it's our job, as a culture, to step in and enforce the rules we have all agreed upon, 
and for culturally constructed good reasons. 
By Meredith F. Small on the Internet as “The Shocking Truth About Married Girls” 
Tasks and exercises 
 
I. 
Now, put a circle around the words of the last paragraph that are defined as reference 
words in this unit (section b.) 
 
III. Finally, underline the connective expressions of the text above and decide to 
which types of conjunctions they belong; (see diagram of section c on pp. 16 & 17). 
 
IV. What is your opinion about girls having sex at an early (what is “early”?) age 
and what do you think is the best age for getting married 
 
 56
 
 
 
 
 
 Unit 9. Relative Sub Clauses 
 
Lessons-41/42 
RELATIVE PRONOUNS 
Os relative pronouns são aqueles pronomes usados quando queremos identificar 
alguém ou obter maiores informações sobre alguma coisa. São palavras referidas 
a termos que já foram mencionados anteriormente na oração. 
 
1. Who (que): É usado quando queremos nos referir a um sujeito (pessoas). 
Ex: The man who lives on your floor wants to talk to you = O homem que 
mora no seu andar quer falar com você. 
2. Whom (que, quem): Semelhante ao “who”, contudo é utilizado para se referir 
ao objeto direto (pessoas) ou como complemento de uma preposição. 
Ex: The policeman whom Robert saw yesterday is my uncle = O policial que 
Robert viu ontem é meu tio. 
3. Which (que): Se refere tanto ao sujeito quanto ao objeto, porém só é utilizado 
quando essas palavras se referirem à animais ou coisas, nunca a pessoas, como 
nas duas formas anteriores. 
Ex: Where is the book which I left here on the bed? = Onde está o livro que 
eu deixei aqui sobre acama? 
4. Whose (cujo): Pode se referir a tudo: pessoas, animais ou coisas, porém seu 
detalhe é que essa forma pronominal indica posse. 
Ex: Do you know the boy whose father is dead? = Você conhece o garoto cujo 
pai está morto? 
5. Where (onde): Refere-se a um lugar físico. 
Ex: That is the school in where I studied in 1998. = Aquela é a escola onde eu 
estudei em 1998. 
 
6. That (que, quem): Pode substituir “who” “whom” ou “which” nas chamadas 
Identifying Relative Clauses (veja a proxima secção.) 
Ex. The man that lives on your floor wants to talk to you. 
The policeman that Robert saw yesterday is my uncle. 
Where is the book that I left here on the bed? 
 
 
RELATIVE CLAUSES 
Relative Clauses são orações que identificam ou qualificam os elementos que as 
precedem em uma frase. Elas são iniciadas por um pronome relativo (relative 
pronoun): who (wose- possessivo) para pessoas // which para coisas, animais. 
 
 57
 
Ex.: The boy who* sits next to me is very handsome. (* ou “that”) 
(o "boy" está sendo identificado pelo que está escrito após o pronome relativo) 
 
My best friend, who is very fat, loves Chinese food. 
(já sabemos quem é a pessoa -- é meu melhor amigo - a "relative clause" dá 
informações complementares sobre ele.) 
 
As "Relative Clauses" são identificadas em "identifying" (identificadoras) e "non-
identifying". 
 
Identifying Relative Clauses 
 
São "relative clauses" que identificam ou classificam o substantivo a que se 
referem. Estas orações dizem a que coisa ou pessoa estamos nos referindo. Não 
há virgula antes do relative pronoun! 
 
Ex.: Was it your car which* was towed by the police? (* ou “that”) 
 
Non-Identifying Relative Clauses 
 
Estas orações apenas acrescentam informações sobre o substantivo que já foi 
identificado. 
Ex.: Frank Mcourt wrote the book 'Angela's Ashes', which won a Pulizer Prize. 
This is my friend Perry, who works at Contry Hospital. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Tasks and exercises 
I 
Nestes frases sempre há uma virgula antes do relative pronoun e nunca pode-
se substituir “who” ou “which” por “that” 
 
For persons 
Identifying or essential relative sub-
clauses NO COMMAS! 
Non-identifying or non-essential relative sub-
clauses USE COMMAS! 
who (whom: object) / that ,who (whom: object) 
 
 58
whose (possessive) ,whose 
Complete the sentences below with the correct relative pronouns: 
The man ………… robbed you has been 
arrested. 
The book is about a man …………… 
abandons his wife and children. 
The man ………… I saw told me to come 
back today. 
That’s the man ………… daughters work 
in our shop. 
My neighbour, …………is very pessimistic, says 
there will be many cyclones this year. 
 
 
She introduced me to her husband, ………… I 
had never met before. 
They introduced me to Jorge, ………… wife I had 
known for many years. 
For things 
Defining or essential rel. subclauses 
NO COMMAS 
Non-defining or non-essential rel. subclauses 
COMMAS! 
which / that 
whose / of which (possessive) 
,which 
 ,whose / of which (possessive) 
The car …………… I hired broke down 
after five kilometres. 
The car …………… I had received the 
keys was the only one left in the car 
park. 
The 8.15 plane, …………… is usually very 
punctual, was late today. 
The plane, ………… the (whose) engine had been 
repaired last week, crashed after five 
kilometres. 
 
 
 
 
Lessons-43/44 
 
Tasks and exercises 
 
 
I. Fill in relative pronouns (‘who’, ‘which’, ‘that’, ‘whose’ or omission. Put 
commas where needed (that is, in non-defining relative clauses). 
1. Fantasia is a federation of three states …….. are Moldenia, Stravegan and East 
Mork. 
2. San Fantastico ……………is the capital is the centre of power for the federal 
government. 
3. The laws ………are of national interest are made by the federal government. 
4. Each state, though, has its own government and governor ………are responsible 
for education, heath, roads and other things. 
5. Elections …… are held every five years decide …….... party’s representatives are 
sent to the federal government and who is to become the president. 
6. The Fantasian parliament …….. decides mainly about long term issues leaves 
the decisions about urgent or short term matters in hands of the executive 
power. 
 
 59
7. Matters ……… need quick decisions are the responsibility of the president and 
her 15 ministers. 
8. The states ……. are each represented by five ministers have equal executive 
powers. 
9. The president …..… home state may be at an advantage tries to remain as 
impartial as possible ….…….. is not always easy. 
10. The government ………… decisions depend on the majority in Parliament may 
give promising initiatives extra support. 
11. The companies ………are considered beneficial for the economy are given 
preferential interest. 
12. Each businessman ……….. wants to invest must deal with a lot of bureaucracy. 
13. Problems….………. solutions can’t wait sometimes take months to be resolved. 
 
 
 
 
 Unit 10. Extra Practice 
 
 
Lesson-45/46 
 
Tasks and exercises 
I. Underline the connective words and phrases and decide to which types of 
conjunctions they belong: 
Let’s focus our attention on the ways of controlling or reducing the amount of air 
pollution caused by the car. We can mention five possibilities. 
First, we can discourage the use of cars. For example, we can put higher taxes on 
petrol and on cars themselves, especially the larger ones that use a lot of petrol. 
Second, we can encourage alternatives methods of transport, both between and 
within urban areas. For instance, we can make train and bus services cheaper and more 
convenient. And we can build a mass transit system in large cities, particularly an 
underground railway system, such as in London, New York, Moscow and Tokyo. 
Next, we can use a cleaner and different fuel for the internal combustion 
engine. Possibilities include natural gas, fuel cells, i.e. batteries and liquid hydrogen. 
Fourth, we can replace the present internal combustion engine with other 
designs. There are several possibilities being researched at present, such as electric, gas 
turbine and steam engines. However, each of these engine designs has its own 
disadvantages. 
And finally, we are trying to control the emissions from the internal combustion 
engine much more strictly. This, for example, can be done with a catalytic converter. It 
converts the most dangerous ingredients of the exhaust into harmless gases and water. 
The catalyst removes the oxygen from the nitrogen oxide and combines it with 
unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. The end products are water, carbon 
 
 60
dioxide and nitrogen, all relatively harmless. These are five possible ways then of 
controlling air pollution caused by cars. 
 
II. Put the sentences below in the correct order by numbering them from one (1) 
to eight (8). (the first one has been done for you; 2 means that this sentence should be 
the second one in a logical text.) Then fill the gaps by using the following connecting 
words: 
 
However despite Nevertheless such as Moreover andConcluding while because 1 Due to for instance for example 
that is 
Number: 
2 
……………………., algorithmic problems can be incredibly complex 
……and……….. can take years of work to solve. 
 To explain how to write an algorithm would seem easy when one begins 
by comparing it to a cooking book recipe …………….. baking a cake. 
 …………………, many problems do not admit satisfactory solutions, or 
algorithms, ………………… others do not admit any solutions at all. 
 ……………………, to get a feel for the difficulty in designing algorithms , we 
can analyse some relatively simple algorithmic problems, ………………….. 
how to get a newspaper distributed in the fastest and most economical 
way. Algorithmic 
 For many problems the status, as far as good solutions are concerned, is as 
yet unknown, ………………… extensive work by many talented 
mathematicians. 
 ……………………, this algorithmic problem of newspaper distribution is 
shown to be a good example of to begin to understand how algorithmic 
problems are actually designed. 
 …………………. the limited and specified nature of input sets, the output will 
also be limited and specified, ………….a number of specified tasks for a 
number of specified deliverers. 
 To analyse this problem is relatively simple ……………. the number of inputs 
is fairly limited, ……………… personnel, the distance to be covered means of 
transport, fuel costs, numbers of subscribers, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Lessons-47/48 
Tasks and exercises 
 
 
 61
I. Match the conditions with the most logical consequences; the predicates 
should also match grammatically! 
1. If a society wants public health 
and education 
a. companies would not get qualified staff. 
2. If the general population is 
unhealthy and unable to work 
b. if they start making bigger profits. 
3. If there were no public education 
systems 
c. its government will raise revenue by taxation. 
4. A government would not build 
roads for economic activities 
d. they would have paid lower taxes. 
5. Companies will have to pay higher 
taxes 
e. if they had made false declarations. 
6. You would have to pay a higher 
tax rate 
f. it will increase its revenues. 
7. If the government levied much 
higher taxes 
g. firms won’t find either enough staff or 
customers. 
8. If companies had invested more in 
new machines and so on 
h. if it didn’t collect taxes. 
9. They would have avoided paying 
tax 
i. many more people would cheat by doing jobs 
without official contracts. 
10. The state income would have 
been a lot higher 
j. if your salary rose. 
11. If the state stimulates businesses 
to register 
k. if there had been so many people working in 
the ‘black’ or ‘underground’ economy. 
 
II. Use modals to complete the spaces in the text below (for can, could, may, 
might shall, should, have to, has to, must, will, would – some more than once): 
SOLAR ENERGY 
The use of solar energy has some disadvantages. For example, the solar energy reaching 
the earth is widely dispersed, so it …….. (1) be collected over a very large area, and it 
………(2) be concentrated so that it …. (3) be used. Another problem is that solar energy 
stations ….. (4) not operate at night, when electrical needs are highest. Furthermore, the 
supply varies with the amount of cloud and with the season of the year. So, because its 
supply changes, we …… (5) develop a method of storing solar energy received on sunny 
days – so we .. (6) use it at night and in the winter. 
 Suppose, however, that we …. (7) place the solar mirrors (called collectors) above 
the earth’s surface 100s of kilometres in space. There the collectors … (8) be in the 
sunshine 23 hours a day, spending only one hour in the earth’s shadow. Each satellite 
…… (9) have two ‘wings’, about 31 km2 in area covered with solar cells. The generator 
…. (10) beam the electricity in the form of microwave to a receiving station on earth. 
One satellite of this size … (11) generate 10 000 megawatts, enough to meet the needs 
of a city the size of New York. What we …. (12) do now is to invest very large sums of 
 
 62
money into the necessary research and development so that one day in the (near) 
future large areas in the world …. (13) be benefiting from this technique. 
 
 
III. Join and match the following halves of sentences adding the missing relative 
pronouns: 
SOME IMPORTANT MATHEMATICAL FACTS 
1. Charles Babbage conceived his difference 
machine in 1832 ..........(relative pronoun) 
(they) are used in all branches of pure 
and applied mathematics. 
2 It was Ada Brown, Babbage’s programmer, 
.... 
(it) proved that any consistent 
mathematical system must be 
incomplete. 
3. The core of mathematics are equations .... (it) was a predecessor of the digital 
computer. 
4. Chaos theory describes phenomena ..... (his) efforts produced ‘analytic’ or 
‘coordinate geometry’. 
5. Kurt Gödel published a theorem in 1931 .... (she) laid the foundations for 
planning. 
6. René Decartes was the greatest European 
innovator in mathematics ..... 
(their) functions are plotted on axes x 
and y. 
7. In analytic geometry the relationships 
between variables are conveyed .... 
(they) are not random nor predictable. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Lessons-49/50 
 
 
Tasks and exercises 
 
I. Underline the connective words and phrases and decide to which types of 
conjunctions they belong: 
Let’s focus our attention on the ways of controlling or reducing the amount of air 
pollution caused by the car. We can mention five possibilities. 
First, we can discourage the use of cars. For example, we can put higher taxes on 
petrol and on cars themselves, especially the larger ones that use a lot of petrol. 
Second, we can encourage alternatives methods of transport, both between and 
within urban areas. For instance, we can make train and bus services cheaper and more 
 
 63
convenient. And we can build a mass transit system in large cities, particularly an 
underground railway system, such as in London, New York, Moscow and Tokyo. 
Next, we can use a cleaner and different fuel for the internal combustion 
engine. Possibilities include natural gas, fuel cells, i.e. batteries and liquid hydrogen. 
Fourth, we can replace the present internal combustion engine with other 
designs. There are several possibilities being researched at present, such as electric, gas 
turbine and steam engines. However, each of these engine designs has its own 
disadvantages. 
And finally, we are trying to control the emissions from the internal combustion 
engine much more strictly. This, for example, can be done with a catalytic converter. It 
converts the most dangerous ingredients of the exhaust into harmless gases and water. 
The catalyst removes the oxygen from the nitrogen oxide and combines it with 
unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. The end products are water, carbon 
dioxide and nitrogen, all relatively harmless. These are five possible ways then of 
controlling air pollution caused by cars. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
II. Put the sentences below in the correct order by numbering them from one (1) 
to eight (8). (the first one has been done for you; 2 means that this sentence should be 
the second one in a logical text.) Then fill the gaps by using the following connecting 
words: 
 
 
However despite Nevertheless such asMoreover and 
Concluding while because 1 Due to for instance for example 
that is 
Number: 
2 
……………………., algorithmic problems can be incredibly complex 
……and……….. can take years of work to solve. 
 To explain how to write an algorithm would seem easy when one begins 
by comparing it to a cooking book recipe …………….. baking a cake. 
 …………………, many problems do not admit satisfactory solutions, or 
algorithms, ………………… others do not admit any solutions at all. 
 ……………………, to get a feel for the difficulty in designing algorithms , we 
can analyse some relatively simple algorithmic problems, ………………….. 
how to get a newspaper distributed in the fastest and most economical 
 
 64
way. Algorithmic 
 For many problems the status, as far as good solutions are concerned, is as 
yet unknown, ………………… extensive work by many talented 
mathematicians. 
 ……………………, this algorithmic problem of newspaper distribution is 
shown to be a good example of to begin to understand how algorithmic 
problems are actually designed. 
 …………………. the limited and specified nature of input sets, the output will 
also be limited and specified, ………….a number of specified tasks for a 
number of specified deliverers. 
 To analyse this problem is relatively simple ……………. the number of inputs 
is fairly limited, ……………… personnel, the distance to be covered means of 
transport, fuel costs, numbers of subscribers, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
III. Match the conditions with the most logical consequences; the predicates 
should also match grammatically! 
1. If a society wants public health 
and education 
a. companies would not get qualified staff. 
2. If the general population is 
unhealthy and unable to work 
b. if they start making bigger profits. 
3. If there were no public education 
systems 
c. its government will raise revenue by taxation. 
4. A government would not build 
roads for economic activities 
d. they would have paid lower taxes. 
5. Companies will have to pay higher 
taxes 
e. if they had made false declarations. 
6. You would have to pay a higher 
tax rate 
f. it will increase its revenues. 
7. If the government levied much 
higher taxes 
g. firms won’t find either enough staff or 
customers. 
8. If companies had invested more in 
new machines and so on 
h. if it didn’t collect taxes. 
9. They would have avoided paying 
tax 
i. many more people would cheat by doing jobs 
without official contracts. 
10. The state income would have 
been a lot higher 
j. if your salary rose. 
11. If the state stimulates businesses 
to register 
k. if there had been so many people working in 
the ‘black’ or ‘underground’ economy. 
 
 
 65
IV. Use modals to complete the spaces in the text below (for can, could, may, 
might shall, should, have to, has to, must, will, would – some more than once): 
SOLAR ENERGY 
The use of solar energy has some disadvantages. For example, the solar energy reaching 
the earth is widely dispersed, so it …….. (1) be collected over a very large area, and it 
………(2) be concentrated so that it …. (3) be used. Another problem is that solar energy 
stations ….. (4) not operate at night, when electrical needs are highest. Furthermore, the 
supply varies with the amount of cloud and with the season of the year. So, because its 
supply changes, we …… (5) develop a method of storing solar energy received on sunny 
days – so we .. (6) use it at night and in the winter. 
 Suppose, however, that we …. (7) place the solar mirrors (called collectors) above 
the earth’s surface 100s of kilometres in space. There the collectors … (8) be in the 
sunshine 23 hours a day, spending only one hour in the earth’s shadow. Each satellite 
…… (9) have two ‘wings’, about 31 km2 in area covered with solar cells. The generator 
…. (10) beam the electricity in the form of microwave to a receiving station on earth. 
One satellite of this size … (11) generate 10 000 megawatts, enough to meet the needs 
of a city the size of New York. What we …. (12) do now is to invest very large sums of 
money into the necessary research and development so that one day in the (near) 
future large areas in the world …. (13) be benefiting from this technique. 
 
 
 
 
 Unit 11. Preparing for a writing assignment 
 
 
Lessons-51/52 
 
 
10. Preparing for a writing assignment 
Reading 
The remaining units of this course prepare you for the writing assignment to be handed 
in by the end of this semester (before the exams!). So this will help you to finish your 
assignment by accompanying you with the following activities: 
 
 
STEP 1. CHOOSING A TOPIC 
STEP 2. FINDING INFORMATION 
STEP 3. STATING YOUR THESIS 
STEP 4. MAKING A TENTATIVE OUTLINE 
STEP 5. ORGANIZINGYOUR NOTES 
STEP 6. WRITING YOUR FIRST DRAFT 
STEP 7. REVISING YOUR OUTLINE AND DRAFT 
STEP 8. PRODUCING A FINAL PAPER 
 
 66
 
STEP 1. CHOOSE A TOPIC 
Choose a topic which interests and challenges you. Your attitude towards the topic may 
well determine the amount of effort and enthusiasm you put into your research. 
Focus on a limited aspect, e.g. narrow it down from "Religion" to "World Religion" to 
"Buddhism". Obtain teacher approval for your topic before embarking on a full-scale 
research. If you are uncertain as to what is expected of you in completing the 
assignment or project, re-read your assignment sheet carefully or ASK your teacher. 
Select a subject you can manage. Avoid subjects that are too technical, learned, or 
specialized. Avoid topics that have only a very narrow range of source materials. 
Tasks and exercises 
I. Below you find a series of topics and issues you MAY choose from. Each topic is 
accompanied by some ideas in note form. You can choose any other substantial topic 
(NOT topics such as , “My holidays on Pemba beach” “The discos in Swaziland”, etc.) 
After you have chosen a topic or found an alternative idea (first consult your tutor 
about any other topic that you would like to write about you hand in your choice on a 
paper. 
 
i. Made in Mozambique 
your arguments for and against; 
some issues: Mozambique’s raw materials from agriculture (cotton, fruits, 
etc.) + minerals (gas, precious stones, coal, etc.) exported to foreign 
industrialized countries for low prices, their finished products exported to 
Mozambique at high prices! 
how reverse this process – suggestions : boost national production + 
industries(efficiency); better education > more local specialists - foreign 
investments; improved transport conditions less bureaucracy - tax free and 
prioritised production areas - state subsidies or tariffs – a more supportive 
role of the World Bank / IMF 
ii. Traditional versus conventional medical care 
 traditional doctors ‘curandeiros’ knowledge of curative herbs - cure mental 
problems, protection against witch doctors ‘feticeiros’ 
 unscientific, superstition, unsafe, some religions against 
iii. Public transport versus private transport 
 aspects for and against – e.g. cost (increasing fuel prices, air pollution, 
etc)and safety aspects (‘chappa cem’) – TPB advantages – disadvantages, etc. 
iv. Staying healthy in a country such as Mozambique 
 drinking, eating and smoking habits drug abuse - – stressful situations – 
poverty – medical care – HIV and related issues 
v. How (un)attractive is Beira? 
 The quality of public entertainmentplaces –- cinemas – swimming pools- 
sports grounds – shops – cafes – bars – discos – transport conditions – 
housing – educational institutions –libraries 
 
 67
vi. Environmental Problems and the effects of Climate Change and effects on 
the Mozambican economy and life in general – the use of renewable 
resources to combat the energy crisis – the green revolution – the use of 
solar and other alternative energy sources 
vii. Mozambique’s present government 
 How well (badly) do governmental institutions (town council – police-central 
government – parliament – democracy) function? 
viii. Religions in Mozambique 
 
 
Lessons-53/54 
 
 Preparing for a writing assignment 
 
II. The next step cannot be done in the classroom. It is work you will have to do outside 
the classroom, for instance, by using a PC or by going to a well-equipped library. 
Below you can read about some ways how to get information: 
Reading 
Develop your time line 
Allow for editing, revision and unexpected developments 
 Inspiration phase: 
This is continuous to prevent losing ideas and inspirations 
Keep a convenient place to preserve phrases, vocabulary, events, etc. for later 
use 
 Research phase; information gathering and recording: 
See below 
 Organizing/prewriting phase 
with concept mapping, outlining, even brainstorming 
Determine how you will build the scenes of your argument, narrative, story, etc. 
See our definitions of writing term» http://www.studygs.net/writing s in our 
Guides. 
 
Research phase; information gathering and recording: 
Document all interviews, readings, experiments, data, websites, reports, etc. 
People: instructor, teaching assistant, research librarian, tutor, subject matter experts, 
professionals 
 
 
 
Tasks and exercises 
 
1. Develop research strategies and a list of resources 
 
 68
2. Narrow your topic and its description; pull out key words and categories 
Develop a list of key words--50 or so--that form the foundation of both your 
research and writing. Build the list from general sources and overviews 
3. Bring your topic and keyword list to a local research librarian, teacher, support 
professional on resources available 
Text books (!), reference works, web sites, journals, diaries, professional reports 
4. International conventions of copyright govern the use and reproduction of all 
material: all information should be properly cited 
c.f. our guide on citing websites for models : 
http://www.studygs.net/writing/prewriting.htm (how to write papers) 
 
What are some INTERNET resources? 
 Search engines 
www.SearchEngineColossus.com / with links to search engines from 148 
countries www.google.com/intl/en/ 
www.buscaaqui.com.br (site de busca e diretório de sites do 
Brasil) 
 Directories and portals on the Internet that categorize/organize information 
and links 
http://www.dmoz.org/World (Open Directory Project ) 
http://lili.org (Librarians Index to the Internet ) 
http://scholar.google.com/scholar 
 • Web sites devoted to particular topics, including text, graphics, movies, music 
files 
 
http://allafrica.com (articles and news about any African 
country) 
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice (international news) 
www.openarchives.org (books and articles on any subject) 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ (online Encyclopaedia) 
www.aluka.org (a digital library of scholarly resources from 
and 
 about Africa) 
www.oaresciences.org/es/ (online Access to Research in the 
Environment and 
 climate change – Meio ambiente) 
http://earthtrends.wri.org/ (World Research Institute research 
into the 
 interaction between human disease, 
pollution, and 
 large-scale environmental development – 
crise 
 ambiental) 
 
 69
www.dominiopublico.gov.br/pesquisa (Biblioteca digital desenvolvida... 
Pesquisa Básica – 
 Selecione o critério da pesquisa) 
 
 
http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/ (Listing of 10000 newspapers from 
around 
 the world, searchable by country and then by 
 publication) 
www.magportal.com/ (Magazine article search engine and 
categorization 
 covering magazines from many publishers) 
http://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk/subjects/ 
http://www.bresserpereira.org.br/ (artigos Macroeconómicos) 
www.helsinki.fi/WebEc 
www.multimap.com (maps) 
www.nationalgeographic.com 
www.multimap.com 
www.openphoto.net (Fotos e arquivos de mídia licenciados 
para uso livre para 
 fins educacionais - University of 
North Texas) 
 
 Government documents, forms, laws, policies, etc. 
 
 Services and information by 
non-profit organizations and by for-profit businesses 
 Resources at your local (public) library 
These may require membership or registration 
 Newspaper, journal, magazine databases, Encyclopaedias, Dictionaries, 
Government Publications, Guides, Reports Almanacs, Atlases, 
Often restricted to subscribers, require registration, or can be fee-based for 
access 
Using an Internet search engine: 
Find the best combination of key words to locate information you need; 
Enter these in the search engine 
 Refer to known, recommended, expert, or reviewed web sites 
 Review the number of options returned. 
If there are too many web sites, add more keywords. 
If there are too few options, narrow/delete some keywords, 
or substitute other key words 
 Review the first pages returned: 
If these are not helpful, review your key words for a better description 
 
 70
 Use advanced search options in search engines: 
Search options include 
o Key word combinations, including Boolean strings 
o Locations where key words are found 
For example: in the title, 1st paragraphs, coded metadata 
o Languages to search in 
o Sites containing media files (images, videos, MP3/music, ActiveX, JAVA, 
etc.) 
o Dates web sites were created or updated 
 Research using several search engines 
Each search engine has a different database of web sites it searches 
Some "Meta-Search" engines actually search other search engines! 
If one search engine returns few web sites, another may return many! 
 Evaluate the content of the web sites you've found: 
c.f. the Study Guide Evaluating web site content » 
http://www.studygs.net/writing 
Beware referencing blogs as they are basically opinions and not "fact" 
 Track your search: 
List resources you checked; the date your checked them 
Identify the resource, especiallyits location and the date you found it 
c.f. index card system 
 When printing, set your options to print the 
Title of the page | the Web address | the date printed 
As you gather your resources, jot down full bibliographical information (author, title, 
place of publication, publisher, date of publication, page numbers, URLs, creation or 
modification dates on Web pages, and your date of access) on your work sheet, 
printout, or enter the information on your laptop or desktop computer for later 
retrieval. If printing from the Internet, it is wise to set up the browser to print the URL 
and date of access for every page. Remember that an article without bibliographical 
information is useless since you cannot cite its source. 
 
 
Lessons-53/54 
 Steps for writing assignment 
 
STEP 3. STATE YOUR THESIS 
Tasks and exercises 
I. Do some critical thinking and write your thesis statement down in one sentence. 
Your thesis statement is like a declaration of your belief. The main portion of your essay 
will consist of arguments to support and defend this belief. 
 
STEP 4. MAKE A TENTATIVE OUTLINE 
Reading 
 
 71
The purpose of an outline is to help you think through your topic carefully and organize 
it logically before you start writing. A good outline is the most important step in writing 
a good paper. Check your outline to make sure that the points covered flow logically 
from one to the other. Include in your outline an INTRODUCTION, a BODY, and a 
CONCLUSION. Make the first outline tentative. Just use key words to write the outline 
not complete sentences (that happens in your draft - rascunho). 
INTRODUCTION - State your thesis and the purpose of your research paper clearly. 
What is the chief reason you are writing the paper? State also how you plan to approach 
your topic. Is this a factual report, a book review, a comparison, or an analysis of a 
problem? Explain briefly the major points you plan to cover in your paper and why 
readers should be interested in your topic. 
BODY - This is where you present your arguments to support your thesis statement. You 
explain what it is the problem/issue you focus on, why and for whom. You can present a 
series of possible solutions and explain which one(s) you are in favour of and which 
strategy or strategies you are against, usually by giving arguments for or/and against a 
certain point of view supported by examples from your own experience, or from 
newspapers, periodicals or books, etc, and giving quotations and references to the titles 
and writers. 
Remember the Rule of 3, i.e. find 3 supporting arguments for each position you take. 
Begin with a strong argument, then use a stronger one, and end with the strongest 
argument for your final point. 
CONCLUSION - Restate or reword your thesis. Summarize your arguments. Explain why 
you have come to this particular conclusion. 
The conclusion should: 
i. say what your main topic/question/view in the writing has been and what main 
aspects of it you have covered (i.e. a brief summary); 
ii. say what general point(s) can be drawn from the essay as a whole. 
iii. but it should not: 
1. include any further points not mentioned in the body of the essay; 
2. introduce new information or ideas. 
 
STEP 5. ORGANIZE YOUR NOTES 
Before beginning to write your first draft (rascunho) of a paper it is wise to make 
an outline. Organize all the information you have gathered according to your outline. 
Critically analyze your research data. Using the best available sources, check for 
accuracy and verify that the information is factual, up-to-date, and correct. Opposing 
views should also be noted if they help to support your thesis. This is the most 
important stage in writing a research paper. Here you will analyze, synthesize, sort, and 
digest the information you have gathered and hopefully learn something about your 
topic which is the real purpose of doing a research paper in the first place. You must also 
be able to effectively communicate your thoughts, ideas, insights, and research findings 
to others through written words as in a report, an essay, a research or term paper, or 
through spoken words as in an oral or multimedia presentation with audio-visual aids. 
 
 72
Do not include any information that is not relevant to your topic, and do not 
include information that you do not understand. Make sure the information that you 
have noted is carefully recorded and in your own words, if possible. Plagiarism is 
definitely out of the question. Document all ideas borrowed or quotes used very 
accurately. As you organize your notes, jot down detailed bibliographical information for 
each cited paragraph and have it ready to transfer to your Works Cited page at the end 
of the paper. 
 
Devise your own method to organize your notes. (Also see: 
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/544/01/ ) 
 
 
Lessons-55/56 
 
Sample Outlines 
Alphanumeric Outline 
The College Application Process 
 I. Choose Desired Colleges 
A. Visit and evaluate college campuses 
B. Visit and evaluate college websites 
1. look for interesting classes 
2. note important statistics 
a. student/faculty ratio 
b. retention rate 
 II. Prepare Application 
A. Write Personal Statement 
1. Choose interesting topic 
a. describe an influential person in your life 
(1) favourite high school teacher 
(2) grandparent 
2. Include important personal details 
a. volunteer work 
b. participation in varsity sports 
B. Revise personal statement 
 III. Compile resume 
A. List relevant coursework 
B. List work experience 
C. List volunteer experience 
1. tutor at foreign language summer camp 
2. counsellor for suicide prevention hotline 
 
Full Sentence Outline 
 I. Man-made pollution is the primary cause of global warming. 
 
 73
A. Greenhouse gas emissions are widely identified by the scientific community to 
be 
 harmful. 
1. The burning of coal and fossil fuels are the primary releasers of 
 hazardous greenhouse gases. 
 Full sentence outlines are often accompanied with an APA reference list on a separate 
page. 
 Quotes within the outline must also utilize APA in-text citations. 
 
Decimal Outline 
 1.0 Choose Desired College 
1.1 Visit and evaluate college campuses 
1.2 Visit and evaluate college websites 
1.2.1 Look for interesting classes 
1.2.2 Note important statistics 
 
Tasks and exercises 
I. Now produce your own outline which should be handed in to your tutor for 
assessment at the end of this lesson or the beginning of the next. 
 
 
Lessons-57/58 
 Drafting 
STEP 6. WRITE YOUR FIRST DRAFT 
Reading 
A rough draft is "a late stage in the writing process".1 It assumes that you have 
adequate information and understanding, are near or at the end of gathering research, 
and have completed an exercise in prewriting. 
What you need: 
 Adequate time period for focus 
 Clear study area 
to eliminate distractions, whether other school projects or friends' demands, 
in order to concentrate on the task at hand 
 Preparation and research 
with as much current and historical data and viewpoints as necessary 
 Target audience 
or a clear idea for whom you are writing: 
your professor, an age group, a friend, a profession, etc. 
 Prewriting exercises 
and notes on ideas from your research 
 Review all the above. 
Don't "study" it; just refresh yourself on the main concepts fornow 
What you will not need: 
 
 74
 Title or introduction: 
derive these from your prewriting exercise 
 Reference works, print-outs, quotes, etc. 
Rely on your notes, and don't overwhelm yourself with facts. 
Details can be added; you now want to focus on developing your argument 
 Edits! 
Do not revise as you write, or correct spelling, punctuation, etc. Just write, 
write, write. 
This is the first draft, so what you put down will be revised and organized "after" 
 Review the ideas, topics, themes, questions 
you have come up with in your prewriting exercise. Try reading the prewriting 
text out loud ( a type of self-mediation). Listen for patterns that seem most 
interesting and/or important. Summarize them. 
 Evaluate the ideas, topics, themes, questions 
whether by scoring, prioritizing, or whatever method seems best. 
Keep this list in case your first choice(s) don't work 
 Sequence what you have prioritized as in outlining, above. 
Writing your draft: 
Your first paragraph 
 Introduce the topic; entice the reader (remember: audience) 
 Establish perspective and/or point of view! 
 Focus on three main points to develop 
Establish flow from paragraph to paragraph 
 Topic sentences of each paragraph 
define their place in the overall scheme 
 Transition sentences, clauses, or words at the beginning of paragraph connect 
one idea to the next 
Avoid one and two sentence paragraphs 
which may reflect lack of development of your point 
 Continually prove your point of view throughout the essay 
o Don't drift or leave the focus of the essay 
o Don't lapse into summary in developing paragraphs--wait until its time, at 
the conclusion 
 Keep your voice active 
o "The Academic Committee decided..." not "It was decided by..." 
o Avoid the verb "to be" for clear, dynamic, and effective presentation 
(Avoid the verb "to be" and your presentation will be effective, clear, and 
dynamic) 
o Avoiding "to be" will also avoid the passive voice 
 Support interpretations with quotes, data, etc. 
o Properly introduce, explain, and cite each quote 
o Block (indented) quotes should be used sparingly; 
they can break up the flow of your argument 
Conclusion 
 
 75
 Read your first paragraph, the development, and set it aside 
 Summarize, then conclude, your argument 
 Refer back (once again) to the first paragraph(s) as well as the development 
o do the last paragraphs briefly restate the main ideas? 
o reflect the succession and importance of the arguments 
o logically conclude their development? 
 Edit/rewrite the first paragraph 
to better set your development and conclusion 
 
Tasks and exercises 
I. Use the outline you have produced in unit 11 to write a draft during this and next 
lesson to be handed in to your tutor. 
 
 
 
 
 Unit 12. Recognising types of Errors 
 
 
Lessons-59/60 
 
Tasks and exercises 
I. In the column on the left there are 14 underlined errors. 
In the column on the right there are thirteen types of errors (mostly grammatical ones). 
Decide for each error to which category it belongs by putting the number of the sentence 
in which the error occurs before the category on the right side of the diagram. The first 
one has been done for you; the error in the first sentence is categorised as an error of 
‘word order’. Also correct the errors. 
 
1 Has got your mother any sisters? Determiners & quantifiers 
2. How long do you live in this town Vocabulary 
3. Could you give me some informations? Passive Voice 
4. He speaks a very good English. Countables - uncountables 
5. I’ve got any friends. Spelling 
6. My daughters are very talls. The use of articles 
7. Would you like try these? Infinitive + to 
8. Could I borrow you some sugar? 1 Word order 
9. They couldn’t avoid to break some 
glasses. 
 Conditionals 
10. However he was ill he came to work 
today. 
 Present perfect 
11. Who was responsable for this? Adjectives 
12. He was take to hospital after the Adverbs 
 
 76
 
II. In the following 15 sentences there are errors, which have been underlined. Decide 
for each error what type of error it is by choosing from the box below and then 
correct them. 
 
Example: 
Today is the oneth of February »» Category of error: Grammar ( ordinal numbers ) 
This is a very clear summary; and good 
criticism. 
He went home late at night at 15.00 
hours. 
This is a damn good story. Rome is very old and archaic city 
We haven’t got some money. He usually is at home on Sundays. 
They prefered to finish before 5 o’clock. If she came we will go to the beach 
together. 
Most universities have highs rates of 
dropouts in their first years. 
He never see a lion in reality 
Today it is terrible hot. He went to the library to buy some 
books. 
That new shop has a lot of softwares for 
finance. 
She take to hospital by an ambulance. 
The money does not make happy. I hope to speaking english well one day. 
In spite he was angry, he listened 
Patiently 
I can’t avoid to make mistakes. 
CATEGORIES OF ERRORS: Style / Vocabulary / Punctuation and capitals / Spelling / 
Word order / Repetition and redundancy / logical ordering and sequencing of ideas / 
Grammar (e.g. Conditionals, The use of articles, Adverbs, Determiners & quantifiers. 
Adjectives, Present perfect, Gerund, Numbers, Connectives (conjunctions), 
Countable – uncountable nouns, Passive Voice, Infinitive + to etc.) 
 
Lessons-61/62 
 
Vocabulary 
Reading 
When focusing on the vocabulary of a text there a number of aspects to consider for 
which dictionaries (online or in book-form) have, in most case, proved to be useful: 
 
1. Does a word really mean what you think it in means? Are there any words that 
have been wrongly chosen within the given context? Also be aware of false friends! A 
lot of words in English and in Portuguese are very similar in written form and have the 
same Latin origin but do not have the same meanings; they belong to the group called 
‘false friends’. (See Appendix 1 on P.51) The use of a dictionary (or a reliable (!) online 
accident. 
13. If you go by plane you get there fastly. Connectives (conjunctions) 
14. He would come if he can. Gerund 
 
 77
translating device) is important to avoid a lot of misunderstandings in your written 
work. 
2. Do not use empty or meaningless expressions to mask your lack of thought or 
knowledge about a certain topic, (e.g. the word chosen is too abstract or vague). 
3. What words can be simplified to be clearer or stronger? Avoid the use of fancy 
words giving false impression of intellectuality, by being unnecessary difficult or too 
sophisticated within the given context. 
4. Do you over-use any words causing repetition or redundancy of words. Would 
synonyms add interest? 
5. Are there any colloquialisms or trendy expressions, informal expressions that 
imitate speech? Their use may not be clear of effective in your writing since they are so 
familiar, and may tend toward predictability. 
6. Use the correct forms of the word (=parts of speech) in the given grammatical 
contexts, e.g. do not use a noun where you should use a verb or an adjective; or do not 
use an adverb where you should use an adjective.Tasks and exercises 
I. Below are a number of sentences in which the underlined vocabulary exemplify 
the type of errors made listed above. 
(If you are not quite sure of the meaning of a word check its meaning in a dictionary. If 
you find a word in a Portuguese – English dictionary, double-check in an English-English 
dictionary by looking at the examples given in the dictionary to see if the word really 
means what you think it means.) 
1. I can’t support his behaviour any longer. 
2. His bad behaviour has caused the party a lot of prejudice. 
3. Before introducing my thesis I´m gonna explain why I chose this topic. 
4. Did you intend his lecture? 
5. His impressively writing contribution a lot to our understand the problem. 
6. Mozambique is eventually hit by cyclones 
7. Could I borrow you some sugar? 
8. It is a terrific method to solve the problem of pollution and saving energy. 
9. The lecture focused on the main issue of delinquent criminals stealing and robbing 
people after killing and assassinating them. 
10. The multiplicity of functionality is really advantageous to the overall 
marketability of the product. 
10. As a conclusion, I could say that it is an absolutely marvellous and positive way 
of relaxing and refreshing one´s mind. 
11. His conclusions are too personal and subjective. 
 
II. To write a correct text in English you must be able to efficiently and rapidly look 
up words in a (good) dictionary. Train yourself to make maximum use of the alphabetical 
ordering of words; put the following words in the order in which they would come in a 
dictionary. 
1. think / consider / decide / appreciate 
 
 78
2. write / type / print / draw 
3. economy / discover / deep / day 
4. economy / economics / economist / economist 
5. businesslike / busy / busily / business 
6. theory / transform /technology / taste 
7. intertwine /interview / interior / intersperse 
8. quest / event / happening / adventure 
9. systematic / systemic / systematise / system 
10. orphan / option / ontology / oven 
11. scientist / specialist / science / selective 
12. screwdriver / scholar / school / scholastic 
13. psychologist / psyche / psychological / physical 
14. xylose / yoke / yield / wychelm 
 
III. Most words have two or more different meanings depending on the context 
which of the meanings is relevant. Match the dictionary definitions in the right column 
with the word ‘plant’ in the sentences on the left side and taking the contexts into 
account: 
Sentences: Dictionary definitions: 
1. The Boers were the first to plant a new colony at the 
Cape. 
2. That plant needs to be cultivated with great care. 
3. The submarine’s power plant is an atomic reactor. 
4. Some nuclear plants in Russia had to be shut down 
because they were leaking radioactive substances. 
5. Before leaving the moon the astronauts did not 
forget to plant the United States flag. 
a. (n) a living organism 
growing on soil 
b. (n)the machinery, building, 
etc. of a factory 
c. (n)the apparatus for a 
certain mechanical operation 
d. (v)to set firmly in position 
e. (v)to settle, found, establish 
 
IV. Write this text substituting all the ‘nulls’ by words that make sense within the 
context: 
One (1)null summer day at (2)null you see the most (3)null creature you have ever seen. 
(Her/His) name is (4)null , and every move (5)null makes just turns you on more and 
more. You nudge your best friend (6)null and say, "Wow, that has to be the most (7)null 
body I have ever seen. Suddenly, (8)null looks in your direction and starts walking right 
towards you!!! (10)null says, "I noticed you staring at me from over there. I just had to 
tell you, that I think you are so (11)null and was wondering if you'd like to go to (12)null 
with me and (13)null ?" With a stupid smile on your face you say, " null " and go with 
(him/her). When you finally get to (14)null , /(15)null moves closer to you, and gives you 
the biggest kiss ever. The two of you are passionately kissing, when you feel a (16)null 
hit you on the back of the head. You open your eyes to find out it's all a dream, but 
there is a note left next to your bed. 
It reads: " (17)null is the love you've been waiting your whole life for. (18)null will ask 
you out in (19)null days or less, but only if you forward this site on ICQ or by email to at 
least 5 people within the next few minutes. The more people you send it to, the sooner 
 
 79
they will ask you out, and you both will fall in love. Do not take this lightly, because if you 
simply ignore this, you will have bad luck in love for the next (20)null years!" 
 
 
 
 
V. You should be aware of the fact that many parts of speech (the various 
grammatical functions of words in sentences) can be recognised by their affixes and that 
prefixes help to define their meanings.(See appendix “ on page 59) Make as many words 
as you can from the following stems indicating for each new word to what word class it 
belongs: 
use – produce examples: abuse (verb) / production (noun) 
 
VI. Form as many new words as you can by using affixes with the following words: 
sell – turn - trust – use – collect – connect – work – true – able – known – fly – fit – 
refutable – print – real – geology – trust – busy – memory – material - operative rare – 
plant – possible – cycle – repairable – distribute - convert – sense - responsible 
 
 
 
Lessons-63/64 
 
 Grammar 
Reading 
Before you start correcting grammar errors in a draft, you should realise that there is a 
big difference between speaking and writing English. For example, when you speak, 
there is little time for correction of mistakes. 
English has a relatively irregular grammar system. Learning all the rules and the 
exceptions to the rules will probably not help you much in avoiding to make mistakes 
when speaking English, because concentrating on the rules makes you self-conscious. 
You may become afraid that other people will laugh when you make errors when 
speaking. You can learn vocabulary and grammar rules unconsciously by watching 
English TV or movies, etc. It is actually better to risk making mistakes when trying to 
communicate, while at the same time remaining receptive to corrections by the teacher. 
However, when you are writing in English, you have much more time to avoid making 
grammatical errors, so you should avail yourself of that opportunity. Many errors in the 
grammar confuse or irritate the reader and may even lead to misunderstandings. 
 
 
 
Tasks and exercises 
I. There are two or more errors in each of the following sentences. The errors are 
underlined. Correct the errors. 
Example: 
 
 80
If somebody become ill, then he go to an local doctor. 
> …becomes … …… goes…a ……… 
 
1. We have all hers documents here, but your are still missing. 
2. He is leaving in 4 September, that is, at Friday afternoon. 
3. Where he went yesterday? and for what? 
4. There is much books at the library. 
5. There products are of a low quality, but our are the best. 
6. They ordered fourty five bicycles and fiftyhundred t-shirts on the nineth of Julho. 
7. We finish work usually late at the evening, so we never can do any shopping after 
work. 
8. The number of schools growed gradually until 1994, and then rised suddenly 
dramatically. 
9. My company transfers monthly my salary to my account, whom I opened last year. 
10. They solve that problem yesterday? – Yes, but now we having another one.11. We often are in the library at that time, because we use always the computers. 
12. We haven’t yet received those books what we ordered last week of whom the 
titles were all clear listed on the order form. 
13. You do not need to contact they about theirs errors, because they have already 
discovered this errors themselves. 
 
 
II. Complete the following passage by choosing from the words (or phrases) in the 
right column. 
For each gap choose one option from the four and underline it. 
 
Father, son and donkey 
A father and his son [a]……………. taking their 
donkey to the market. [b] ………. man who was 
riding on a bicycle shouted to c]……….., ‘Hey. You 
are stupid! [d]…………. are you[walking? You can 
ride the donkey!’ 
So the father got on the donkey. 
Then a woman, who saw the father riding on the 
donkey, said, ‘You are not very kind. You [e]…………. 
on the donkey and your little boy is walking!’ 
So the father got [f]……… the donkey and his son 
got on the donkey. 
Then the teacher of the village [g]……... the boy on 
the donkey and said, ‘You are not very nice to 
[h]……….. father! Remember we must always 
respect [i]……… parents. Why are you riding while 
he [j]…………….?’ 
So the father got on the donkey and sat [k]………... 
 
a. were - was - is - are 
b. An – The - A - (zero) 
c. their – them - us - they 
d. When – How - Where - Why 
 
 
e. were riding - ‘re riding – ride - 
riding 
f. off – in – on - of 
g. notice - noticed - notices - 
noticing 
h. your – our – his - yours 
i ourselves – our – ours - us 
j. are walking - is walking - was 
walking - walks 
k. on – behind - next to - after 
l. whose – who – whom - which 
 
 81
his son. 
Another woman, [l]………… was selling fish, saw 
both of them sitting on the donkey, [m]……….by 
now was becoming very tired and walking very 
[n]…………. and she said, ‘ Is that your donkey? Are 
you crazy? Two people? You are very heavy! The 
donkey is nearly [o]…………..’ 
So the father and son got off the donkey. 
The same man who [p] ……… on a bicycle passed 
them again and shouted, ‘Are you going to the 
market? Then carry the donkey! [q]………….. very 
tired!’ 
So the father and his son carried the donkey 
[r]………. the market. 
In the market everybody laughed! They [s]………….. 
to buy the donkey! 
‘It’s a very lazy donkey!’, they said. ‘You are 
carrying [t]…… to the market!’ 
So the father and his son and the donkey [u]……... 
home again. 
If you try to make everybody happy you will make 
nobody happy. 
m. zero – what – who - which 
n. slow – slower – slowy - slowly 
 
 
o. died - deadly – dead - die 
 
p. rides – rode - were riding - as 
riding 
 
q. Is it – Is – Its - It’s 
r. near - at - to - for 
 
s. didn’t want - doesn’t want - don’t 
want - not wanted 
 
t. his – it - him - he 
u. walks - was walking - were 
walking – are walked 
 
 
 
 
 
 82
III. 
The Car-jacking 
An elderly Florida lady (a)…… … to her car with her 
shopping when she found four young men in the 
act of leaving with (b)…….…… vehicle. She 
(c)…….………. her shopping bags and while she was 
screaming, ‘I have a gun and I (d)……….. how to use 
it!’, she actually (e)………. a formidable handgun 
ready for shooting. When they saw (f)……… gun 
and heard the woman yelling ‘Get (g)……. of my 
car you scumbags’, the young men jumped out of 
the car and started running for (h)……… lives. 
Somewhat shaken, the lady loaded her shopping 
bags (i)……… the back of her car and got into the 
driver’s seat. She was shaking so much that she 
(j)………. get the key into the ignition. While she 
was trying and trying, it began to dawn on her (k) 
…… not. A few minutes later she (l)…….. her own 
car parked four of five spaces farther down, the 
same colour and type of car. She loaded her bags 
again and drove to the police station. A policeman 
there asked, ‘(m)………… you want report 
something?’ (n)…….. policeman listened to her 
story and started laughing. While he was falling 
about laughing and no longer able to talk, he 
pointed (o)…. the group of four young men, 
(p)………. were very pale now and waiting at the 
end of the counter, where they (q)………. reporting 
a car-jacking by a tiny, (r)……….., grey-haired 
woman carrying (s)…… gun. 
They (t)………… that the old lady was mistaken, and 
that she was thinking that the young men were 
robbing her car. 
 
a. was returning-- returns – is 
returning - return 
b. her - his- their - our 
c. drops - dropping - dropped drop 
d. know - knows - knowing - knew 
e. drawing – draw - draws - drew 
f. no article – a – an - the 
g. out - in - on -off 
 
h. their – his - her - our 
 
i. onto - into - out of - in 
 
j. can’t - wouldn’t - shouldn’t - 
couldn’t 
k. when - why - how - what 
l. find – finds – found - finding 
 
m. Do - Did - Does - Is 
n. The – a - no article - an 
o. to – at - in - on 
p. which - who - whose - 
that 
q. was – were – is - are 
r. crazily - craze – crazy - craza 
s. a – an – the - no article 
t. not understood - understoodn’t - 
 understood not - didn’t 
understand. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 83
The Car-jacking 
An elderly Florida lady (a)…… … to her car with her 
shopping when she found four young men in the 
act of leaving with (b)…….…… vehicle. She 
(c)…….………. her shopping bags and while she was 
screaming, ‘I have a gun and I (d)……….. how to use 
it!’, she actually (e)………. a formidable handgun 
ready for shooting. When they saw (f)……… gun 
and heard the woman yelling ‘Get (g)……. of my 
car you scumbags’, the young men jumped out of 
the car and started running for (h)……… lives. 
Somewhat shaken, the lady loaded her shopping 
bags (i)……… the back of her car and got into the 
driver’s seat. She was shaking so much that she 
(j)………. get the key into the ignition. While she 
was trying and trying, it began to dawn on her (k) 
…… not. A few minutes later she (l)…….. her own 
car parked four of five spaces farther down, the 
same colour and type of car. She loaded her bags 
again and drove to the police station. A policeman 
there asked, ‘(m)………… you want report 
something?’ (n)…….. policeman listened to her 
story and started laughing. While he was falling 
about laughing and no longer able to talk, he 
pointed (o)…. the group of four young men, 
(p)………. were very pale now and waiting at the 
end of the counter, where they (q)………. reporting 
a car-jacking by a tiny, (r)……….., grey-haired 
woman carrying (s)…… gun. 
They (t)………… that the old lady was mistaken, and 
that she was thinking that the young men were 
robbing her car. 
 
a. was returning-- returns – is 
returning - return 
b. her - his- their - our 
c. drops - dropping - dropped drop 
d. know - knows - knowing - knew 
e. drawing – draw - draws - drew 
f. no article – a – an - the 
g. out - in - on -off 
 
h. their – his - her - our 
 
i. onto - into - out of - in 
 
j. can’t - wouldn’t - shouldn’t - 
couldn’t 
k. when - why - how - what 
l. find – finds – found - finding 
 
m. Do - Did - Does - Is 
n. The – a - no article - an 
o. to – at - in - on 
p. which - who - whose - 
that 
q. was – were – is - are 
r. crazily - craze – crazy - craza 
s. a – an – the - no article 
t. not understood - understoodn’t - 
 understood not - didn’t 
understand. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Lessons-65/66 
 
 Spelling 
Reading 
An academic paper that is full of spelling mistakes obviouslywill not easily impress your 
reader! Use a dictionary, or the spelling-check device in Word by Microsoft to correct 
spelling mistakes. As you will see in exercise III below, the English spelling is quite 
 
 84
complicated to learn, because English spelling often does not accurately reflect the way 
modern English is pronounced. English has a very conservative spelling: in fact, the 
spelling gives an idea of how the language was probably spoken hundreds of years ago. 
 
Here are some general rules about spelling 
a. NOUNS plural –s : 
 
 -s or s-like sounds + s > -es: 
 
 
 
 also : 
bird 
place 
bus 
dish 
watch 
box 
potato 
tomato 
birds 
places 
buses 
dishes 
watches 
boxes 
potatoes 
tomatoes 
b. VERBS –s third person singular: 
 
 -s or s-like sounds + s > es: 
 also: 
Think 
live 
wish 
do 
go 
thinks 
lives 
wishes 
does 
goes 
c. NOUNS f/ fe > plural - ves 
 
 but: 
knife 
shelf 
roof 
knives 
shelves 
roofs 
d. NOUNS and VERBS y > I baby 
fly 
try 
study 
study 
easy 
 
happy 
heavy 
babies 
flies 
tries 
studies 
studied 
easier 
easiest 
happily 
heavily 
e. VERBS y remains y in –ay –oy – uy – ey: 
 
 but: 
enjoy 
stay 
pay 
say 
enjoys 
stays 
paid 
said 
f. VERBS -e + -ing> drop : e: 
 
 but: 
 
make 
come 
lie 
die 
making 
coming 
lying 
dying 
g. NOUNS and VERBS i always before e: 
 
 except after c : 
 
 and when the sound is like ay : 
believe 
shield 
receive 
ceiling 
weigh 
 
 
 85
neighbour 
height 
h. prefixes must remain complete(mis-, 
with- 
 un- etc.) : 
misspelling 
withhold 
unnecessary 
 
i. differences between c – s noun - verb : advice 
device 
advise devise 
j. suffix added to a word ending in –e Manage management 
k. if a word ends with a consonant 
 usually double the consonant 
 when adding an ending that 
 begins with vowel: 
 but: 
occur 
trip 
travel 
 
benefit 
develop 
occurred 
tripped 
travelling 
 
benefited 
developed 
Tasks and exercises 
 
I. Correct the spelling mistakes below: 
1. stoped 8. devided .
 resourses 
2. tryed 9. crittisism . begginning 
3. acomodation 10. frecuently 17. desappear 
4. goverment 11. insuficient 18. refering 
5. maked 12. neccessary 19. wich 
6. geting 13. ocurred 20.
 medesine 
7. prefered 14. acheives 21. studing 
 
II. Underline the spelling mistakes in the following two passages and correct 
them: 
Can you give me some advise, please? I have never traveled to Maputo and I am 
makeing a trip next week. Our managment has developped some planes to be recieved 
by the central office in Maputo. I’ll be staing there for ten dais. 
 
III. Group the following words that have vowels (printed in bold) with the same 
pronunciation: 
bush – use – us – occur – truck – fur – rude - fuss – Luke – pull – quick - true 
dog – work – low – hot - short – stock – shoot – shot – love - lose 
through - rough – daughter - laugh – house – court – board – glue – enough – though – 
load – Boer – loud 
wash – raw – fast – fat – father – behave – half – watch – cash – wall – hate - hat 
here – nerve – web – blew – let - beef – hear – heard – clean – weight – leisure – dead 
wit – white – bird – rice - bid – skirt - right – birth - thief – wait – stairs - 
 
IV. Rewrite the following text trying to correct all the spelling mistakes: 
 
 86
Visual Memory! 
Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde 
Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht 
oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny 
iprmoetnt tihng is taht the frist and 
lsat ltteer be at the rghit pclae. 
 
The rset can be a total mses and you can 
sitll raed it wouthit porbelm. Tihs is 
bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed 
ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe. 
 
Amzanig huh? 
 
V. Use a good English dictionary to learn the correct pronunciation and meaning 
of the look-alike words in the following sentences. 
1. The dump was so full that it had to refuse more refuse. 
2. We must polish the Polish furniture. 
3. He could lead the team to victory if he would get the lead out. 
4. The soldier decided to desert his dessert in the desert. 
5. Since there is no time like the present, he thought it was time to present the present 
to his mother. 
6. When the shot came near, the dove dove into the bushes. 
7. The medical insurance was invalid for the invalid. 
8. There was a row among the oarsmen about how to row. 
9. The buck does funny things when the does are present. 
10. The sewer in the shirt factory dropped a spool of thread down into the sewer line. 
11. To help with planting, the farmer taught his prize sow to sow. 
12. The wind was too strong to wind the sail. 
13. I had to subject the subject to a series of tests. 
 
 
 Lessons-65/66 
 
Punctuation 
Structures: 
1. Full-stop . 
a. A full-stop is used to end a sentence. The next sentence begins with a capital 
letter. 
b. After people’s initials 
e.g. M.R. Augusto 
2. Comma , 
 Together with the full-stop the comma is the most commonly used punctuation 
mark. Basically it separates parts of the sentence. It is used: 
 
 87
a. to separate a non-defining relative clause from the rest of the sentence. 
 e.g. It is years ago that I read Anna Karenina, which is my favourite novel. 
b. to separate some non-defining adjectival phrases from the rest of the 
sentence. 
 e.g. The speaker, getting to his feet, began to…. 
c. when a subordinate clause comes before the principal clause. 
 e.g. If you do not understand, please tell me. 
d. to separate a number of connectives from the rest of the sentence: too, 
however, nevertheless, though, of course, then. etc. 
 e.g. You can, however, do it if you wish. 
e. in many kinds of lists. 
 e.g. I shall need a book, some paper, a pencil, and a ruler. 
3. Colon : 
a. It indicates that what follows is an explanation or amplification of what 
precedes it. 
e.g. I have some news for you: John’s father has arrived. 
b. It can be used to introduce a list of items, often preceded by namely, such as, 
as follows, etc. 
 e.g. Please send the items indicated below, namely: (i) passport (ii) visa 
application (iii) correct fee. 
 
4. Semi-colon ; 
a. A semi-colon coordinates or joins two independent but related clauses. 
e.g. The lecture was badly delivered; it went on far too long as well. 
b. It is usedin lists to show sub-groupings. 
e.g. The chief commodities are: butter, cheese, milk eggs; lamb, beef veal, 
pork; oats barley, rye and wheat. 
 
5. Apostrophe ’ 
a. An apostophe is used to indicate genitive (possessive) singular and plural. 
 e.g. the student’s book / the students’ books 
 child’s / children’s 
b. It is also used in contractions to indicate letters ommitted. 
e.g. I’ve = I have 
 didn’t = did not 
 
6. Dash — 
A dash is used to indicate a break, often informally. 
e.g. He received a prize — and a certificate as well. 
7. Quotation marks ‘ ’ " " 
Quotation marks (quotes) or inverted commas can be single or double. They 
inclose the actual words of direct speech. 
e.g. He said, “Why did you do that?” 
or He said, ‘Why did you do that?’ 
 
 88
 
8. Question mark ? 
A question mark is used after a direct question. 
e.g. What time is it? 
It is not used after an indirect question. 
e.g. Please tell me what the time is. 
 
9. Hyphen - 
a. A hyphen separates, in some cases, the prefix from the second part of the 
word. 
 e.g. co-opt 
b. It joins some compound words. 
 e.g. self-control, twenty-one 
 
10. Capital Letters 
a. To begin a sentence. 
c. For names of people, places, events and organisations 
e.g. Mr Williams, Manica, Presidential Elections, British Broadcasting 
Corporation (BBC) 
d. For nationalities and languages 
e.g. Mozambican, Chinese 
e. For calender information like months, days etc. 
e.g. Thursday 16 November 
f. For job titles 
e.g. Marketing Manager 
 
NOTE: 
In general, in written Portuguese sentences are longer than in English. 
The semi-colon (;) is used far less in English than in Portuguese! 
Compare how in Portuguese long (run-on) sentences are acceptable; in English 
they are preferably cut into smaller units with full stops. 
Accepted in Portuguese 
Run-on sentences 
Preferred in English: 
Sentence) Em 1979, a SLC cedeu 20% do 
seu capital à John Deere, uma das 
maiores fabricantes de máquinas 
agrícolas do mundo, e foi aperfeiçoando 
sua colheitadeira que, de pequenas 
propriedades rurais da região Noroeste 
do Rio Grande do Sul, conquistou a 
América Latina, a América Central, a 
África e o mundo, sendo hoje 
comercializada em mais de 20 países. 
In 1979, SLC sold 20 percent of its 
stocks to John Deere, one of the 
largest agricultural machinery 
manufacturers in the world. Sales 
went on from the small rural 
properties in the state of Rio Grande 
do Sul to take over Latin America, 
Africa and the world. Today SLC-
John Deere harvesters are sold in 
more than 20 countries. 
During my vacation in July, when I went Last July I went on vacation in the 
 
 89
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Lessons-67/68 
 Summary and final exercises 
 
Tasks and exercises 
I 
Simple Present Simple Past He said: "I want some oranges." He said he wanted some oranges. 
Present Continuous Past Continuous They said: "We are studying hard." They said they were studying hard. 
Simple Past Past Perfect * 
She said: "I needed you, but uou 
weren't here." 
She said she had needed him, but he 
hadn't been there. 
Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous Tom said: "I was talking to Mary." Tom said he had been talking to Mary. 
Present Perfect Past Perfect * They said: "We've worked together." They said they had worked together. 
Going to- Future was/were going to. I said: "I'm going to visit Jim"! I said I was going to visit Jim" 
Must Had to* She told me: "I must hurry up." She told me she had to hurry up. 
 
II. Put the words in the right order. 
1. spoke I last week to the manager 
2. once a month to South Africa travels usually Pedro Azar 
3. the budget the director before the weekend wants to see 
4. today this work you finishing are ? 
5. accept cheques they usually 
to the south of France and other parts of 
central Europe, I bought many souvenirs 
and I saw many interesting places, both 
the normal tourist sites and the lesser 
known locations. 
south of France and other parts of 
central Europe. I bought many 
souvenirs and saw many interesting 
places. Some of the places I visited 
were the normal tourist sites, and 
others were lesser known locations. 
 
 90
6. always doesn’t he the answer know 
7. a Portuguese course last year our new manager attended in Lisbon 
8. the door the secretary shuts never 
9. in the evening always don’t they ring 
10. at our plant in Maputo we last year one million tonnes produced 
11. starting her project this month is? 
12. there in Lisbon once a year a big conference is 
13. for a substitute often don’t ask they 
14. me a letter writes at the end of the month my friend always 
15. talked we yesterday to the director 
16. the design by next month wants to have the director 
17. don’t normally very young children accept they 
18. at their factory near Dondo they last year 5000 tonnes produced 
19. every weekend to Chimoio travels Maxima 
20. this week his report he finishing is ? 
21. usually doesn’t she an answer give 
22. rings on Sundays always she 
 
b. Sentence order in a paragraph 
It is also important that the ideas within a paragraph are arranged in logical order. 
Be careful not to change abruptly from one subject to another subject that has little to 
do with the previous one. 
 
III. Scrambled sentences: The sentences in the following two texts (paragraphs) are 
not in a correct order. Indicate the correct order by re-numbering them. 
i. Television 
1. In the second group, the companies that run the television stations receive their 
money from advertising. 
2. Television networks can be broadly classified into two types, on the basis of how 
they 
 are financed. 
3. This type is known as non-commercial television. 
4. Such an organisation, which therefore shows advertisements or commercials, is 
called 
 commercial television. 
5. In the first group the money is provided by the government. 
ii. The Geography of Britain 
1. The highland are comprises the whole of Scotland, Wales, Devon and Cornwall in 
the south-west of England, and parts of the north-west of England. 
2. The other region, the lowlands, lies mainly in the south-east of England. 
3. This highland area, however, is not continuous but also contains valleys and plains. 
4. Geographically, the island of Great Britain can be roughly divided into two main 
 regions, highlands and lowlands. 
5. The area contains all the mountainous parts of Great Britain and extensive uplands 
 
 91
 lying above 300 metres. 
 
III-Put the following sentences in a logical order by numbering 
them from 1 to 6, that is, you put number 1 before the sentence 
with which the text should begin, number 2 for the next 
sentence and so on until you get to the concluding sentence 
which you give number 6. 
 
……… In the planning stage, open space can be achieved by grouping domestic 
accommodation, so that areas of land are left open. 
……… An increasing number of urban planners are now becoming aware of the 
importance of open space. 
……… The result of this policy is that people who live in cities and towns can experience a 
change from the noise and pollution of traffic, and the closed-infeeling among tall 
buildings. 
……… They realize that cities need areas of open space to make them visually more 
attractive to establish recreational areas and to absorb noise and air pollution. 
……… Later when rebuilding domestic accommodation in the newly planned areas, open 
space can be achieved by demolishing old buildings and, for instance, disused railway 
tracks and restoring the land to a park or playground. 
……… Furthermore, open space helps to reduce adverse effects of urban climates, and 
provides habitats for birds and forms of wild life in or near urban areas. 
 
Exercise Revision 
 
IV. Use the following connecting words to complete the gaps in the text below: 
although furthermore concluding moreover nor consequently 
therefore because for example however 
A communication system conveys information from its sources to a destination 
some distance away. …………(1), there are so many different applications of 
communication systems that we cannot attempt to cover every type. …………(2) can we 
discuss in detail all the individual parts that make up a specific system, …………(3) a 
typical system involves numerous components that run the gamut of electrical 
engineering, ………(4) circuits, electronics, electromagnetics, signal processing, 
microprocessors and communication networks. ……………(5) , a piece-by-piece 
treatment would obscure the essential point that a communication system is an 
integrated whole that really does exceed the sum of its parts. 
……………(6), we approach the subject from a more general viewpoint. …………(7) 
there are many types of communication systems, they have the same basic function of 
information transfer. We will, ……………(8) , seek out and isolate the principles and 
problems of conveying information in electrical form. …………(9), these will be examined 
in depth to develop analysis and design methods suited to a wide range of applications. 
…………(10), this text is concerned with communication systems as systems. 
 
 
 92
V. Read the following text about eco-tourism and then complete the gaps in the 
exercise below: 
Though there are many definitions of ecotourism, the term is most commonly used to 
describe any recreation in natural surroundings. The International Ecotourism Society 
defines ecotourism as: "responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the 
environment and improves the welfare of local people". 
Worldwide, tourism generates annual revenues of nearly 3 trillion dollars and 
contributes nearly 11% of the global GNP (Gross National Product), making it the world's 
largest industry. Although the events of September 11th rocked the tourism industry 
and made it difficult to predict long-term trends, ecotourism is a growing component of 
the larger tourism industry, and several factors indicate that it is likely to thrive over 
time. These factors include increased awareness of environmental problems among 
tourist populations, willingness of tourists to engage in socially-aware travel, and 
interest in visiting lesser-known countries like Thailand and Belize rather than traditional 
vacation getaways. 
In 1993 the World Tourism Organization (WTO) estimated nature tourism generated 7 
per cent of all international travel expenditure. More recent research reveals this is now 
much higher, accounting for 20 per cent of international travel in the Asia-Pacific region 
and some areas, such as South Africa, experiencing a massive growth in visitors of over 
100 per cent annually. 
Ecotourists tend to travel on economy and to use clean but private 2 or 3 star 
accommodation. They typically stay with local families, or at small, environmentally-
friendly hotels called ecolodges. These opportunities for personal contact with members 
of the host community facilitate cross-cultural exchange and add greatly to the value of 
ecotourism experiences for some people. 
Ecotourists are articulate, assertive and well educated. They demand quality 
experiences. When they are planning their trips ecotourists have many questions. They 
want to be informed on the best times to visit any particular site and what are the 
trade-offs going there at other times. 
Amongst international ecotourists, most come from northern Europe and North 
America rather than from southern Europe or Latin America. Many Australians are also 
keen to experience ecotourism. 
Practically speaking, ecotourism includes activities in which visitors enjoy hands-on 
experiences, such as bird-watching in the Brazilian rainforest, hiking in the mountains of 
Nepal, participating in a traditional village celebration, or taking a canoe trip down a 
river. 
 
 93
The following are just some of the many topics which interest ecotourists: local flora 
and fauna, geology (people are interested in soils and what makes them different), 
spectacular features (waterfalls, lakes, grand forests, rocky headlands, coral reefs), 
history and culture. The aspects ecotourists find very interesting are: customs and 
rituals, religion, traditional art and crafts (such as weaving), ceremonies (the Balinese 
attract many hundreds of people to their cremation ceremonies), traditional music and 
dance, traditional architecture and building, traditional lifestyle generally from the 
forms of agriculture to the diet and style of cooking. 
There are many factors which attract ecotourists. Apart from the destinations providing 
quality information is the key factor to ecotourism. Ecotourists are prepared to endure a 
great deal of discomfort to explore areas if the subjects can be made interesting. 
The more that it explained and the better the explanations, the more time they will 
spend exploring. Ecotourists don't want to be rushed. They prefer fewer stops with 
more quality time at each. They want to watch the sunsets. They want to be assured 
that they will get adequate, well planned quality-time. 
Ecotourism has the capacity to deliver a lot of economic benefits to traditional cultures. 
However whether those benefits are realized depends on how ell the ecotourism is 
managed. Having a good resource to attract ecotourists is a good start but to get the 
greatest local benefits requires careful management to maximize the time which they 
spend locally. 
 
VI. 
Fill the gaps in the sentences, using the phrases below: 
accommodation, to endure, annual revenues, hands-on experiences, recreation, to 
deliver, eco-lodges, assertive, want to be assured, improves the welfare, travel 
expenditure, to thrive 
1. Though there are many definitions of ecotourism, the term is most commonly 
used to describe any ………………………in natural surroundings. 
2. The International Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism as: "responsible travel 
to natural areas that conserves the environment and ………………………of local people". 
3. Worldwide, tourism generates …………………………of nearly 3 trillion dollars and 
contributes nearly 11% of the global GNP (Gross National Product), making it the world's 
largest industry. 
4. Although the events of September 11th rocked the tourism industry and made it 
difficult to predict long-term trends, ecotourism is a growing component of the larger 
tourism industry, and several factors indicate that it is likely ……………………………over 
time. 
5. In 1993 the World Tourism Organization (WTO) estimated nature tourism 
generated 7 per cent of all international …………………………. 
6. Ecotourists tend to travel on economy and to use clean but private 2 or 3 star 
…………………………….94
 
VII 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
REFERENCES 
 
 The differences between how humans think and 
computers operate 
Choose for each gap between the three options a) 
b) or c) 
When we compare the way in which computers function 
with the way in …………(1) the human brain operates, 
there appear to be ……….(2) superficial similarities. Firstly, 
humans and computers ……..(3) communicate the use of 
language. Secondly, both are able to …….. (4) draw 
conclusions a number of related facts. 
………(5), one of the major differences between human 
and computer intelligence is that computers can only 
‘think’ ………(6) the strict parameters that their 
programmes, designed by humans, will allow them, 
…….(7) there are virtually no limits to what humans can 
think or talk about. Human thinking is not static 
………(8) dynamic and creative and …………(9) develops its 
perceptions on the basis of newly acquired impressions 
and the storage of facts in its memory. …….(10), the 
human brain has self-consciousness, ……….. (11) in a 
philosophical sense could be considered the ‘mind’ as 
opposed to the brain. 
Nevertheless, there are scientists …….. (12) claim that 
modern technology ………… (13) develop to such a level, 
that one day they ……… (14) be able to design robots with 
an artificial ‘brain’ that can function ……. (15) creatively 
and produce original ideas and solve ……. (16) 
complicated problems much …….. (17) and more 
efficiently than humans are able to do. ………..(18) these 
machines also be able to dominate human beings and 
take control of our lives? 
 
1. a) what b) which c) that 
 
2. a) some b) any c) much 
3. a) will b) could c) can 
4. a) logically b) logical 
 c) logic 
 
5. a) Therefore b) Because 
 c) However 
6. a) within b) between 
 c) among 
7. a) so b) moreover 
 c) whereas 
8. a) but b) and c) or 
9. a) constant b) constantly 
 c) constants 
10. a)Moreover b) Although 
 c) While 
11. a) who b) whose 
 c) which 
12. a) who b) whom 
 c) which 
13. a) must b) could c) has 
14. a) can b) are c) will 
15. a) most b) much c) more 
16. a) many b) much c) any 
17. a) fast b) faster 
 c) fastest 
18. a. must b. are c. will 
 
 95
Alexander R. (1989, 2003) New International Business Studies, Cambridge: CUP. 
Aztar, B Shrimper (1989) Understanding and Using English Grammar, New Jersey: 
Prentice-Hall. 
Arnold J. & Harmer J. (1988) Advanced Writing Skills, London: Longman. 
Hedge T. (1995) Writing, Oxford: UP. 
English J & Lewis R. (1995) How to Write Reports, Cambridge: Collins Educational. 
Jordan R.R. (1990) Academic Writing Course, London: Longman. 
Mackenzie (1997, 2002) English for Business Studies, Cambridge: CUP 
McArthur T. (1992) The Oxford Companion to English Language, New York: OUP. 
McArthur T. (1984) the Written Word Book 2, Oxford: OUP. 
Murphy R. (1998, 2004) Essential Grammar in Use, Cambridge: CUP 
Schofield J. (2004) Double Dealing, Oxford: Summer town Publishing Ltd. 
Wald horn A, (1981) English Made Simple, New York: Doubleday 
Wallace M. (1988) Study Skills, Cambridge: CUP. 
Websites 
 
http://dictionary.cambridge.org 
http.//digital.library.upenn.edu/books 
http://free-esl.comwww.eslall.com 
www.antimoon.com 
www.britishcouncil.org 
www.esl.tower.com 
www.examenglish.com 
www.english-hilfen.com 
www.englishclub.com 
www.englishjet.com 
www.esl-galaxy.com 
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/ 
www.piffe.com 
www.studyenglishtoday.net 
www.usingenglish.com 
www.webenglishteacher.com/research 
 
 
 The end