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Review of the Physiological Responses to Open-Wheeled Racing with Current
Trends in Testing and Strength Training.
Article · February 2021
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Review of the Physiological Responses to Open-Wheeled Racing with 
Current Trends in Testing and Strength Training. 
‘Review of the Literature’ 
1School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia 
Jackson A. Williams1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BLUF 
Open-Wheeled racing drivers compete in extreme environments that consist of high speed 
and G-forces, and display similar physiological responses (i.e. VO2max, Mean Heart Rate 
and Lactate Accumulation) to that of court-, and field-team athletes. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ABSTRACT 
Open-Wheeled racing drivers (such as Formula One [F1]) have been thought of in the past as 
being ‘non-athletes’ due to their limited movement in comparison with field and court team-
sports such as Rugby and Basketball. However due to new emerging research regarding the 
physiological responses to Open-Wheeled racing, drivers are now being considered as 
‘athletes’. The initial purpose of this article was to review existing literature based on 
physiological responses to Formula One Racing and provide current trends in testing and 
training regimes within this motorsport community. However, due to limited research on 
such subjects, the literature search was expanded to Open-Wheeled Racing (i.e. F1, Indycar 
etc), resulting in six articles. All six studies came to the conclusion that Open-Wheeled racing 
drivers experience similar physiological responses to that of Rugby and Soccer athletes, with 
particular regards to VO2max (~60 mL/kg/min), Heart Rate Max (186.3 bpm) and Lactate 
Accumulation (3.27 mmol/L). However, the differentiating factor that makes Open-Wheeled 
so unique is the high G-forces encountered during braking, cornering and accelerating, 
sometimes reaching 4-5G. From this, muscle fatigue, most notably in the upper body, is a 
very prominent response to high-speed racing (150-300 km/h). Thus, Trainers/Strength and 
Conditioning (S&C) Coaches are advised to emphasise upper-body training & conditioning 
in their training programs, most notably isometric neck strength exercises such as Banded 
Isometric Lateral Neck Flexion. Testing procedures that cover key physical capacities 
including VO2max, Lactate Threshold, and 1RM Strength Testing should be conducted. Due 
to the F1 racing schedule, which consists of 20 races per season, with a race every fortnight 
in a different country, it is recommended that training sessions (2-3 days/week) target the 
full-body. 
 
Key Words – ‘Formula One’, ‘Physiological Response’, ‘Strength Training’, 
INTRODUCTION 
With a total broadcast viewing of 1.9 billion in 2019, the ever-growing Open-Wheeled racing 
sport that is Formula One (F1) continues to dominate TV screen time whenever one of their 
20 international scheduled races are on (14). With these highly-supercharged well-oiled 
machines flying down a straight at ~250-300 km/h (19), there is no wonder why this sport is 
deemed one of the most exciting. However, previous decades showed more interest and care 
in the cars themselves (31), with several hundred designers, mechanics and crew members 
attempting to perfect every inch of the bodywork and engine to improve aerodynamics and 
traction. A study by Dawson (8) concluded that motorsport drivers (NASCAR) are not 
dissimilar to everyday people (controls) based off VO2max (31.7 vs. 34.1 mL/kg/min, 
respectively) and Body Fat percentage results (22.7 vs. 23.9%, respectively), thereby 
classifying these drivers as “non-athletes”. The fact that research was limited in regards to 
the physiological responses of F1 drivers during race-time ultimately influenced this belief, 
despite the drivers showing signs of exhaustion, dehydration and muscular fatigue after 
racing for 2+ hours, sometimes in extreme environments (i.e. heat and altitude) (18, 19, 30, 
31, 34, 35, 39). As well, the extreme G-forces that drivers experience during tight cornering 
at ~180-200 km/h places a great deal of pressure and strain on the upper body, most notably 
the neck and shoulders (3, 19, 30, 31). 
 
With technology and monitoring systems drastically improving their portability, modern-day 
F1 teams (i.e. Mercedes and Ferrari) place a great deal of money towards implementing 
adequate monitoring systems that record drivers’ physiological responses during the length of 
an entire race. These include heart rate (HR), temperature checks (˚C), sweat loss (L), and 
force applied to accelerate and brake pedals; the latter of which proves to be vital when it 
comes to muscular strength and endurance training (3, 10, 32, 34). Furthermore, numerous 
safety features have been added to the cars over the past decades in order to maximise driver 
safety (e.g. Head and Neck Support System [HANS]) (21). The aim of this paper was to a) 
outline the physiological responses from F1 racing, and; b) provide recommendations for 
modern-day F1 drivers with reference to Strength and Conditioning (S&C) training. 
 
METHODS 
A thorough search for existing literature was conducted through Google Scholar and PubMed 
Databases. Search words and phrases were used in the search process. These included 
‘Formula One’, ‘Physiological Responses’, and ‘Strength Training’. In order to target this 
specific population group, the initial inclusion criteria revolved around the basis that the 
authors’ original primary studies used driver subjects that were participating in the F1 
championships at the time. However, due to the lack of existing literature on this 
demographic, this search wasexpanded to Open-Wheeled drivers (i.e. F1 & Indycar). A total 
of six original primary studies were included in this review. 
 
Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Literature search and selection for review. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DISCUSSION 
 
 
Initial search for Original Primary 
studies solely involving F1 subjects (0) 
Expanding the search to Open-Wheeled racing 
Search for Open-Wheeled racing 
studies (6) 
The Nature of Open-Wheeled Driving 
There continues to be a gradual shift in acceptance of Open-Wheeled drivers being classified 
as “athletes”. Preceding this notion however, Dawson compared the physiological capacities 
of 10 NASCAR drivers to age-matched controls and came to the conclusion that there were 
no significant differences between groups in terms of VO2max (31.7 vs. 34.1 mL/kg/min, 
respectively) and Body Fat percentages (22.7 vs. 23.9%, respectively), leading to the 
statement that “drivers are not highly conditioned athletes” (8). Oval-course races such as 
that seen in NASCAR have limited impact from G-forces in comparison to Open-Wheeled 
road-course races such as F1 circuits (19). Despite the fact that these individuals are doing far 
less in terms of body movement and physical contact compared with other sports such as 
Basketball and Rugby, the physiological stress they put themselves through have been shown 
to be similar to such team sports (26). For example, the mean VO2max and Heart Rate values 
compared between National-level Rugby Sevens athletes and Open-Wheeled Drivers are 
relatively close considering the significant difference in the nature of each sport (53.8 [17] vs. 
47.6 mL/kg/min [16]; 193 [37] vs. 186.3 bpm [19]. Several sport-related factors can explain 
this comparison: 
1. Car Speed: the speed of Open-Wheeled vehicles far exceed those on residential street 
cars, even when on high-speed highways (100-120 km/h limit). For instance, F1 cars 
can reach 250-300 km/h on straights (19). 
2. G-Forces: Open-Wheeled drivers experience significant G-forces (4-6 G) during 
braking and cornering maneuvers that mainly impact upper body musculature (neck & 
shoulders) (15, 30). 
3. Event time & limited stoppages: some Open-Wheeled events last for a significantly 
long time (i.e. F1 = ~90-120min, Rugby League = 80mins), with little to no stoppages 
for drivers (only in pitstops which take ~2-3s) (31). 
4. Environmental Factors: racing events tend to be held in different locations around 
the world (i.e. F1 runs 20 races per year in 20 separate locations). This can disrupt the 
driver’s physical state through means of jet-lag, altitude sickness and/or heat stroke 
(20), the latter of which is most evident in the Singapore Grand Prix, where cockpit 
temperatures exceed 50˚C (30, 35). 
 
Physiological Responses to Open-Wheeled Racing 
VO2 Max 
Despite the popular misconception that elite Open-Wheeled drivers are not ‘athletes’, data 
regarding cardiovascular fitness (CVF), in particular VO2max, has shown that these 
individuals possess high standards of CVF to that of team-based sports such as Basketball 
(47.6 [19] vs. 51.7 mL/kg/min [1], respectively) (19). Due to the nature of the sport as 
outlined previously, the sympathetic nervous system is placed under great stress whilst racing 
as a result of increased physical (i.e. resisting repetitive G-forces) (31) and cognitive loading 
(i.e. judging speed of entry and exit from sharp corners, and evading opponents) (23). 
 
Jacobs and colleagues (19) compared the physiological response of road and speedway 
drivers, which consisted of driving on a road course and oval speedway course, respectively. 
Results showed that road drivers exhibited a greater percentage of their VO2max than their 
speedway counterparts (~79% [38.5 mL/kg/min] vs. ~45% [21.9 mL/kg/min]). The authors 
concluded that these differences were due to multiple factors. These included increased 
cognitive loading and decision making, multi-directional G-force application on upper body, 
and subsequent increased utilisation of energy stores (19). McKnight and Colleagues (27) 
showed that F1 drivers, who have less body fat and more lean mass, possess a greater 
VO2peak (~60 mL/kg/min) than other motorsport codes such as IndyCar and NASCAR. 
Furthermore, Jacobs & Olvey (18) also found that VO2max values significantly increased as 
a result of decreased lap times, from 1.7 to >3.25 L/min. This can be attributed to the 
intensification of G-forces experienced through braking, cornering and accelerating, which 
fundamentally stresses the athlete’s decision making capabilities (30). 
 
Heart Rate (HR) 
With any form of exercise, HR is bound to increase to meet the demands of that exercise or 
sporting activity. Jacobs & Olvey showed that after a peak exercise test (Bruce Protocol), 
Open-Wheeled drivers reported a mean maximal HR (HRmax) of 186.3 bpm, with a mean of 
152 bpm during racing (~81% of HRmax) (18). Furthermore, Backman (2) compared the 
physiological responses of an incremental Rowing test and a 30 minute driving test amongst 
9 International Level male Karting Drivers who took part in Formula A. Results showed that 
driving elicited an average of 132 bpm, which represents ~72% of maximum HR achieved in 
the rowing test (191 bpm) (2). For F1, several key factors actively influence the fluctuations 
seen in HR response: 
 
1. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Loading: 
• As drivers zoom their way through a course that involves multiple cornering 
maneuvers at differing angles of entry and exit, their upper body (i.e. shoulders and 
neck) tends to receive a great deal of physical contact and/or tension via colliding into 
the driving cockpit and G-force tension applied to the neck (15, 30). 
• Both forms of load accumulate and exhaust energy availability, thereby increasing 
HR to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the working muscles in order to sustain effort to 
finish the race (18, 36). 
 
2. Central Nervous System (CNS) Loading: 
• The driver not only has to be consciously aware of their own performance, but also 
the performance and possible intrusion of opponents during the race (23). For 
example, the first corner of any F1 race proves to be the most eventful and risky as all 
20 drivers are looking to gain advantage over their opponents in order to move closer 
to pole position. 
• When corning at ~180-200 km/h, drivers need exceptionally well-conditioned 
reaction-time capabilities in order to keep the car on the track whilst evading 
opponents (3). 
• The increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) sees multiple 
hormonal responses that heighten HR dramatically, especially during these times of 
the race (34). Such hormones include cortisol, testosterone, human growth hormone 
and aldosterone (9, 36). 
3. Thermal Stress: 
• Drivers tend to lose significant amounts of sweat (~3.5L) from heat exhaustion via 
several individual factors: 
o Exposure to Carbon Monoxide produced by car (30); 
o Wearing several layers of fire-retardant clothing (jump-suit, gloves, socks, 
boots, undergarments etc.) (31) and; 
o Driving in humid conditions (e.g. Singapore Grand Prix: a. Ambient 
Temperature = >35˚C; b. Cockpit temperature = ~50˚C) (30, 35). 
• Heat Stress coupled with dehydration can alter thermoregulation, thereby increased 
physiological strain, hence an increase in HR (4, 6, 7). 
• Data from the Elite Sport Group (F1 Framework) has shown that F1 drivers can 
show to be more dehydrated after a 90min race, than cyclists participating in the Tour 
de France (5). 
4. Lactate Accumulation: 
• High psycho-motor (i.e. cognitive loading) and bio-motor (repeated muscular efforts) 
stress can explain increase in lactate levels (1.56 mmol/L to 3.27 mmol/L) during 
driving which in turn increases sensation of fatigue, resulting in elevated HR (36). 
• Backman showed that after 15 & 30 minutes of full-speed driving, blood lactatelevels 
averaged 3.2 mmol/L (2). 
• Compared to team sports such as Australian Rules Football (AFL), these lactate levels 
represent approximately one-third of what elite-junior AFL athletes experience (9.2 
mmol/L) (38). 
 
Muscular Fatigue 
Open-Wheeled Drivers such as those in F1 experience significant G-forces during braking, 
cornering and accelerating (~5.5-6 G) (30). The head and neck of the driver tends to tolerate 
majority of the G-force loads due to the fact that their torso is heavily strapped into the seat 
(15, 30, 31). Former F1 Driver David Coulthard once said “Your upper body endurance must 
be strong enough to survive the stress of 5g, and when you brake at the end of a straight it 
feels like a sledgehammer has hit your back!” (13).		In making competitive driving more 
difficult, athletes’ wear specialised helmets that weigh approximately 6.5kg as a result of 
internal padding, and external safety mechanism attachments (e.g. Head and Neck Support 
System [HANS]) (21, 39). Therefore, a driver cornering at ~4G will ultimately experience 
26kg of Centrifugal force on their neck. With these factors accumulated, by the end of the 
~90 minute race, drivers have shown to display neck soreness and fatigue (3). With respect to 
isometric neck strength, elite Open-Wheeled drivers have been shown to possess significantly 
higher values when compared to junior athletes and controls (Table 1) (3, 30, 31, 39). 
However, when compared to Elite Rugby Union players (16), Open-Wheeled drivers display 
less Isometric strength capabilities (Table 2). This can be attributed to the physically 
demanding nature of Rugby Union, especially seen in tackles and scrums where head 
collisions are very frequent (16). 
 
Table 1. Isometric Neck Strength Test comparison between Elite Open-Wheeled Drivers and 
Age-Matched Controls. 
 
Reference Strength Test Open-Wheeled Drivers Control Difference 
Backman 
et al. (2) 
Isometric Neck 
Strength (N) 
Flex = 215 Flex = 176 39 
Ext = 330 Ext = 285 45 
Lat. Flex R = 283 Lat. Flex R = 234 49 
Lat. Flex L = 273 Lat. Flex L = 222 51 
NOTE: N = Newtons; Flex = Flexion; Ext = Extension; Lat. = Lateral; R/L = Right/Left 
 
Table 2. Isometric Neck Strength Test comparison between Elite Open-Wheeled Drivers and 
Elite Rugby Union Players. 
 
Reference Strength Test Subjects 
Backman et al. (2) 
Isometric Neck Strength (N) 
Open-Wheeled Drivers 
Flex = 215 
Ext = 330 
Lat. Flex R = 283 
Lat. Flex L = 273 
 
Hamilton & Gatherer 
(16) 
Elite Rugby Union Players 
Flex = 303 
Ext = 425 
Lat. Flex R = 397 
Lat. Flex L = 397 
NOTE: N = Newtons; Flex = Flexion; Ext = Extension; Lat. = Lateral; R/L = Right/Left 
 
Backman compared the results obtained above to those seen in Fighter Pilots and concluded 
that Open-Wheeled drivers display 40-60% stronger lateral flexion strength (3). Additionally, 
McKnight and Colleagues (27) examined and compared global neck strength between F1, 
IndyCar, IMSA GTD and NASCAR drivers. Across all tests (Extension, Flexion, and Lateral 
Flexion L&R), F1 drivers exhibited significantly greater strength levels (Ext = ~50kg; Flex = 
~25kg; and Lat. Flex L = ~40kg; Lat. Flex R = ~40kg). One study which looked at the most 
common injuries/musculoskeletal complaints from 137 professional Open-Wheeled drivers 
demonstrated that upper body regions including wrists, shoulders and neck were found to be 
the most affected (24). Adding on to this, Minoyama and Colleagues (28) conducted a 4-year 
study (1996-2000) that examined the incidence and prevalence rate of specific injuries 
obtained from single-seat motorsport racing. Upper body bruising and neck sprains were the 
most reported injuries (58% and 34%, respectively). As well, Ebben & Suchomel (11)	
conducted a study consisting of 40 elite stock drivers, to which they were asked “How do you 
feel physically after a physically demanding race?”. 90% of subjects (36/40) reported that 
muscular fatigue, particularly in the legs and upper body, was a main concern. This 
appropriately reflects Backman’s study which tested several strength capacities before and 
after full-speed driving for 30 minutes (2). The following table is a summary of these results. 
 
Table 3. Comparison of Isometric Strength Tests pre- and post-driving for ~30 minutes. 
 
 Pre-Driving (N) Post-Driving (N) Difference (N) 
Neck Lateral Flexion 193 158 35 
Shoulder Flexion 169 126 43 
Grip 383 366 17 
Leg Extension 2696 2337 359 
Plantar Flexion 1675 1597 78 
 
As a result, modern-day Strength and Conditioning training programs place great emphasis 
on neck strength, most notably lateral flexion and extension contractions (10, 15). 
Furthermore, two subjects within the Ebben & Suchomel study displayed an inability to lift 
their arms up as a result of the accumulated fatigue from racing (11). This highlighted the 
importance of conditioning the shoulder musculature (i.e. deltoids, internal & external 
rotators) to delay onset of fatigue whilst using the steering wheel (30). 
 
Besides steering, the lower body also experiences fatigue during racing through the operation 
of the acceleration and brake pedals (2, 32). Considering the amount of laps (~70 for F1 and 
200 for IndyCar), and cornering maneuvers performed (~10-12 for F1), the pedals are pushed 
hundreds of times a race. Backman concluded that the legs showed the largest decrease in 
isometric strength when comparing pre- to post-driving results (2696 N to 2337 N, 
respectively) (2). Several studies have investigated lower body strength in Open-Wheeled 
drivers. Rascher and Colleagues performed a Unilateral Leg Press Test to examine Isometric 
leg extension strength amongst 18 Open-Wheel drivers (9 Elite & 9 Junior) (32). Elite Open-
Wheeled drivers displayed 25% stronger unilateral leg strength than their junior counterparts 
(1891N vs. 1514N, respectively). Backman and Colleagues (3) demonstrated that Open-
Wheeled drivers were 10% stronger in their Isometric Leg Extension capacity in comparison 
with Basketball players (4,111N and 3691N, respectively). 
 
Data collected via an interview with former racing driver Dario Franchitti found that ~61kg 
of force was applied to the brake pedal during major braking efforts (31). Therefore, over the 
course of a 70 lap race that lasts ~90mins, if only 4 out of the 10-12 corners involved ‘major 
braking efforts’, a F1 driver-athlete would apply approximately 17,080kg of pressure to the 
pedals ((~61 x 4) x 70)). Küçükdurmaz stated that athletes must possess a high level of leg 
strength in order to place enough pressure on the brake pedals for effective cornering and re-
acceleration (25). 
 
 
Open-Wheeled Driving Needs Analysis 
For the benefit of both the trainer and driver-athlete, it is a must that both individuals take 
time to develop a sport-specific S&C program (10). However, before doing so, a Needs 
Analysis must be constructed. Below is a brief Sport-specific Needs Analysis on F1 racing. 
Sport-Oriented Analysis 
 
1. Sports Analysis 
• Formula 1 Racing (Elite Level) 
• 20-race season (Generally one race every 2-weeks) 
• ~90min per race with limited stoppages (only during pit stops [2-3s]) 
• ~150-300 km/h car speed 
• ~4-6 G-force during braking, cornering and accelerating 
• Humid Environments (External temp. ~30˚C; Cockpit temp. ~50˚C) 
 
2. Injury Analysis 
• Upper body muscle fatigue and strains (i.e. wrists, shoulders and neck) 
• Colliding with internal cockpit when going around corners (bruising) (28) 
• Concussion risk upon crashing 
 
3. Biomechanical Analysis 
• Upper body resisting G-forces 
• Shoulder mobility and strength when using steering wheel 
• Leg strength and reactivity upon braking & accelerating 
• Trunk stability during cornering to support neck 
 
4. Aerobic Analysis 
• Mean HR = 152 bpm (~81% of HRmax) (16); Peak HR = ~180 (29) 
• Mean VO2max = 47.6 mL/kg/min; Racing VO2max = 38.5 mL/kg/min(19) 
 
5. Anaerobic Analysis 
• Increase from 1.56 mmol/L to 3.27 mmol/L after driving challenge (36) 
 
Athlete-Oriented Analysis 
• Athletes height, weight, waist circumference, skinfold, body fat % 
• Training age 
• Injury History 
• Strengths and Weaknesses (objective & subjective) 
• Athlete’s and Trainer’s goals (mutual agreement) 
 
Comparative Analysis 
• Compare the athlete to any published normative data on the same population (i.e. 
elite, sub-elite etc.) that can be referred back to in order to reach goals/milestones 
in training (e.g. Mean VO2max). 
 
Fitness Testing Recommendation 
As with any sport, athletes are put through a series of physical challenges that establish 
baselines results to then be used as a guide to prescribe training program variables (e.g. 
Exercise selection & Intensity). Despite the limited number of sport-specific research papers 
on Open-Wheeled racing, an appropriate fitness testing battery has been recommended by 
Open-Wheeled Researchers to measure the physiological capacity of the ‘Driver-Athlete’. Dr. 
David Ferguson, who’s an Assistant Professor in the Department of Kinesiology, and also the 
Director of the Spartan Motorsport Performance Laboratory at Michigan State University, 
USA, has worked with numerous Open-Wheeled driving athletes, including F1, IndyCar and 
NASCAR (12). After two decades of experience and research within motorsport, the 
following fitness-testing battery was created (Table 4) (22). Please note that the these specific 
testing protocols requires specialist equipment and expertise. Alternative field-based testing-
procedures can be implemented that complement the lab-based tests (Table 5). However, due 
to limited access to Open-Wheeled vehicles and G-force chambers for those individuals 
commencing their racing career and S&C training, the ‘G-Force Tolerance’ and ‘On-track 
Physiological Response’ tests may have to be disregarded. 
Table 4. Recommended Lab-Based Testing Battery for Open-Wheeled Racing Drivers. 
 
Component Test(s) How to Conduct Why use this Test? 
Anthropometry 
Dual energy X-ray 
Absorptiometry 
(DEXA) 
Requires specialist 
equipment and expertise. 
DEXA can determine body fat 
percentage, lean muscle mass and fat 
mass. 
Cardiovascular 
Fitness 
 
VO2max Test 
 
Graded Treadmill Test 
with Spirometry. 
VO2max testing can determine an 
individual’s aerobic capacity and ability 
to utilise oxygen for endurance activity. 
Anaerobic 
Threshold (AT) AT Test 
Cycling Ergometer 
(Monark) and Portable 
Lactate Analyser. 
AT testing can help pin-point the time 
period where lactate accumulates and 
reaches a certain threshold (generally 2 
mmol/L). 
LB Anaerobic 
Power 
Wingate 30s 
Power Test 
Cycling Ergometer 
(Monark) with 7.5% 
Body Mass. 
The Wingate Test is a great way to 
determine the athletes lower body 
anaerobic power output capacity. 
G-Force 
Tolerance 
LB Negative 
Pressure (LBNP) 
Chamber, 
otherwise known 
as ‘The Box’. 
Requires specialist 
equipment and expertise. 
The LBNP is a unique way in testing the 
athletes ability to withstand sport-
specific G-forces on the body. 
On-track 
Physiological 
Response 
• HR 
• Skin 
Temperature 
• Breathing 
Rate 
Requires specialist 
equipment and expertise. 
This way of testing shows high 
ecological validity as measurement are 
taken in real-time and compared lap-by-
lap. 
 
Table 5. Recommended Field-Based Testing Battery for Open-Wheeled Racing Drivers. 
 
Component Test(s) How to Conduct Why use this Test? 
Anthropometry 
 
• Height 
• Weight 
• Skinfold 
 
• Measuring Tape 
• Digital Scale 
• Skinfold Callipers 
Cost-effective methods of measuring 
basic anthropometric components. 
 
Examiner should be proficient in 
performing Skinfold Assessment in order 
to produce reliable results. 
Cardiovascular 
Fitness 
Yo-Yo Intermittent 
Recovery Test 
Leve 1 (YYIR1) 
 
YYYIR Cone Set up: 
• 20m with 5m 
recovery section 
Use prediction calculation 
to estimate VO2max = 
IR1 Distance (m) x 0.0084 
+ 36.4 
YYIR1 is a reliable field-based test in 
measuring VO2max. 
 
Requires limited equipment (cones, 
notepad, scoresheet, DVD player) and can 
have multiple athletes performing 
simultaneously. 
Anaerobic 
Threshold 
Running-based 
Anaerobic Sprint 
Test (RAST) 
8 x 35m sprints, with 20s 
recovery between each 
repetition. 
 
Measure lactate 
concentration after each 
repetition using Portable 
Lactate Analyser. 
RAST requires limited equipment (cones, 
scoresheet, stop watch). 
 
20s rest intervals allow for testing 
officials to obtain lactate levels using pin 
prick method. 
 
 
LB Anaerobic 
Power Vertical Jump (VJ) 
Measure distance (cm) 
between standing reach 
and maximum jumping 
reach on a flat wall. 
Allow 3 repetitions. 
VJ testing requires limited equipment (flat 
wall, measuring stick/tape) and it easily 
administered. 
 
Peak and average heights should be noted 
down. 
On-track 
Physiological 
Response 
HR + RPE 
 
Only if applicable, get the 
athlete to drive around a 
road-course track in an 
Open-Wheeled vehicle 
(i.e. Go-Kart) for a set 
amount of time and 
measure HR using Smart 
Watch. 
This type of test can be used to see how 
the athlete’s HR responds in actual 
driving conditions that include braking, 
cornering and accelerating. 
 
RPE can be noted down to indicate how 
difficult the driving session was. 
 
Due to the limited data available regarding normative values for Open-Wheeled drivers, the 
following data set (Table 6) summarises existing physiological values seen in elite driver-
athletes. 
Table 6. Summary of existing physiological values for Open-Wheeled Drivers. 
 
Component Reference Subjects Mean Values 
Anthropometry 
Jacobs, et al. (19) Open-Wheeled Racing Drivers 
Height (cm): N/A 
Weight (kg): 74.5 
Body Fat %: N/A 
Backman et al. (3) Open-Wheeled Racing Drivers 
Height (cm): 177.0 
Weight (kg): 67.9 
Body Fat %: 8.3 
Raschner et al. (32) 
Open-Wheeled 
Racing Drivers 
(including F1) 
Height (cm): 175.0 
Weight (kg): 69.0 
Body Fat %: N/A 
McKnight et al. (27) 
Open-Wheeled 
Racing Drivers 
(including F1) 
Height (cm): 179.7 
Weight (kg): 68.6 
Body Fat %: ~8 
VO2max (mL/kg/min) 
Jacobs & Olvey (19) Open-Wheeled Racing Drivers 47.6 
Jacobs & Olvey (18) 
Former Open-
Wheeled Racing 
Driver 
~48 
McKnight et al. (27) 
Open-Wheeled 
Racing Drivers 
(including F1) 
~60 
HRmax (bpm) 
Jacobs & Olvey (19) Open-Wheeled Racing Drivers 186.3 
Jacobs & Olvey (18) 
Former Open-
Wheeled Racing 
Driver 
~187 
Backman (2) Open-Wheeled Racing Drivers 191 
Lactate during driving 
(mmol/L) 
Schwaberger (36) Open-Wheeled Racing Drivers 3.27 
Backman (2) Open-Wheeled Racing Drivers 3.2 
Vertical Jump (cm) 
Raschner et al. (32) 
Open-Wheeled 
Racing Drivers 
(including F1) 
39.1 
Backman et al. (3) Open-Wheeled Racing Drivers 31.3 
Isometric Neck 
Strength (kg) 
McKnight et al. (27) 
Open-Wheeled 
Racing Drivers 
(including F1) 
Extension: ~50 
Flexion: ~25 
Lateral Flexion R: ~40 
Lateral Flexion L: ~40 
 
Backman et al. (3) 
 
Open-Wheeled 
Racing Drivers 
Extension: ~34 
Flexion: ~21 
Lateral Flexion R: ~29 
Lateral Flexion L: ~28 
CONCLUSION 
From the evidence put forth in this review, it is clearly understood that Open-Wheeled drivers 
are in fact ‘athletes’. When comparing Open-wheeled drivers (e.g. F1) to Closed-cockpit 
drivers (e.g. NASCAR), it must be made clear that several sport-specific features differentiate 
the two. The demands of Open-Wheeled Race Driving which includes driving at extreme 
speed (150-300 km/h), experiencing excessive G-forces on upper body (6.5kg helmet x 4G = 
26kg), and environmental conditions (racing with several layers of fire-retardant clothing at 
Singapore Grand Prix) accumulate over 90 minutes of competitive racing, and is reflected in 
the physiological responses outlined (VO2max, HR and Muscular Fatigue) (28). Whereas in 
NASCAR, participants are onlyrequired to bank left, and therefore possess less overall 
fitness qualities. Sport-Specific testing regimes are recommended as they closely resemble 
in-race demands (22). 
 
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS 
With the evolution of Open-Wheeled racing car technology and mechanics over the last 
couple decades, driver-athletes are placing themselves under significant physical and mental 
stress. Consequently, drivers engaging in sport-specific Strength and Conditioning (S&C) 
training is becoming more and more prevalent. Despite the lack of practical application 
research in the motorsport community, it comes as no surprise that modern-day Open-
Wheeled drivers are part-taking in whole-body training programs. The multi-faceted nature 
of the sport should be taken into account when performing a Needs Analysis. S&C coaches 
should carefully plan the athlete’s training year in order to maximise performance outcomes 
and KPI’s during the racing season. Much of what is known currently in terms of S&C 
training for motorsport athletes are anecdotal, and therefore must be inferred with caution. 
 
As drivers are known to be lean and skinny, for the benefit of fitting into the cockpit and 
reducing any negative impacts on the car’s performance, is it essential that trainers do not 
over-prescribe hypertrophy-style programming (i.e. 3 sets of 10-12 reps at ~70-80% 1RM). 
However, muscular endurance training, especially with regards to the upper body, is essential 
as this assists the cervical spine stability and trunk stability when experiencing high G-forces 
(10). According to former Red-Bull Racing driver Daniel Riccardo, 5 key areas must be 
targeted when training. These include but are not limited to: Neck, Trunk, Reactions, Agility 
and Cardio (33). With these in mind, the following 4-Week full-body program has been 
proposed as an example of a S&C session for a F1 driver during racing season (3x per week). 
 
Table 7. Hypothetical 3-Day, 4-Week Training Block with 2 races. 
Day 
Week 
1 2 3 4 
Time of 
Day AM PM AM PM AM PM AM PM 
Monday HIIT 
STR 
& 
Trunk 
Stab. 
HIIT 
STR 
& 
Trunk 
Stab. 
HIIT 
STR 
& 
Trunk 
Stab. 
HIIT 
STR 
& 
Trunk 
Stab. 
Tuesday OFF OFF OFF OFF 
Wednesday Recovery 
Musc. 
End. 
& 
Trunk 
Stab. 
Recovery 
Musc. 
End. 
& 
Trunk 
Stab. 
Recovery 
Musc. 
End. 
& 
Trunk 
Stab. 
Recovery 
Musc. 
End. 
& 
Trunk 
Stab. 
Thursday OFF OFF OFF OFF 
Friday Recovery HIIT Driving Practice Recovery HIIT Driving Practice 
Saturday OFF Qualifying OFF Qualifying 
Sunday OFF RACE DAY OFF RACE DAY 
NOTE: HIIT = High Intensity Interval Training; STR = Strength; RT = Reaction Time; Stab. = Stability; Musc. End. = Muscular Endurance. 
 
 
 
Day 1 
 
Monday (AM) 
 
Monday (PM) 
 
FOCUS High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) 
R.A.M.P 
Warm-Up 
• Raise Body Temperature (i.e. light jog, skipping) 
• Activate major muscle groups (i.e. glute bridges, banded walks) 
• Mobilise major joints (i.e. inchworm, neck rolls) 
• Potentiate muscles (i.e. box jumps) 
HIIT 
(Medium 
Resistance) 
Exercise Sets Reps Notes 
Stationary Bike 20:20 6 
• 2min warm-up at steady pace 
• 20s hard and fast, 20s steady and slow 
• ~2min HIIT 
Rowing Ergometer 30:10 6 
• 2min warm-up at steady pace 
• 30s hard and fast, 20s steady and slow 
• ~3min HIIT 
Cool-down 
• Foam-rolling major muscle groups: 
o Hamstrings & Quadriceps 
o Glutes 
o Latissimus Dorsi 
o Upper & Middle Back 
Focus Muscular Strength Training 
R.A.M.P 
Warm-Up 
• Raise Body Temperature (i.e. light jog, skipping) 
• Activate major muscle groups (i.e. glute bridges, banded walks) 
• Mobilise major joints (i.e. inchworm, neck rolls) 
• Potentiate muscles (i.e. box jumps) 
Strength 
Circuit 
(75-85% 
1RM) 
Exercise Sets Reps Notes 
1. BB Back Squat 3 5 
• Maintain technique and trunk stability 
• 2-3min between sets 
 
• Contraction:Relaxation 
2. BB Bench Press 3 5 
3. BB RDL 3 5 
4. BB Bent Over Row 3 5 
Active Rest 2min 
Trunk 
Circuit 
Stability 
(Big 3) 
1. Curl-Up 6 10:10 
2. Side Plank 3 30s e/s 
3. Bird-Dog 3 8 e/s 
4. Banded Isometric 
Paloff Press 4 15:10 
Cool-down 
• Foam-rolling major muscle groups: 
o Hamstrings & Quadriceps 
o Glutes 
o Latissimus Dorsi 
o Upper & Middle Back 
Day 2 
Wednesday (AM) 
Recovery Session: 
o Light cardio (i.e. stationary bike, rowing machine, arm ergometer) 
o Mobility stretches (i.e. crucifix/scorpion, pigeon, banded shoulder stretches) 
o Outdoor activity (i.e. hiking, bike riding, swimming) 
 
Wednesday (PM) 
Focus Global Muscular Endurance & Trunk Stability 
R.A.M.P 
Warm-Up 
• Raise Body Temperature (i.e. light jog, skipping) 
• Activate major muscle groups (i.e. glute bridges, banded walks) 
• Mobilise major joints (i.e. inchworm, neck rolls) 
• Potentiate muscles (i.e. box jumps) 
 
Muscular 
Endurance 
 
Exercise Sets Reps Notes 
1. SL Leg Press 2-3 15-20 e/s 
• 50-70% 1RM or RPE 5-7/10 
• Maintain technique and trunk stability 
• 1.5-2min between sets 
2. DB Chest Press 2-3 12-15 
3. BB Hip Thrust 2-3 12-15 
4. Seated Cable Row 2-3 12-15 
5. DB SL RDL 2-3 12-15 e/s 
6. DB Lateral Raises 2-3 12-15 
7. SL Calf Raises 2-3 15-20 e/s 
Active Rest 2min 
Neck ISO 
Strength 
Endurance 
 
1. Banded Ext. ISO 
(see Photo #1) 6 10:10 
 
• Performing these exercises in the proper 
seated driving position is recommended 
 
• Contraction:Relaxation 
2. Banded Lat. Flex 
R ISO (see Photo 
#3) 
6 10:10 
3. Banded Lat. Flex 
L ISO (see Photo 
#4) 
6 10:10 
4. Banded Flex. ISO 
(see Photo #2) 6 10:10 
Trunk 
Stability 
(Big 3) 
1. Curl-Up 10:10 6 • 10s contraction followed by 10s relaxation 
2. Side Plank 4 30s e/s 
• Can integrate a cognitive task whereby 
athlete exchanges 2.5kg weight plate to and 
from trainer in different locations 
3. Bird-Dog 3 8 e/s • Maintain technique and trunk stability 
Cool-down 
• Foam-rolling major muscle groups: 
o Hamstrings & Quadriceps 
o Glutes 
o Latissimus Dorsi 
o Upper & Middle Back 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Photo #1 - Banded Neck 
Extension Isometric in driving. 
position. 
Photo #2 - Banded Neck Flexion 
Isometric in driving position. 
Photo #3 - Banded Neck Lateral Flexion 
Isometric in driving position (left). 
Photo #4 - Banded Neck Lateral Flexion 
Isometric in driving position (right). 
Day 3 
Friday (AM) 
Recovery Session: 
o Light cardio (i.e. stationary bike, rowing machine, arm ergometer) 
o Mobility stretches (i.e. crucifix/scorpion, pigeon, banded shoulder stretches) 
o Outdoor activity (i.e. hiking, bike riding, swimming) 
 
Friday (PM) 
 
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