avian pathology postmortem

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EXERCISE-1: POSTMORTEM EXAMINATION OF POULTRY - INTRODUCTION
· Postmortem examination is the common and routine method for the diagnosis of avian diseases. Symptomatic diagnosis is difficult particularly in flocks or farms. 
· Postmortem should be performed as early as possible (preferably within 24 hours in an unpreserved carcass) because if putrifaction sets in, then it becomes difficult to identify the lesions and isolate the causative organisms. If the mortality continues and other clinical diagnostic methods fail, few of the ailing birds may be sacrificed for detailed postmortem and laboratory investigations. 
	MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR A POSTMORTEM EXAMINATION
· Small and large straight scissors with pointed as well as blunt ends. 
· Curved scissors. 
· Small and large knives. 
· Scalpel or blade. 
· Bone cutter and a saw. 
· Small and large forceps. 
· Tooth forceps. 
· Hand lens. 
· Hand gloves – rubber or latex. 
· Bunsen burner or spirit lamp or stove. 
· Spatulas. 
· Syringes and needles. 
· Sterilizer. 
· Autoclave. 
· Spirit or alcohol. 
· Cotton and cotton swabs. 
· Sterile swabs, vials, petridishes and test tubes. 
· Pasteur pipettes and rubber bulbs. 
· Fixatives like 10% formalin, formol saline or netural formalin. 
· A microscope. 
· Clean glass slides and cover slips. 
· Different staining sets and stains like Gram’s, Ziehl – Neelsen, Giemsa and wright’s strain. 
· Normal saline and glycerine saline. 
· Small and large glass trays. 
· Matches and torch. 
· Aprons. 
· Disinfectants like dettol, savlon, phenol etc. 
· Insecticides or electric flytrap for controlling fly population. 
	PROCEDURE
· Soak the carcass in water and place it on the necropsy table. 
· Keep the bird on its back with wings and legs extended. Abduct the legs by cutting the skin between the leg and the abdomen on each side and breaking open the hip joints and dislocating the head of each femur from acetabulum. 
· Cut the skin between the keel and the vent transversely and peel off the skin over the abdomen and legs. 
· Free the crop from the clavicular space by blunt dissection. 
· Cut open the abdomen by incising the abdominal wall transversely between the keel and the vent and remove the sternum by cutting through the ribs and clipping the corocoid and clavicles with bone cutter. 
· Examine the muscles of the thigh and sternum. 
· Examine the joints of the limbs. 
· Part the thigh muscles and examine the sciatic nerve with ventral side up. 
· Remove the sternum and expose the internal organs to study them in situ. 
	EXAMINATION OF DIFFERENT ORGANS
· Remove the liver separately, avoiding damage to the gall bladder. 
· Remove the spleen and examine. 
· Remove the stomach and intestine in one piece after cutting through the oesophagus just anterior to the proventriculus and at cloaca and examine the organs beneath. 
· Cut through the dorsal and ventral attachment of oviduct with mesentery and remove it. 
· Remove the kidneys by blunt dissection and examine the sciatic plexus beneath. 
· Incise the pericardial sac and observe for increased pericardial fluid. 
· Remove the heart by cutting the large blood vessels arising from the heart. 
· By means of blunt dissection, free the lungs from the thoracic wall and cut through the dorsal attachment. Remove it by cutting through the trachea just anterior to the syrinx. 
· Examine the brachial plexuses on either side near the thoracic inlet along with the vagus nerve. 
· Expose the nasal cavity by cutting the upper beak transversely near its attachment with the skin. 
· With the pointed end of the scissor, incise through the openings on either side to expose the paranasal sinuses and examine the abnormalities therein. 
· Open the mouth and cut from one angle of the jaw (preferably right side) with the blunt point of scissors and continue the incision through the pharynx down the esophagus and open the crop. 
· Similarly open the trachea along its whole length from the larynx and examine. 
· Examine the condition of the ribs for softness/hardness while cutting and assess the degree of bend snap in the long bones. 
· Section the proximal tibiotarsal and tasometatarsal epiphyses with a knife and examine for evidence of richitic changes or abnormal structures. 
· Open and examine major joints. 
· Examine the surface of each visceral organs and incise for examination of cut surfaces. 
· Open hollow organs and examine its contents and inner surface. 
· Examine the brain by cutting and reflecting the skin over the skull and the upper mandible. Carefully cut the skull and lift it to expose the brain. 
· Strip off the skin from the carcass and examine skeleton, bones, joints and muscles. 
· Record the lesions in the prescribed proforma. 
· After necropsy give a ‘Pathological diagnosis’ (Tentative/confirmative) based on the lesions encountered. 
· After identifying the etiology, give an etio-pathological diagnosis. 
	EXERCISE-2: EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - EXTERNAL EXAMINATION
· BODY
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Emaciation 
	Off-feed; nutritional deficiencies; lymphoid leucosis; enteritis; gizzard impaction; tuberculosis; unknown 
	Stunted, uneven growth 
	Gizzard impaction; blue comb disease; aflatoxin poisoning; synovitis; contaminated hatching 
	Swellings 
	Ruptured air sac; edema 
	Twitching, muscular spasm 
	Botulism; infectious bursal disease 
	Trembling 
	Epidemic tremors; encephalitis (brain damage) 
	Paralysis 
	Botulism; Marek’s disease; arthritis; aflatoxin poisoning; epidemic tremor 
	Dehydration 
	Acute lack of water; coccidiosis; infectious bursal disease; nutritional imbalance-dietary salts 
	Nervousness 
	Hysteria; drug intoxication; Newcastle disease; fungus infection 
	Lying on breast, legs paralysed 
	Algae poisoning; acute lack of water; yellow jasmine poi
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - EXTERNAL EXAMINATION
FEATHERS
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Moist under wing 
	Infectious coryza 
	Loss of feathers 
	Molting 
	Deposits at base of shafts 
	Lice or mite eggs 
	Soiled hackle feathers 
	Infectious coryza, eye infection 
	Feathers picked 
	Lice; nutritional deficiency-methionine; birds debeaked 
	Depigmented 
	Nutritional deficiencies-lysine, iron or folic acid 
	Broken upper thigh 
	Self picking 
	Feather eating 
	Nutritional deficiency-methionine 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - EXTERNAL EXAMINATION
SKIN 
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Pigmentation excessive 
	Poor production; high pigment intake 
	Nodules, mainly legs 
	Marek’s disease 
	Nodules over vent 
	Flukes (rare) 
	Moist, necrotic, edematous 
	Necrotic dermatitis, exudative diathesis 
	Darkened, purplish 
	Erysipelas; fowl cholera 
	Crusted areas 
	Erysipelas; scab; gangrenous dermatitis 
	Scabby hip 
	Self picking, inflicted by other birds 
	Gangrenous, green 
	Haemorrhage; arthritis; gangrenous dermatitis 
	Vent irritated 
	Northern fowl mite; lice (occasionally) 
	Pale 
	Anaemia; nutritional deficiencies-iron, copper, vitamin B 12 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - EXTERNAL EXAMINATION
Head
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Swollen, puffy 
	Ruptured air sac; infectious coryza; injury; Newcastle disease 
Comb
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Mottled, red and white margins 
	Frozen 
	Eruptions, nodules 
	Fowl pox 
	White, scaly, powdery 
	Favus 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - EXTERNAL EXAMINATION
EYES
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Watery 
	Infectious coryza 
	Blindness 
	Fowl pox; aspergillosis; Arizona Paracolon; paratyphoid 
	Watery, red, inflamed, closed 
	Laryngotracheitis; ammonia burn; Newcastle disease; nutritional deficiency-vitamin A 
	Cataracts 
	Epidemic tremor 
	Crusts on eye lids 
	Nutritional deficiency-vitamin A; fowl pox 
	Pupil irregular, blindness 
	Marek’s disease 
	Blood in eye 
	Haemorrhagic anaemia 
	Large, swollen 
	Mycoplasma infection 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - EXTERNAL EXAMINATION
SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE 
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Small size nodules 
	Subcutaneous mite (rare) 
	Excess Fluid 
	Salt poisoning; edema; exudative diathesis anaemia 
	Air underskin 
	Ruptured air sac; injury or infection of skin 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - EXTERNAL EXAMINATION
MUSCLE
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Congested (as though cooked) 
	Septicaemic disease; improperly bled 
	Haemorrhages 
	Haemorrhagic anaemia; erysipelas, crotolaria; mycotoxicosis; other poisonings; inclusion body hepatitis; infectious bursal disease; injury 
	Dehydrated 
	Acute lack of water; coccidiosis 
	Tumors 
	Marek’s discasc 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - EXTERNAL EXAMINATION
LEGS
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Bone bends 
	Nutritional deficiency-vitamin D 
	Bone thickened, enlarged 
	Lymphoid leucosis (oesteopetrosis); tenosynovitis; nutritional deficiency - zinc 
	Joint swelling 
	Infectious synovitis; paratyphoid; pullorum; nutritional deficiency-zinc; staphylococcosis; tenosynovitis; arthritis 
	Tendon at hock displaced 
	Perosis (nutritional deficiency-choline or manganese) 
	Stilled gait 
	Tenosynovitis 
	Cap separated from femur head, Femur breaks below hip joint 
	Tibial dischondroplasia 
	Bone marrow (pale) 
	Anaemia; haemorrhagic disease; infectious bursal discase; inclusion body hepatitis 
	Tendons enlarged, above and below hock 
	Tensynovitis 
	EXERCISE-3: EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION
TRACHEA
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Free blood or cheese-like linings 
	Newcastle disease 
	Muscus with some blood 
	Chronic respiratory disease 
	Wart-like bodies, upper part 
	Fowl pox 
	Inflamed 
	Adeno virus infection 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION
AIR SACS
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Foamy, purulent, thickened 
	Colibacillosis; chronic respiratory disease; Newcastle disease; Fowl cholera 
	Moldy, nodules 
	Aspergillosis 
	Foamy, frothy 
	Infectious bronchitis 
	Small nodules 
	Air-sac mite (rare) 
Air-sac disease; infectious coryza 
	Cloudy 
	Laryngotracheitis; influenza; Newcastle disease 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION
LUNGS
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Yellow nodules 
	Aspergillosis 
	Consolidated 
	Pneumonia 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION
CROP
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	White cheese-like growth 
	Moniliasis (fungus infection) 
	Dry or slightly moist feed 
	Acute lack of water (dehydration) 
	Contents sour 
	Bluecomb disease 
	Distended with fluid 
	Drop crop; feather eating 
	Lining thickened 
	Capillaria 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION
PROVENTRICULUS
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Swollen, enlarged 
	Necrotic enteritis 
	Haemorrhagic 
	Newcastle disease 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION
GIZZARD
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Excess fiber, grit, litter, etc 
	Impaction 
	Erosion of lining 
	Nonspecific enteritis; necrotic enteritis; haemorrhagic anaemia; normal in very young bird, fish meal. 
	Muscle degenerated 
	Selenium deficiency 
	Lining will not peel 
	Necrotic enteritis 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION
INTESTINES
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Elongated, white worms 
	Ascarids 
	Thickened wall, muscus 
	Capillaria worms 
	Pin point haemorrhages 
	Coccidiosis; agonal haemorrhages 
	Blotchy haemorrhages 
	Haemorrhagic anaemia 
	Red and white dots 
	Necatrix coccidiosis 
	Ulcers 
	Ulcerative enteritis 
	Sloughed lining 
	Non - specific enteritis 
	Paint-brush reddening 
	Non - specific enteritis 
	Collapsed, glue-like contents 
	Heat stroke; acute lack of water 
	Bloody 
	Haemorrhagic enteritis (turkeys); necatrix coccidiosis; Newcastle disease 
	Small white bodies, upper wall 
	Acervulina coccidiosis 
	Green contents 
	Low feed intake and bile not diluted 
	Duodenum red and velvety 
	Generally normal 
	Thick, swollen and haemorrhage 
	Coccidiosis; enteritis 
	Turkish towel effect, brown 
	Necrotic enteritis; coccidiosis 
		EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION
CAECA
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Blood or hard cores 
	Caecal coccidiosis 
	Thickened, ulcerated, enlarged cores 
	Black head 
	Excess fluid 
	Blue comb disease (poults) 
	Short, threadlike organism 
	Caecal worms 
	White cores 
	Coccidiosis; black head, Salmonellosis 
	Ulcers 
	Ulcerative enteritis
Last modified: Friday, 24 August 2012, 11:10 AM
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION
OVARY
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Egg follicles hard shrunken 
	Pullorum; typhoid; unknown 
	Broken egg yolks 
	Bluecomb disease, fowl cholera 
	Cauliflower-like growth 
	Marek’s disease 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION
BURSA OF FABRICIUS 
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Markedly enlarged 
	Infectious bursal disease 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION
HEART SAC
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Thickened, fibrinous, yellowish 
	Chronic respiratory disease; fowl cholera; colibacillosis 
	Fluid in heart sac 
	Aanemia; haemorrhagic anemia; aflatoxin; other poisonings 
	Haemorrhages 
	Fowl cholera; typhoid erysipelas haemorrhagic anemia 
	Heart enlarged 
	Round heart disease; ascites 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION
LIVER
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Film on surface 
	Chronic respiratory disease; fowl cholera; colibacillosis 
	Necrosis with mottling 
	Vibronic hepatitis; blackhead; inclusion body hepatitis 
	White or yellow spots 
	Fowl cholera; pullorum; ulcerative enteritis; adenovirus infection 
	Swollen, darkened 
	Fowl cholera; typhoid; erysipelas; septicaemia, toxaemia; inclusion body hepatitis 
	Yellowish, sandy nodules 
	Tuberculosis 
	Enlarged with or without nodules 
	Marek’s disease lymphoid leucosis 
	Round, depressed ulcers 
	Blackhead 
	Green 
	Staphylococcosis; blockage of bile 
	Yellow 
	Fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome; normal storage; aflatoxicosis 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION
KIDNEY
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Swollen, urate deposits 
	Infectious bronchitis (Holte or Grey strain) infectious bursal disease; nephrosis 
	Sacs filled with fluid 
	Cysts (not infection) 
	Mottled 
	Nephrosis; infectious bronchitis (Holte or Grey strain) 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION 
RIBS
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Beaded, crooked, nodular 
	Rickets (vitamin D, calcium or phosphorus deficiency) 
	EXAMINATION OF CARCASS - INTERNAL EXAMINATION 
BODY CAVITY
	Symptom 
	Possible Cause 
	Excess of fat 
	Fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome; management problems; aflatoxins, excess dietary energy 
	Large blood clot 
	Aortic rupture; fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome 
	Straw colored fluid 
	Ascites (not a disease, but often associated with diseases as lymphoid leucosis). 
	Milky fluid 
	Peritonitis 
	EXERCISE-4: COLLECTION AND DISPATCH OF MATERIALS FOR DIAGNOSIS OF DIFFERENT POULTRY DISEASES
BACTERIAL DISEASE
	Chronic respiratory disease 
	· Trachea tied with Thread on the ends, to be kept in a sterile container on ice or dry ice. 
· Pieces of trachea, lungs and air sacs in formalin. 
	Fowl cholera 
	· Blood smears 
· Blood in Pasteur pipette and spleen (in test tube) on ice. 
· Long bone packed in charcoal powder with or without ice. 
	Fowl spirochaetosis 
	· Blood smears. 
· Pieces of liver and spleen in formalin. 
	Fowl typhoid 
	· Liver, spleen, lungs in formalin. 
· 1 g of faeces in 10 ml of selenite broth. 
· Whole carcass or intestines, spleen, gall bladder on ice. 
· Serum of sick or recovered birds if any (about 0.25 ml or more). 
	Pullorum disease 
	· Same as above. 
	Salmonellosis 
	· Same as above. 
	Colispeticaemia 
	· Pieces of liver, air sacs, heart with percardium and instestines in formalin. 
· Swabs from cloaca, spleen (in test tubes) and heart-blood (in Pasteur pipettes) on ice. 
	Tuberculosis 
	· Pieces of liver, bone marrow, spleen, etc in formalin. 
· Result to tuberculin test (avian tuberculin to be used). 
	Erysipelothrix infection 
	· Smears of bone-marrow, liver and spleen. 
· Stab culture from above three organs in gelatin. 
	Ulcerative enteritis 
(Quail’s disease) 
	· Smears from ulcers of intestine. 
· Ulcerated part of intestine in formalin. 
· Liver and intestine on ice. 
	Necrotic enteritis 
	· Same as for ulcertativeenteritis. 
	Staphylococcosis 
	· Haemorrhagic pieces of skin muscles and kidneys in formalin. 
· Smears from haemorrhagic skin or muscles. 
	Streptococcosis 
	· Piece of lungs, heart and liver in formalin. 
· Smears from the lesions. 
	Chlamydiosis 
	· Smears from liver, spleen and airsacs. 
· Above organs in formalin. 
· Above organs in chlamydial transport medium. 
	Infectious coryza 
(Haemophilus paragallinarum) 
	· Piece of nose, trachea and lungs in formalin. 
· Swabs from infraorbital sinus and trachea on ice. 
	Infectious synovitis 
(M. synoviae) 
	· Smear of synovial fluid. 
· Serum from birds sick for atleast 7 or 8 days. 
· Pieces of affected synovial sheaths in formalin. 
· Liver and spleen on ice. 
	VIRAL DISEASES
	New castle disease 
	· Liver, spleen and brain in 50 per cent glycerine saline or virus transport medium. 
· Proventriculus and brain in 10 per cent formalin (from early cases of the disease). 
	Avian encephalomyelitis
	· Brain and spinal cord in 50 per cent glycerine saline or virus transport medium or dry ice. 
· Pieces of brain, lumbar part of spinal cord, heart and preventriculus in formalin. 
	Infectious bursal disease 
(Gumboro disease)
	· Serum from convalescing or recovered birds. 
· Bursa of Fabricius, spleen and kidneys on ice. 
· Above 3 organs in formalin. 
	Avian influenza
	· Nasal and cloacal swabs in tubes under ice. 
· Suspension of tracheal tissue having 2000 I.U. of penicillin and 5 mg streptomycin per 5 ml of suspension in glycerin saline and if possible also having 10 per cent calf serum, preferably on ice (fragile virus). 
· Pieces of brain, liver, kidneys, spleen, small intestine and proventriculus in formalin. 
	Infectious laryngotracheitis 
	· Smears from mucosa of trachea fixed in chilled acetone. 
· Pieces of trachea, lungs and air sacs in formalin. 
· Pieces of trachea, air sacs and lungs in ice or in virus transport medium. 
· Serum from recovered or convalescing bird. 
	Marek’s disease
	· Feather follicles (base) without any preservative. 
· Affected organs or nerves in formalin. 
· Serum from the sick birds. 
	Infectious bronchitis
	· Sterile trachea and lungs in ice. 
· Serum from recovered or convalescing birds. 
· Sterile swabs from trachea and lungs in 2 ml broth having 2000 I.U. of penicillin and 20,000/µg of streptomycin or in cases of nephrosis piece of kidneys in PBS pH 7.2 and treated with penicillin and streptomycin. 
	Fowl pox
	· Lesions of pox in 50 per cent glycerine saline. 
· Pieces of tissues having lesions, in formalin. 
· Serum of recovered birds. 
	Viral arthritis
	· Exudate form joints and synovial membranes or swabs. 
· 10 per cent suspension of synovial membrane in broth or cell culture fluid with penicillin and streptomycin or in viral transport medium. 
· Affected tissues in formalin. 
· Smears of synovial fluid. 
	Avian Leukosis Complex 
	· Serum of affected birds. 
· Blood smears and smears from affected organs fixed in methanol. 
· Pieces of organs with lesions in formalin. 
	FUNGAL DISEASE
	Aspergillosis
	· Pieces of lungs and air sacs in formalin. 
· Pieces of lungs on ice. 
	MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES
	Mycotoxicosis (or any other toxic condition)
	· About 4 kg of complete feed mixture which may be stored at 4ºC till it is despatched. 
		EXERCISE-5: RANIKHET DISEASE & INFECTIOUS BRONCHITIS - CLINICAL SIGNS & GROSS PATHOLOGY
	
	
	
	
	· Ranikhet Disease: Comb showing severe cyanotic discolouration in experimentally RD induced chicken. 
	Ranikhet Disease: Opisthotonous (backward drawing of head) in experimentally RD induced chicken. 
	Ranikhet Disease: Comb showing blackish discolouation and disappearance of normal colour in RD affected chicken. 
	
	  
	
	Ranikhet Disease: Twisting of neck (torticollis) and paralysis of legs in experimentally RD induced chicken.
	Ranikhet Disease: roventriculus showing typical pin-point haemorrhages on it mucosal papillae. P 
	Ranikhet Disease: Chicken showing the sign of paralysis in a natual case. 
	
	  
	
	Ranikhet Disease: Proventriculus showing petechial haemorrhges on the tip of papillary projections in a natural case. 
	Ranikhet Disease: Intestine showing typical circumscribed "diphtheretic ulcers" on the mucosal surface of duodenum in an experimental case. 
	Ranikhet Disease: Intestine showing multiple haemorrhagic ulcers and petechiae in proventriculus and caecal tonsil. 
	
	  
	
	Ranikhet Disease: Proventriculus showing petechiae and haemorrhagic follicles and leathery egg in abdominal cavity. 
	Ranikhet Disease: Trachea showing severe haemorrhagic changes of mucosa in an experimental case. 
 
	Ranikhet Disease: Intestine showing btton shaped ulcer with raised borders on the mucosa of duodenum in a natural case. 
	
	  
	
	Ranikhet Disease: Trachea showing moderate congestion with cattarrhal secretion in the lumen of a natural case. 
	Infectious bronchitis: Haemorrhagic tracheitis: Trachea showing severe congestion and haemorrhage on its mucosa in a natural case. 
	Infectious bronchitis: Nephritis: Kidney showing moderate enlargement and mottling appearance in a natural case. 
	  
	
	
	Infectious bronchitis: External abnormality: Egg showing diffuse concretions on its surface and an abnorml shape in a natural case. 
	Infectious bronchitis: External abnormality: Egg showing a series of ridges on its surface in a natural case. 
	Infectious bronchitis: External abnormality: Egg showing multiple concretions on its surface in a natural case. 
	  
	
	  
	
	Infectious bronchitis: Hypolplasia of Oviduct: Oviduct showing "under development" and few atretic follicles in a natural case. 
	
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	INFECTIOUS BURSAL DISEASE & INFECTIOUS LARYNGOTRACHEITIS & AVIAN INFLUENZA 
- CLINICAL SIGNS & GROSS PATHOLOGY
	
	
	
	Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD): Haemorrhagic bursitis: Bursa of Fabricius showing severe haemorrhagic changes and appear as a "haemorrhagic mass"
	Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD): Proventiculus and gizzard showing severe haemorrhagic areas at their junction in a experimentally infected chicken.
	Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD): Haemorrhagic myositis: Muscle showing petechiae and linear haemorrhagic streaks in both thigh and breast regions in a natural case. 
	
	
	
	Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD): Nephritis: Kidney showing severe congestion in a natural case. 
	Infectious Laryngo Tracheitis (ILT): Haemorrhagic tracheitis: Trachea showing haemorrhagic mucosa and copious frothy exudate in the lumen of trachea.
	Infectious Laryngo Tracheitis (ILT): Haemorrhagic tracheitis: Trachea showing haemorrhagic exudate in the lumen of trachea. 
	
	
	
	Infectious Laryngo Tracheitis (ILT): Haemorrhagic tracheitis: Trachea showing moderate haemorrhage and desquamation of lining mucosa. 
	Fowl pox: Dry pox: Formation of scabs on unfeathered areas (feet) in the same case. 
	Fowl pox: Wet pox: Larynx showing deposition of yellowish white plaqes in a natural case. Tracheal mucosa shows severe haemorrhagic changes and peeling of mucosa. 
	
	
	
	Fowl pox: Dry pox: Formation of scabs on unfeathered areas (comb and head) and edema of eyelids in a natural case. 
	Fowl pox: Wet pox: Intact larynx showing occlusion of their lumen with yellowish plaques resulting in dyspnoea and oral breathing.
	Avian influenza (HPAI): Heart showing many haemorrhagic streaks and severe congestion in liver. (Courtesy:HSADL, Bhopal.)
	
	
	
	Avian influenza (HPAI): Spleen showing massive enlargement and mottling in a natural outbreak. (Courtesy:HSADL, Bhopal.)
	Avian influenza (HPAI): Legs showing diffuse haemorrhagic changes in shank and massive swelling with haemorrhagic changes in foot regions due to subcutaneous edema in a natural outbreak. (Courtesy:HSADL, Bhopal.) 
	Avian influenza (HPAI): Skin showing a patch of severe congestion and moderatelycongested and swollen legs due to subctaneous edma in a natural outbreak. (Courtesy:HSADL, Bhopal.)
	
	
	
	Avian influenza (HPAI): Skin overlying the skull exhibiting variable haemorrhagic lesions in its subcutaneous areaand few haemorhai streaks are also visible on the frontal area in a natural outbreak. (Courtesy:HSADL, Bhopal.) 
	Avian influenza (HPAI): Pancreas showing diffuse paler areas representing necrosis and encircled by moderately congestd duoenum in a natural outbreak. (Courtesy:HSADL, Bhopal.) 
	Avian influenza (HPAI): Kidney showing diffuse severe congestion and moderately tumified lobes in a natural outbreak. (Courtesy:HSADL, Bhopal.)
	MAREK'S DISEASE, LYMPHOID LEUKOSIS AND AVIAN ENCEPHALOMYELITIS - CLINICAL SIGNS & GROSS PATHOLOGY
	
	
	Marek's Disease: Spastic paralysis of the legs (keeping one leg forward and one in bakward) associated with peripheral nerve involvement.
	Marek's Disease: Opisthotonus ( backward drawing of head and neck),torticollis (lateral twisting of the head and neck), and other nervous signs are sometimes observed in chicken.
	
	
	Marek's Disease: Torticollis (lateral twisting of the head and neck) in chicken. 
	Marek's Disease: Brachial plexus: Enlargement of brachial plexus which cause "wing paralysis" in chicken. 
	
	
	Marek's Disease: Liver : Multiple nodular lymphomas invading most part of the hepatic parenchma in chicken. 
	Marek's Disease: Liver : Diffuse enlargement dueto neoplastic cellular infiltration in chicken. 
	
	
	Marek's Disease: Liver : Massive enlargement of hepatic parenchyma due to neoplastic cellular infiltration in chicken. 
	Marek's Disease: Liver : Multiple typical nodular lymphomas on hepatic parenchyma in chicken. 
	
	
	Marek's Disease: Skin leukosis: The skin around the feather follicles may become raised and roughened (shown here), due to epithelial cell proliferation. 
	Marek's Disease: Skin leukosis: Skin lesions may coalesce into large patches of tumors.
	
	
	Marek's Disease:Irregular iris -This ocular lesion is usually due to lymphoid infiltration of iris that causes white discoloration. The pupil is often irregular (as shown here) and does not respond to changes of light. A normal eye is on the left. 
	Lymphoid leukosis: "Big LiverDisease": Severe enlarement of hepatic parenchyma due to neoplastic lymphoid infiltration. 
	
	
	Avian encephalomyelitis: "Epidemic tremor": Incoordination and lateral recumbency in chicks. 
	Avian encephalomyelitis: The lens, within the eye on the left, contains a central irregularly-shaped, poorly-demarcated, area of light blue opacity. The eye from the bird on the right is normal. 
	INCLUSION BODY HEPATITIS, HYDROPERICARDIUM SYNDROME AND EGG DROP SYNDROME - CLINICAL SIGNS & GROSS PATHOLOGY
	
	
	 Hydropericardium syndrome ("Leech disease): Heart is literally floating in abnormally collected straw coloured fluid in pericadium
	  Leech fruit: It is compared with the affected heart shown in the previous picture. Seed to the heart; Pulp to the fluid 
	CHICKEN INFECTIOUS AGENT, AVINA NEPHRITIS INFECTIOUS STUNTING SYNDROME - CLINICAL SIGNS & GROSS PATHOLOGY
	
	
	Chicken infectious agent: Haemorrhgic myositis:Muscle showing haemorrhagic leions varying from petechiae to ecchymoses on the chest region.
	Chicken infectious agent: Liver showing mildenlargement with focal necrotic areas and haemorrhagic spots on parenchyma. Musclar haemorrhge isalso visible.
	
	
	Chicken infectious agent: Necrotic hepatitis:Liver showing svere enlargement with multiple white necrotic foci on the parenchyma.
	Chicken infectious agent: Gangrenous dermatitis:Skin showing severe haemorrhagic changes with few blood clots and moderate gangrenous lesions.
	
	
	Chicken infectious agent: Gangrenous dermatitis:Skin showing moderate haemorrhage with edmatous changes and gangrenous lesions.
	Chicken infectious agent: Proventriculus showing circular haemorrhagic ulcerated lesions on the papilary projections on the mucosa.
	
	
	Chicken infectious agent: Necrotic vetriculitis: Gizzard showing a large circumscribed ulcerated area with aggregation of sloughed mucosal debris in the centre.
	Chicken infectious agent: Kidney showing severe paleness indicating anaemic status o the carcass.
	EXERCISE-6: COLIBACILLOSIS - CLINICAL SIGNS & GROSS PATHOLOGY
	
	
	
	Colisepticaemia: Perihepatitis and pericarditis:Liver showing a thin layer of fibrin adhering on its entire surface while the heart showing thickened pericardial sac with adhesion of yellowish fibrin layer.
	Colisepticaemia: Perihepatitis and pericarditis: Liver showing a thin layer of fibrin adhering on its surface while the heart showing a thick layer on the pericardium. The specimens on he right side are normal.
	Coligranuloma: Hjarre's disease: Intestine showing hard, yellow nodular granulomas on its wall.
	
	
	
	Coligranuloma: Hjarre's disease: Intestine showing large, hard, and yellow nodular granulomas on its wall. Smaller sized granuomas are seen on the serosal surface of the adjoining intestinal segments.(a closer view of the previous image)
	Egg peritonitis and salpinitis: Abdominal cavity exibiting few yolks with varying haemorragic changes and inflammed oviduct with mild deposition of inspissated caseous material throughout.
	Egg peritonitis and salpinitis: Ovarian follicles showing haemorhagic changes with deposition of inspissated caseous material while severely edematous and congsted oviduct showing adhesion with caseous material and ilky fluid.
	
	
	
	Egg peritonitis: Abdominal cavity revealing a greater amount of yellowish inspissated yolk material adhered on the moderately congested oviduct.
	Egg peritonitis: A large solid yellowish, caked,yolk material, literally, masking the abdominal viscera and occupying the whole area.
	Egg peritonitis: A closer view of a ruptured follicle with its semisolid contents in a natural case.
	
	
	
	Egg peritonitis: A ruptured follicle showing its major part of inspissated contents with some solid contents in a natural case. 
	Impaction of oviduct: Oviduct showing varying distension at different segments due to accumulation of yolk materials in a natural case.
	Impaction of oviduct: Incised oviduct (previous image) showing varying amount of solid whitish yolk materials at different segments in a natural case.
	
	
	
	Impaction of oviduct: Oviduct showing the presence of a "leathery egg" in its lumen.
	Egg bound: Oviduct showing retention of fully formed egg inside due to inability of the oviduct to pass through.
	Impaction of oviduct: Oviduct is partially opened to expose the concretions in the impacted yolk mass in a natural case of chicken.
	
	
	
	Impaction of oviduct: Cut surfaces of the impacted mass revealing concretions of gradually aggregated yolk material.
	Impaction of oviduct: Oviduct is incised to expose the around five numbers of yolks which get impacted due to salpingitis in a natural case of Japanese quail.
	Yolk sac infection (Mushy chick disease, Omphalitis): Abdominal cavity revealing the inflammed "unabsorbed yolk" sac with abnormal colour and consistency of its content.
	INFECTIOUS CORYZA, CLOSTRIDIAL DISEASES & SALMONELLOSIS - CLINICAL SIGNS & GROSS PATHOLOGY
	
	
	Infectious coryza: Chicken showing mild facial edema with swelling of lower eyelid and closed eyes. 
	Infectious coryza:Chicken showing facial edema resulting the closure of eyes with swollen infraorbital sinus in a natural case. 
	
	
	Infectious coryza: Chicken showing bilateral facial edema with marked swelling of infraorbital sinus and swollen wattle in a natural case. Profuse nasal discharge is also evident.
	Infectious coryza: Chicken showing unilateral subcutaneous edema of face and wattle with mild swelling of infraorbital sinus in a natural case. 
	
	
	Infectious coryza: Infraorbital sinus showing severe catarrhal inflammation.
	Infectious coryza: Infraorbital sinus showing consolidated caseous exudate.
	
	
	Necrotic enteritis: Jejunum showing marked distension due to inflammatory changes of the mucosal lining in an experimentally induced case. 
	Necrotic enteritis: Jejunum showing marked thickening of mucosa with discrete multifocal haemorrhagic lesions. 
	
	
	Necrotic enteritis: Jejunum showing marked thickeningof mucosa due to edematous changes with diffuse brownish eruptions resembling the "dirty turkish towel" appearance.
	Necrotic enteritis: Jejunum showing sloughed mucosa with formation of greenish diptheretic membrane and tissue debris mixed contents.
	
	
	Necrotic enteritis: Jejunum showing moderately thickened mucosa with multiple haemorrhagic foci with stray ulcer
	Necrotic enteritis: Jejunum showing marked edema with varying intensities of haemorrhagic lesions on the mucosa throughout.
	
	
	
	
	Salmonellosis: Salpingitis: Oviduct showing moderate edema with fluid content. 
	Salmonellosis: Salpingitis: Oviduct showing severe thickening with formation of inner folds and whitish albuminous secretion in its lumen.. 
	MYCOPLASMOSIS (CHRONIC RESPIRATORY DISEASE) - 
CLINICAL SIGNS & GROSS PATHOLOGY
	
	
	Chronic Respiratory Disease(CRD): Gasping: Chick showing typical sign of "Oral breathing" due to occlusion of respiratory tract with exudate. 
	Chronic Respiratory Disease(CRD): Chick showing mild facial edema. 
	
	
	Chronic Respiratory Disease(CRD): Chick showing moderate facial edemaa to the extent of closing the eye partially. 
	Chronic Respiratory Disease(CRD): Trachea showing mild mucosal congestion and caseous material in laryngeal region. 
	
	
	Chronic Respiratory Disease(CRD): Airsacculitis: Airsacs showing frothy exudate in the early stage due to inflammatory changes. 
	Chronic Respiratory Disease(CRD): Airsacculitis:Airsacs showing gelly transormation of frothy exudate ( yellowish green) and "dirty appearance" as a progressive feature of the disease. 
	
	
	Chronic Respiratory Disease(CRD): Airsacculitis: Air sacs showing cloudy appearance in early stage indicating the gradual deposition of caseous material. 
	Chronic Respiratory Disease(CRD): Airsacculitis:Airsacs showing moderate thickening due to deposition of exudate. Pericarium also appear thickened. 
	
	
	Chronic Respiratory Disease(CRD): Caseous airsacculitis: Airsacs showing yellowish caseous mass in thoracic region. 
	Chronic Respiratory Disease(CRD): Caseous airsacculitis: Massive deposition of yellowsh cheesy material at both sides of thoracic air sacs.
	
	
	Chronic Respiratory Disease(CRD): Caseous airsacculitis: Multifocal deposition of yellowish caseous material in multiple abdominal air sacs.
	Chronic Respiratory Disease(CRD): Caseous airsacculitis: A large yellowish caseous mass adhering with abdominal air sac.
	EXERCISE-7: MYCOSES & MYCOTOXICOSES - GROSS PATHOLOGY
	
	
	Aspergillosis: Brooder pneumonia: Lungs showing numerous granulamatous " saucer shaped"nodules due to Aspergillus sp., infection in pigeon. 
	Aspergillosis: Brooder pneumonia: Cut section of lungs showing numerous granulamatous nodules in varying sizes due to Aspergillus sp., infection in a turkey. 
	
	
	Aspergillosis: Brooder pneumonia: Intestine showing a foci of granulama exhibiting grey coloured hyphae of the fungus - Aspergillus sp., in chicken. 
	Aspergillosis: Brooder pneumonia: Pancreas showing multifocal paler necrotic areas and more vascularisation of duodenal serosa in Aspergillus sp., infection of chicken. 
	
	
	Aspergillosis: Brooder pneumonia: Multiple "disc-shaped" granulama in thoracic airsacs in chicken. 
	Aflatoxicosis: Gizzard showing erosions (red arrows)and numerous fissures (green arrow)on its inner surface. 
	
	
	Aflatoxicosis: Liver showing moderate enlargement (red arrows)and severe paleness.
	Aflatoxicosis: Liver specimens showing moderate enlargement and severe paleness with friable nature.
	
	
	Aflatoxicosis: Liver showing severe congestion with moderate enlargement and mild icterus.
	Ochratoxicosis: Liver showing severe paleness with moderate enlargement. 
	
	
	Ochratoxicosis: Visceral gout: Viscera showing deposition of urates due to renal disorder. 
	Ochratoxicosis: Kidney showing massive enlargement. 
	EXERCISE-8: PARASITIC DISEASES - ROUNDWORM (ASCARIDIA GALLI) 
CLINICAL SIGNS & GROSS PATHOLOGY INFECTION 
	
	
	Ascaridiasis: Ascaridia galli infected chicken showing severe emaciation and ruffled feathers. 
	Ascaridiasis: Small intestine showing the folded appearance due to impaction of roundworms in the lumen of dudenum throughout. 
	
	
	Ascaridiasis: Small intestine showing the Ascaridia galli throughout the lumen of duodenum. 
	Ascaridiasis: Small intestine showing the impacted mass of Ascaridia galli in the lumen of duodenum. 
	
	
	Ascaridiasis: Enteritis: Duodenum showing severe thickening of mucosa with edematous changes and stray petechiae. Pancreas adhering the duodenal wall also appear edematous. 
	Ascaridiasis: Enteritis: Small intestine showing severe diffuse haemorrhagic lesions("paint-brush appearance") that varies from petechiae to ecchymoses on the mucosa of duodenum. 
	
	
	Ascaridiasis: Small intestine showing the creamy like content in the lumen of duodenum. 
	Ascaridiasis: Small intestine showing the Ascaridia galli and greenish watery content in the lumen of duodenum. 
		PARASITIC DISEASES - CLINICAL SIGNS & GROSS PATHOLOGY
	
	
	Intestinal coccidiosis: Intestine showing distension due to accumulation of blood and desquamated mucosal tissue . Serosal surface shows haemorrhagic dots which extend throughout the small intestine.
	Intestinal coccidiosis: Intestine showing severe distension("Ballooning") and presence of white and red haemorrhagic foci on the serosal surface, giving the appearance of "salt and pepper". 
	
	
	Intestinal coccidiosis: Intestine showing sloughened mucosa and solid haemorrhagic contents. Copious blood tinched exudate is also noticed.
	Intestinal coccidiosis: Intestine showing frothy red tinched haemorrhagic exudate in the lumen and thickening of mucosal wall - twice its normal size 
	
	
	Caecal coccidiosis: Caecum showing distension due to accumulation of haemorrhagic content in E.tenella infection. 
	Caecal coccidiosis: Caecal pouch showing great enlargement and "blackish" discolouraton due to filling up of blood clots in E.tenella infection. 
	
	
	Caecal coccidiosis: Incised Caecum showing completely packed "brownish" blood clots. 
	Caecal coccidiosis: Incised Caecum showing typical solid blood clot in one pouch while the other one is mildly brown tinched. 
	
	
	Mixed form of coccidiosis: Both intestine and caecum showing distension with haemorrhagic contents during Post-mortem examination. 
	Caecal coccidiosis: Caeca showing various stages of coccidial lesions due to E.tenella infection in an experimental study.
	EXERCISE-9: NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS : VITAMIN DEFICIENCIES 
CLINICAL SIGNS & GROSS PATHOLOGY
	vit-A pict. nut.roup 
	vit-D pict. rickets 
	
	
	Hypovitaminosis E: Encephalmalacia: Nervous signs of paresis and ataxia caused by encephalomalacia of the cerebellum and cerebrum. 
	Hypovitaminosis E: Encephalmalacia: Affected chicken exhibiting opisthotonus, a backward flexion of the head and neck. 
	
	
	Hypovitaminosis E: Encephalmalacia: Crazy chick disease: A chick showing typical opisthotonus - a neurologic sign due to encephalmalacia. 
	Hypovitaminosis E: Encephalmalacia: A dult chicken showing the neurologic sign - torticollis-consisting of an abnormal twisting of the head and neck. 
	
	
	Hypovitaminosis E: Exudative diathesis: Swelling and discoloration of the unfeathered skin of the head of this chick. 
	Hypovitaminosis E: Exudative diathesis: Chick is exhibiting a characteristic leg posture- i.e. accumulation of subcutaneous edema along the ventrum may cause birds to stand with their legs spread apart. Edema and discoloration of the legs and feet. 
	
	
	Hypovitaminosis E: Exudative diathesis: Edema and discoloration of the legs and feet. 
	Hypovitaminosis E: Exudative diathesis:Greenish blue discoloration of the ventrum caused by haemoglobin breakdown from the leaking red bloodcells in exudative diathesis. 
	
	
	Hypovitaminosis E: Exudative diathesis:Discoloration of the skin proximal to the hock joint, associated with exudative diathesis. 
	Hypovitaminosis E: Muscular dystrophy: A young duck showing itsinability to stand and its legs are spread laterally. These signs are the result of muscular dystrophy of the leg muscles. 
	
	
	Hypovitaminosis E: Exudative diathesis : edema and haemorrhages can be seen in the crop and over the ventral keel region. 
	Hypovitaminosis E: Encephalmalacia: Brain showing mild congestionin in cerebrum and severe haemorrhage in cerebellum in chick. 
	
	
	Hypovitaminosis E: Encephalmalacia: Brain showing greyish necrotic area in cerebrum of chick. 
	
	NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS AND METABOLIC DISEASES
CLINICAL SIGNS & GROSS PATHOLOGY
	
	
	Fatty Liver Haemorrhagic Syndrome (FLHS): Liver showing moderate enlargement and rupture through which blood clot emerges and marked fat deposits. 
	Fatty Liver Haemorrhagic Syndrome (FLHS): Liver showing yellowish discolouration ("icteric") and blood clot literally masking one lobe from which it came through rupture. 
	
	
	Visceral gout: Urate deposits are visible on the surface of liver and pericardium.
	Visceral gout: Urate deposits are noticed on the pericardial surface of heart.Thoracic air sacs are prominently visible due to heavy urate deposits . 
	
	
	Visceral gout: Urate deposits on the kidney giving granular and distorted appearance" to the organ. Both ureters show considerable dilatation due to urate deposits.
	
	EXERCISE-10: RANIKHET DISEASE AND INFECTIOUS BURSAL DISEASE
HISTOPATHOLOGY
	
	
	Ranikhet Disease: Trachea showing marked necrosis of surface epithelium and formation of exudate in submucosal area. 
	Ranikhet Disease: Trachea showing widening of submucosal area due to massive infiltration of exudate resulting severe edema. 
	
	
	Ranikhet Disease: Trachea showing hyperplasia of surface epithelium of mucosa with loss of cilia, congestion and submucosal infiltration of lymphocytes. 
	Ranikhet Disease: Trachea showing submucosal edema and mild congestion 
	
	
	Ranikhet Disease: Lung showing mild haemorrhage and caseation necrosis in the parenchyma.
	Ranikhet Disease: Lung showing caseation necrosis in the parenchyma (previous image) and mild haemorrhage in the surrounding area. 
	
	
	Ranikhet Disease: Lung showing haemorrhage in secondary bronchi.
	Ranikhet Disease: Lung showing interstitial haemorrhage and parabronchial edema. 
	
	
	Ranikhet Disease: Lung showing haemorrhage in parabronchi.
	Ranikhet Disease: Lung showing secondary bronchial thinning due to purulent exudate within the lumen.
	
	
	Infectious bursal disease: Bursa showing severe depletion of lymphoid cells in various follicles. H&E x 400 
	Infectious bursal disease: Bursa showing lymphoid depletion and severe haemorrhagic lesions with indistinct demarcation of corticomedullary junction in many of the follicles.in various follicles. H&E x 400 
	
	
	Infectious bursal disease: Bursa showing marked atrophic changes of follicles with massive proliferation of fibrosis tissue inbetween them. H&E x 400 
	Infectious bursal disease: Bursa showing immunoperoxidase positive reaction in most of the lymphocytes. IPT & Haematoxylinx1000
	
	
	Infectious bursal disease: Bursa showing condensed eosinophilic necrotic mass in a follicles with moderate congestion. H&E x 400 
	
	INFECTIOUS BRONCHITIS AND INFECTIOUS LARYNGOTRACHEITIS
HISTOPATHOLOGY
	
	
	Infectious bronchitis: Lung showing marked emphysematous changes in alveoli and moderate haemorrhage in parenchyma. H&Ex 100
	Infectious bronchitis: Lung showing severe interaircapillary haemorrhages and alveolar emphysema with bullae formation. H&Ex 100 
	
	
	Infectious bronchitis: Lung showing interaircapillary haemorrhages with mononuclear infiltration and parabronchiolar edema. H&Ex 400
	Infectious bronchitis: Lung showing mild interaircapillary congestion and marked vascular congestion. H&Ex 100 
	
	
	Infectious bronchitis: Trachea showing mild degeneration of lining epithelium of mucosa with moderate congestion and moderate submucosal lymphocytic infiltration. H&Ex 400
	Infectious bronchitis: Trachea showing epithelial hyperplasia with submucosal haemorrhage and lymphocytic infiltration. H&Ex 400
	
	
	Infectious bronchitis: Kidney showing multitubular hyalinisation. H&Ex 400
	Infectious bronchitis: Kidney showing severe intertubular haemorrhage and mild infiltration of mononuclear cells. H&Ex 400 
	
	
	Infectious bronchitis: Kidney showing severe intertubular infiltration of mononuclear cells. H&Ex 400
	Infectious bronchitis: Kidney showing marked necrotic changes of lining epithelium of tubules. H&Ex 400
	
	
	Infectious bronchitis: Kidney showing variable necrotic changes of nucleus in tubular epithelium. H&Ex 400
	Infectious bronchitis: Kidney showing moderate intertubular haemorrhages. H&Ex 400
	
	
	Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT): Trachea showing a clump of epithelial cells (syncytia) that have been sloughed from the inflamed tracheal mucosa and presence of haloed intranuclear inclusions. H&Ex 400
	Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT): Trachea showing a syncytia with haloed intranuclear inclusions. H&Ex 1000
	HISTOPATHOLOGY
HYDROPERICARDIUM SYNDROME
	
	
	Hydropericardium syndrome:Liver showing a cluster of apoptotic bodies among the degenerating hepatocytes. H&Ex800 
	Hydropericardium syndrome: Liver showing eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies (arrows) in hepatocytes. H&Ex1000
	
	
	Hydropericardium syndrome: Liver showing basophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies (arrow) in hepatocytes. H&Ex1000
	Hydropericardium syndrome: Heart showing moderate haemorrhage inbetween the myocardial fibres. H&Ex800 
	
	
	Hydropericardium syndrome: Heart showing massive aggregation of mononuclear cells inbetween the myocardial fibres. H&Ex800
	Hydropericardium syndrome: Kidney showing moderate infiltration of mononuclear cells(ring) inbetween the tubules. H&Ex800
	
	
	Hydropericardium syndrome: Kidney showing a large round sized eosinophilic cast (arrow) within the lumen of the tubule. H&Ex800
	Hydropericardium syndrome: Kidney showing hypercellularity of glomerular structure. H&Ex800
	EXERCISE-11: HISTOPATHOLOGY-COLIBACILLOSIS & INFECTIOUS CORYZA
	
	
	Colisepticaemia: Lung showing parabronchial exudate with heterphilic infiltration. H&Ex400 
	Colisepticaemia: Lung showing thickening of septa with exudate in aircapillaries and infiltration of mononuclear cells and heterophils. H&Ex400
	
	
	Colisepticaemia: Liver showing fatty degenertaion and congestion in vein and sinusoidal space. H&Ex400 
	Colisepticaemia: Liver showing severe sinusoidal congestion. H&Ex400 
	
	
	Infectious coryza: Trachea showing focal shedding of surface epithelium and hypertrophied glands indicating their increased activity.
	Infectious coryza: Trachea showing hyperplasia of lining epithelium and hyperactivity of glandular epithelium. 
	
	
	Infectious coryza: Infraorbital sinus showing epithelial hyperplasia and diffuse submucosal cellular infiltrations. H&E x400
	Infectious coryza: Infraorbital sinus showing submucosal infiltration of mononuclear cells and mild haemorrhge. H&E x1000 
	HISTOPATHOLOGY
CLOSTRIDIAL DISEASES: NECROTIC ENTERITIS, GANGRENOUS DERMATITIS & ULCERATIVE ENTERITIS
	
	
	Necrotic enteritis: Intestine showing moderate degeneration and necrosis of villi in chicken.
	Necrotic enteritis: Intestine showing moderate haemorrhages in between villi and crypts in chicken.
	
	
	Necrotic enteritis: Intestine showing moderate haemorrhages in between villi and crypts in chicken. 
	Necrotic enteritis: Intestine revealing destruction of villi and mucosal haemorrhage in chicken. 
	
	
	Necrotic enteritis: Intestine showing shortening of villi in chicken. 
	Necrotic enteritis: Intestine showing diphtheretic membrane formation on the mucosa in chicken. 
	HISTOPATHOLOGY
CHRONIC RESPIRATORY DISEASE (CRD) & FOWL CHOLERA 
	
	
	Chronic respiratory disease (CRD): Trachea showing focal deciliation and thickening of mucosa due to hyperactivity of the mucous glands.   H&Ex1000 
	Chronic respiratory disease (CRD): Trachea showing hypertrophy of glandular epithelium resulting in mucosal thickening.H&Ex1000 
	
	
	Chronic respiratory disease (CRD): Trachea showing occasional thinning of mucosa due to atrophy of the mucous glands and surface epithelium.   H&Ex400 
	Chronic respiratory disease (CRD): Trachea showing severe sloughing of epithelium lining the surface as well as the glands.   H&Ex400
	
	
	Chronic respiratory disease (CRD): Trachea showing severe necrosis and sloughing of both glandular and surface epithelium leaving a thin layer on the mucosal surface.   H&Ex1000 
	Chronic respiratory disease (CRD): Lung showing septal thickening due to deposition of fibrin and infiltration of lymphocytes.   H&Ex400
	
	
	Chronic respiratory disease (CRD): Airsac exhibiting moderate epithelilal hyperplasia and infiltration of heterophils and macrophages.   H&Ex400 
	Chronic respiratory disease (CRD): Airsac revealing moderate epithelilal hyperplasia with stray infiltration of lymphocytes and macrophages.   H&Ex 1000 
	
	
	Fowl cholera: Lung showing heterophilic and mononuclear infiltration and parabronchial edema.   H&Ex400 
	Fowl cholera: Lung showing secondary bronchial epithelial hyperplasia.   H&Ex400 
	
	
	Fowl cholera: Lung showing secondary bronchial heterophilic and mononuclear cell infiltration.   H&Ex1000 
	Fowl cholera: Liver showing diffuse coagulative necrosis of hepatocytes and infiltration of mononuclear cells.   H&Ex400 
	EXERCISE-12: HISTOPATHOLOGY 
MYCOTIC DISEASES, MYCOTOXICOSES
	
	
	Aspergillosis:Lung showing aggregation of numerous hyphae of Aspergillus fumigatus in the parenchyma.   H&Ex 400 
	Aspergillosis: Lung showing massive aggregation of fungal hyphae in the parenchyma.   H&Ex 400 
	
	
	Aspergillosis: Lung showing few branched fungal hyphae in the parenchyma.   H&Ex 400 
	Aspergillosis: Lung showing few long dichotomously branched septate hyphae of the fungus in the organ.   H&Ex 400 
	
	
	Aspergillosis: Lung showing conidial head bearing mycelia of the fungus in the parenchyma.   H&Ex1000 
	Aspergillosis: Lung showing multiple conidial heads with mycelia and scattering of spores in the lesion.   H&Ex1000 
	
	
	Aspergillosis: Lung showing conidial head with chain of conidias in the parenchyma.   H&Ex1000
	Aspergillosis: Lung showing bluish area of calcification in pulmonary tissue.   H&Ex400
	
	
	Aspergillosis: Lung showing eosinophilic necrotic area which is surrounded by a chain of giant cells.   H&Ex400 
	Aspergillosis: Lung showing presence of three giant cells in the middle among the mass of infiltrating mononuclear cells.   H&Ex400
	
	
	Aspergillosis: Lung showing a cluster of giant cells in the necrotic masss.   H&Ex400
	Aspergillosis: Lung showing two giant cells having neatly arranged nuclei at their periphery with infiltrating cells.   H&Ex 1000
	
	
	Aflatoxicosi: Liver showing moderate vacuolated appearance of hepatocytes in an experimental case.   H&Ex400 
	Aflatoxicosi: Kidney showing moderate degenerative changes of tubular epithelium in the same case.   H&Ex400 
	
	
	Ochraoxicosi: Kidney showing moderate vacuolated appearance of epithelium lining the tubules in an experimental case.   H&Ex400 
	Ochraoxicosi: Kidney showing multiple eosinophilic apoptotic bodies in the lining epithelium of a tubules in the same case.   H&Ex1000 
	HISTOPATHOLOGY 
PARASITIC DISEASES - COCCIDIOSIS
	
	
	Coccidiosis: Caecum showing numerous oocysts within the epithelial cells lining the crypts. H&Ex 400 
	Coccidiosis: Caecum showing varying developing stages of Eimeria tenella in their villus structures. H&Ex 400 
	
	
	Coccidiosis: Caecum showing a bunch of schizonts containing merozoites of Eimeria tenella . H&Ex 400 
	Coccidiosis: Caecal core showing a massive aggregation of Eimeria tenella oocysts. H&Ex 400 
	EXERCISE-13: COLLECTION OF BLOOD SAMPLE
·  Insert a sterile 18 to 20 gauge hypodermic needle into the wing vein and draw 2 ml of blood through a dry syringe
· Heller and Paul’s oxalate mixture can be used as an anticoagulant.
	DILUTING FLUID
· For erythrocyte counts, dilutingfluid described already can be used. 
Make the following stock solution
· A. Sodium citrate 2% 
· B. 0.1% Gentain violet in Ringer’s solution 
· C. 0.l% Brilliant cresyl blue in Ringer’s solution 
· D. Neutral formalin 
· The above 4 solutions must be made and kept separately as stock solutions. From these the working solution is made daily before making the counts as follows: 
· A . 1ml 
· B. 2m1 
· C. 3ml 
· D. 3 drops. 
· Mix and filter 
Ringer’s solution has the following composition
· Sodium chloride -0.7 gms 
· Sodium bicarbonate- 0.03 gm 
· Potassium chloride- 0.026 gm 
· Calcium chloride- 0.003 gm 
· Distilled water- 100 ml 
· With the above solution, erythrocytes take a very light blue color and clearly seen.  
· Granulocytes are prominent. 
· Thrombocytes are also clearly visible and uniformly distributed and can be easily counted.  
· Moreover, with the above fluid the heterophils, monocytes and lymphocytes can be identified easily. 
	COUNTING PROCEDURE
· Take a red blood cell diluting pipette and draw the oxalated blood upto 0.5 mark and then draw the diluting fluid upto the 101 mark, thus making a 1 in 200 dilution. Mix well. 
· As for the mammalian blood, count the erythrocytes in 80 small squares.  
· Calculate the number of erythrocytes by adding 4 zeros to the total number you got in the counting in the 80 small squares.  
· The same blood mixture and the same counting chamber can be used for leucocyte counts also. Since the number of leucocytes is far greater in number in fowls than in the mammalian blood, a 1 in 200 dilution is indicated  
· Count the leucocytes on the 9 large squares having a total are of 9 sq. mm. and count the average for 1 sq. mm.  
· The figure obtained, multiplied by 2000 gives the total leucocytes in one cu. mm.of blood.  
· Haemoglobin content, Packed cell volume and Erythrocyte sedimentation rates are estimated as for the mammalian blood.  
· In making a differential count, the cells are classified as heterophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes and monocytes. 
	CHARACTERISTICS OF BLOOD CELLS OF FOWL
ERYTHROCYTES
· The erythrocytes of the fowl have an oval shape. 
· They are nucleated. Certain amount of poikilocytosis may be seen normally. 
· Occasionally rounded forms may be seen and these are considered to be younger and less mature, having rounded nuclei which are less thick. 
· Usually the male birds have higher values for erythrocyte counts and haemoglobin values. 
LEUCOCYTES 
Heterophils 
· These cells which are not perfectly round, have acidophilic crystalline granules in the cytoplasm which is colorless and clear. 
· In the chicken these granules are rod or spindle shaped. 
· In the ducks, on the other hand, these are round. The lobated nucleus has two or three lobes. Occasionally a single lobe may be seen. 
Eosinophils 
· Having the same size as that of the heterophils, eosinophils have in their
cytoplasm round, dull red granules. 
· The granules in the duck are rod shaped. 
· The cytoplasm has a slightly bluish—gray color and the nucleus is bibbed mostly. 
Basophils 
· This also is of the same size as the heterophil but its nucleus which
is lobated, is marked by the dark staining basophilic granules. 
Monocytes 
· Sometimes these are difficult to be distinguished from the larger lymphocytes, but the monocytes are larger in size and the cytoplasm has a blue-gray color. 
· The outline of the nucleus is irregular. 
· Males appear to have more number of monocytes than the females. 
Lymphocytes
· These are most numerous in the fowl blood. 
· Wide variation in size and shape is noticed. 
· The nucleus is usually round or sometimes may be indented on one side. 
· The cytoplasm in the smaller variety is just a narrow rim taking a faint bluish stain. 
· In the larger varieties, cytoplasm is more. 
· Sometimes non-specific azure granules may be noticed. 
· The number of lymphocytes may be slightly more in the female than in the male. 
· They are also more in the young than in the adult.   
	EXERCISE-14: FAECALEXAMINATION: INTRODUCTION
Appearance of various faecal materials
· Before examining the faecal samples for the eggs of the worms, one should know to which class of animal the sample belongs. 
· The dung of herbivores will be dark greenish-yellow with a peculiar smell and will contain lot of vegetable fiber. 
· Beside fibers, protein grains, plant hairs, mould spores and animal debris that resemble parasitic forms (pseudoparasites) may be found. 
· The dung of carnivores will be soft and pasty, dark yellow in color, devoid of fibers, having unpleasant smell. 
· Parasitic eggs or cysts of one species may be found in the faeces of another species of host, as a result of coprophagy (spurious parasites). 
	MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF FAECES
· This may include several techniques, such as direct examination and concentration methods. 
Direct smear examination 
· A small quantity of the faeces, about the size of a pin head is placed on a slide along with 2 or 3 drops of water, thoroughly emulsified with a needle, evenly spread over the slide and examined under the microscope. 
· This method has many disadvantages and is not an accurate technique. It is useful when the infection is heavy. 
Concentration methods 
· The rationale of the concentration is to separate parasitic objects from the bulk of the material in the specimen. 
· For this purpose two methods, the sedimentation and floatation or a combination of the two are employed. 
	SEDIMENTATION TECHNIQUE
Sedimentation
· This method is reliable for all types of parasitic eggs. 
Procedure 
· A small quantity of faeces made up from different areas of the sample is thoroughly
mixed with 10-45 ml of water; 
· The emulsion is strained through a sieve to remove all coarser particles. 
· This filtrate is poured into a centrifuge tube just upto one inch below the brim and centrifuged at 100 rpm for 1 to 2 minutes. 
· All the eggs get packed at the bottom in the sediment and so a drop of the sediment is placed on a slide, covered with a cover glass and examined under the microscope. 
	FLOATATION TECHNIQUE
Floatation 
· The common suspending media in use are,
· Saturated solution of common salt (sp.gr.l.18-l.19). 
· Zinc sulphate 33% soln, (sp. gr. 1.180) 
· Saturated sugar solution (sp. gr. 1.25) 
· Saturated solution of sodium nitrate.
Willi’s technique 
· Fill up to one third of a small floatation tube with thick emulsion of faeces and then fill up the tube to its capacity with saturated solution of common salt to the brim till a convex surface is formed. 
· Allow it to stand for half an hour by which time all the eggs would have floated up. 
· Apply a clean coverslip or a slide to the surface of the fluid, removing just a drop of the fluid and this drop from the topmost layer is examined for eggs.
Lane’s method (centrifugal floatation) 
· A small quantity of faeces is taken, emulsified in ten times of its own volume of water, strained through a sieve and centrifuged. 
· The supernatant fluid is thrown off, the sediment is again suspended in water and centrifuged. 
· Repeat centrifugation until the supernatant fluid is clear. 
· Then the sediment is suspended in saturated sodium chloride solution and again centrifuged. 
· Examination of a few drops of the fluid from the top-most layer will reveal the eggs. 
	EXERCISE-15: FEED ANALYSIS: INTRODUCTION
Sampling procedures of lot 
· In general the feed stuffs are not very homogenous and therefore, to be able to obtain representative samples of these ingredients for quality checking systematic methods are followed. 
	GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF SAMPLING
· While drawing preparing, storing and handling samples, care should be taken that the properties of the material are not affected. The following precautions and directions should be observed. 
· Samples should be taken in a place not exposed to damp air, dust or soot. 
· The sampling instrument (probe) should be clean and dry when used. 
· The samples, the material being sampled, the sampling instrument and the sample containers should all be protected against adventitious contamination. 
· The samples should preferably be placed in clean and dry glass or plastic containers. The containers should be of such a size that they are almost completely filled by the sample. 
· The container should be sealed air-tight with screw cap or suitable closure, and marked with full details such as, 
· Name of the material 
· Date of sampling 
· Batch or code number 
· Manufacturer or other particulars. 
· Samples should be stored in such a manner that there is no deterioration of the material. 
· It has been experienced that chemical changes occur during oven drying because of the direct effect of high temperature, or enzymatic or bacterial changes during the early stages of drying or of loss of volatile constituents. 
· Feeds containing molasses should be ground in a mortar. 
· Dried materials should be ground to pass through 1mm sieve. 
· If wet samples are used directly in the assay, sufficient quantity has to be weighed out. 
· In the first stage, roughages about 250-1000 grams are used, some what dependant upon homogenicity and moisture content of the wet material. 
· These samples weighed into trays and dried in draft oven at 60-70°C. The dry samples are then again weighed, to calculate the moisture content. 
· The trays are then left to equilibrate in air at room temperature for 2 days, before a second reweighing of the trays with sample. 
· Then the material is milled and filled into airtight containers, and labeled as dry samples. 
	HERBAGE
· Bulk sample is first mixed as well as possible and a 150 grams sub-sample is taken. 
· This is thoroughly macerated with 150 ml of water and 5ml toluene in a bottom-drive macerator. 
· Herbage samples, however, give a 2-phase mix, with fibres floating in a dilute solution of cell contents, which is very difficult to sample. 
· To overcome this, 5 grams of bentonite are added before maceration. This absorbs the aqueous phase and the fibre disperses uniformly in the resulting phase, allowing accurate sub-sampling. 
	WEIGHING OF FEED SAMPLES
Weighing of samples for proximate principles analysis 
· For moisture and ash estimation, weigh 10-12 grams for the concentrate, 10-12 grams for dry roughages, 5-6 grams for dried green fodder and fodder leaves.  
· For moisture, fat and crude fibre, weigh 2 grams for oil seeds and oil cakes, 3-5 grams for cereal grains and pulses, 2-3 grams for dry green fodder, fodder leaves and straw.  
· For crude protein and true protein estimation, weigh 0.5 to 1gm for oil cakes, 1.5 to 2 grams for seeds and grains. 2-3 grams for dry green forages and fodder leaves, 6-10 grams for dry rough ages, 10-12 grams for fresh green leaves and forage. 
Note
· After weighing, samples should be kept in desiccator. 
· Sample should be weighed in aluminium scoop or with the use of weighing bottle. The approximate quantity of sample taken are 2.5 grams. 
· It is always advisable to weigh the correct amount of sample by difference for each determination. 
· If contamination is a problem between samples such as when working with trace minerals or insecticides, use a separate weighing bottle and spoon for each sample. 
· Do not weight exact amount of sample. This takes more time to weigh and result in errors in sampling. 
· In the case of liquid samples, it is always advisable to stir sample well if sediment is on the bottom. 
· It is recommended that same pipette should be used to deliver a separate sample into the container after proper washing. 
· Always use glass pestle and mortar to grind the biological samples in trace element work. 
· The effective implementation of quality control measures in feed manufacturing process depends on the sampling of the material which is the first and foremost step. 
	PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF FEED SAMPLE
· The feed/ingredients should be physically examined while sampling. 
· All the five senses should be involved in the physical evaluation. 
· SIGHT: Indicates the presence ofunnatural substances, off colour, mouldy grains or clumps, rat faecal materials etc. 
· SMELL: Any musty odour will indicate the contamination with mould, rat urine smell can be commonly detected. 
· TOUCH: High moisture level can be felt. 
· SOUND: Hearing the sound from the dropping grain will help in assessing the moisture content. 
· TASTE: High salt or change in taste can be helpful in detecting adulteration, eg., mixing rape seed with groundnut cake. 
	PROCEDURE FOR SAMPLING
Sampling
· Sample should be drawn from at least 50% of the bags in a load. 
· For fish meal sampler should not be used. Sample is to be drawn from top, middle and bottom parts of the bag. 
· Mix all samples in a load and spread it uniformly. 
· Separate it into 4 equal parts. 
· Discard two opposite parts. 
· Repeat the procedure to obtain 100 to 250g of pooled sample. 
· Completely pack the sample in a polythene bag with label. 
	PREPARATION OF SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS
· The preparation of sample for analysis is as important as the analytical techniques as it decides the final result. 
	The preparation of sample for analysis is as important as the analytical techniques as it decides the final result. 
Sampling for chemical analysis 
· Spread the sample on glazed paper to equilibrate with the atmospheric humidity. 
· Weigh the sample simultaneously for moisture estimation to avoid error caused due to atmospheric humidity. 
Sample Quantity 
Moisture determination 
· 5 - 10 gms of the feed sample. 
Ether Extract estimation 
· 2 gms of oil seeds / oil cakes. 
· 3 - 5 gms of other feedstuffs. 
Crude Fibre estimation 
· 2 gms of the dry sample (fat level below 6 - 7%). 
Crude protein estimation 
· Half to one gram of oil cakes, fish meal and other protein concentrates. 
· One and a half to two grams of grains. 
· 2 - 3 gms of dry fodders. 
· 10 gms of green fodders/leaves.