Trends in psychosocial research on LGBTIQ populations in Latin America - Findings, challenges, and concerns

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Received: 1 November 2023 Revised: 19 August 2024 Accepted: 20 August 2024
DOI: 10.1111/josi.12637
ORIG INAL ARTICLE
Trends in psychosocial research on LGBTIQ+
populations in Latin America: Findings,
challenges, and concerns
Jaime Barrientos1 Henrique Caetano Nardi2
Juan Carlos Mendoza-Pérez3 María Camila Navarro4
Joaquín Bahamondes5 Mario Pecheny6 Blas Radi7
1Psychology Faculty, Universidad Alberto
Hurtado, Santiago, Chile
2Department of social psychology,
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do
Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
3Department of Public Health, Faculty of
Medicine, Universidad Nacional
Autonoma de México, Ciudad de México,
México
4Universidad del Sinú, Cartagena,
Colombia
5Psychology School, Universidad Católica
Del, Norte, Chile
6Instituto Gino Germani, Universidad de
Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
7IIF Sadaf – Conicet/ Philosophy
Department Universidad de Buenos
Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Correspondence
Jaime Barrientos, Universidad Alberto
Hurtado, Santiago, Chile.
Email: jbarrientos@uahurtado.cl
Abstract
Psychosocial research on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgen-
der, intersex, and queer (LGBTIQ+) populations from
Latin America is relatively recent. Initially, research
focused mainly on prejudice, using qualitative techniques.
Studies on LGBTIQ+ populations, using more sophis-
ticated psychosocial theories such as those of Herek or
Meyer, began in the mid-1990s. This study deals with
surveys and scales based on non-probabilistic samples,
LGBTIQ+ populations being the first studied. In the early
2000s, queer and/or LGBTIQ+ theories were introduced,
and research has been much more interdisciplinary.
This paper describes the theoretical frameworks used
in LGBTIQ+ research in Latin America and examines
distinctions in the findings from Mexico, Colombia, Chile,
Argentina, and Brazil. Future research must involve
cross-cultural studies, systematic or scoping reviews, and
studies on non-binary populations. Finally, the conditions
for reimaging LGBTIQ+ research in Latin America are
discussed.
INTRODUCTION
In Latin America, LGBTIQ+ populations are diverse. The diversity of sociocultural practices,
along with regional variations in the meaning of same-gender relationships, diverse gender
© 2024 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues.
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TRENDS IN PSYCHOSOCIAL RESEARCH 1023
identities, and sexual experiences creates a complex landscape that makes the scrutiny of the
everyday life of these populationsmore difficult, putting at risk of homogenizing the unique expe-
riences and needs of specific groups (Klysing et al., 2024). Sexual orientation categories (such as
gaymen/lesbian, bi, straight) are typically conceptualized as being related to combinations of sex-
ual desire, sexual practice, and identity (Barrientos, 2015). However, in Latin American countries,
the concept of sexual orientation categories primarily focuses on how individuals engage in sex-
ual activity (e.g., based on the gender of their sexual partners). Some of these studies unveil a
considerable diversity and intricacy of sexuality and relationships, as well as substantial dispari-
ties between sexual behavior and sexual identity (Liguori, 1995). Sexuality and its expressions are
diverse. Far from reflecting a simple average pattern, a complex, ambiguous, and heterogeneous
mosaic is found.
Many countries across the continent have endured severe military dictatorships (e.g.,
Argentina, Brazil, and Chile). Other countries suffer the impact of drug trafficking, as observed in
Mexico, where LGBTIQ+ people continue to face societal prejudice, violence, and discrimination
faced by them being exacerbated by the presence of drug trafficking, organized crime, and exal-
tation of a hypermasculine and violent view of men (Núñez-Noriega & Espinoza-Cid, 2017), and
rejection from fundamentalist sectors (López, 2020). Similarly, the drug issue in Colombia has
resulted in violence and insecurity, particularly in rural areas where gender-diverse individuals
are marginalized and often rendered invisible (United Nations, 2023). Likewise, the influence of
guerrilla movements and the paramilitary in Colombia plays a significant role in people’s lives,
while in other countries such as Haiti, poverty and inequality afflict the survival of numerous cit-
izens. This historical backdrop hinders or even prevents advancements in LGBTIQ+ population
rights. In addition, other countries are undergoing important socio-political changes, resulting in
increasedmigration asmany search for better living conditions. This is the case formanyVenezue-
lans, particularly gaymen, whomigrate to other countries to seek a better quality of life and access
to HIV/AIDS treatment (Doocy et al., 2019).
This scenario has significantly changed in many of these countries, resulting in deep cultural,
social, and political transformations with positive effects on LGBTIQ+ populations (Pecheny &
Dehesa, 2014). In recent years, sexual rights in the Americas have expanded in many countries
except for Jamaica and other Caribbean countries, advancing toward repealing legislative mea-
sures that criminalize same-sex practices (Ramón et al., 2020). Advances in these rights are closely
intertwined with the emergence of relevant social movements, including LGBTIQ+movements,
particularly in the aftermath of the military dictatorships affecting several countries in Latin
America. Furthermore, countries such as Uruguay and Argentina have emerged as global pio-
neers in LGBTIQ+ legislation by enacting laws in favor of marriage equality and gender identity
(Barrientos, 2015). This situation differs from the one in other continents such as Asia or Africa,
also described in this special issue (Cherian et al., 2024; Mogotsi et al., in press).
In addition, many of the countries discussed here are making significant progress in het-
erosexual population attitudes toward LGBTIQ+ individuals (Barrientos & Bahamondes, 2022).
However, considerable differences remain among countries. Data from the global acceptance
index (GAI) (Flores, 2021), assessing these attitudes on a scale from 1 (low acceptance) to 10 (high
acceptance) in 175 countries worldwide, give evidence that countries like Brazil or Argentina score
well above 7, while others such as Guatemala score below 5.
Despite these improvements, inequalities affecting LGBTIQ+ individuals persist. For exam-
ple, same-sex marriage is partially or totally legal in many countries in Latin America and the
Caribbean, yet consensual relationships among same-gender adults are still criminalized in other
countries (e.g., Jamaica). Likewise, discriminatory legislation persists in the Caribbean, which
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1024 BARRIENTOS et al.
is associated with increased violence against LGBTIQ+ populations in a sociocultural context of
sexist and gender stereotypes. Also, despite progressive legislation, some Latin American coun-
tries are currently controlled by very conservative (e.g. Argentina) or repressive (e.g., Venezuela)
leaders. Therefore, the future of this region is unknown; however, if these trends continue, vio-
lence toward the LGBTIQ+ population is likely to persist (Malta et al., 2019). Furthermore, there is
an ongoing wave of hate crimes targeting LGBTIQ+ populations, particularly focusing on trans-
gender individuals. Additionally, a recent report by Llyck Ideas (2023)ethnographic studies on gay men, lesbian and transgender women, and
travesti are important. Also, in Brazil and Argentina, as already mentioned, the research devel-
oped has been more influenced by psychoanalysis, which makes it difficult to compare what is
produced in these countries with what is produced in other countries of the region. In all these
countries,most quantitative studies use non-probability sampling due to the difficulty of accessing
such populations (Bonevski et al., 2014). Qualitative studies are also conducted in most of these
countries. In Chile and Colombia, studies on same-sex behavior are done in the fields of social
psychology, law, sociology, and literature, configuring their own conceptual and methodological
framework (Galván, 2019). In the countries studied, most research on the subject is conducted as
part of graduate programs. Onlymore recently public studies have been done, including questions
in national surveys or censuses (Stang, 2019).
The challenges for social research on LGBTIQ+ populations across Latin America are multi-
ple and complex. First, compiling research findings on these populations across countries is not
a straightforward task due to the limited, or virtually non-existent, data from certain countries,
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TRENDS IN PSYCHOSOCIAL RESEARCH 1039
particularly some Central America nations such as El Salvador and Guatemala, where high lev-
els of homophobia make data collection complex or impossible (Flores, 2021). In these and other
countries, research or support for research is required.
Secondly, another urgent task is conducting cross-cultural research to make reliable compar-
isons among various countries in the region and between this region and others around the globe.
To this end, further progress is required for adapting and validating scales and measurements.
Also, there is a need for equivalentmeasures in studies formaking comparisons between countries
(Li et al., in press). Additionally, more research is needed in countries where studies are scarce.
So, a comprehensive overview of the regional situation is currently missing. This underscores the
need of meta-analyzing data both within and between countries—a task that has been largely
neglected. To address this gap, researchers must prioritize adherence to open science practices.
This will help overcome challenges related to data availability and ensure the clarity and repli-
cability of research procedures, ultimately enabling a more effective alignment of measures for
time- and context-based comparisons. In part, this is because research is done as part of master or
doctoral programs at college. Therefore, public resources for research must be increased. Future
comparative efforts are needed to synthesize heterogeneity.
Also, quantitative research must be increased in countries where this type of research is less
developed (e.g., Argentina) and theoretical models, such as minority stress, should be used. As
already mentioned, this partly results from the role that psychoanalysis plays in that country,
which generates an enormous heterogeneity in the type of research reported by the countries
studied in this paper. Thus, in some of them, historical aspects have been more important, in oth-
ers anthropological research, while in others psychological or social research. This could also be
the result of a more interdisciplinary scientific production concerning LGBTIQ+ population than
that of a psychological or psychosocial nature. This is an important differencewith respect to other
regions of the world, where psychological research on LGBTIQ+ population is more consolidated
and developed.
Another significant challenge is doing research using probabilistic sampling, as nearly all stud-
ies conducted so far use convenience samples, which are common in studies on hard-to-reach
populations (Cárdenas & Yáñez, 2012). Convenience samples are associated with various prob-
lems (e.g., see Binson et al., 2007). However, this situation is changing due to some studies using
probability samples, as in Chile.
An important challenge is conducting research on specific subgroups within the LGBTIQ+
population since studies are scarce. Research on lesbians and bisexual individuals is more lim-
ited, comparedwith studies on gaymen or transfeminine individuals. Unfortunately, the latter are
often categorized inmany epidemiological studies asMSM (Baral et al., 2013). Furthermore, while
there has been much research on transgender individuals in recent years, non-binary individu-
als have received very little attention (Barrientos, 2016; Spizzirri et al., 2021). Research on people
with intersex variations is also needed, a challenge that is still pending in the region (Aguirre-
Arauz, 2023). Accordingly,more nuanced approaches are key for understanding uniqueLGBTIQ+
experiences.
Lastly, most research in the region focuses on studying violence against these populations and
its effects on health (Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, CIDH, 2015). However,
scarce research is conducted on the living conditions and other relevant aspects of LGBTIQ+
population life, such as romantic relationships or quality of life, to name a few (Barrientos et al.,
2016; Guzmán-González et al., 2023). More comparative research needs to be done between dif-
ferent countries in the region and efforts should increase to generate collaborative networks to
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1040 BARRIENTOS et al.
implement these comparisons. An advance in these lines is the one developed for research on
affirmative psychotherapies in the region (Martínez et al., 2023).
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
This paper begins by reviewing the historical beginnings of social research on LGBTIQ+ popu-
lations in some Latin American countries. It addresses the object of the study, how research has
been conducted and on what populations, with a particular focus on Mexico, Colombia, Chile,
Argentina, and Brazil. However, the selection of participants from these countries was not repre-
sentative as it only included authors who wanted to work on this special issue. Hence, there are
reasons to be concerned about the generalizability of the current findings. Future research would
benefit by attending to the generalizability of the findings in the countries studied.
One of the first striking observations is the relatively recent (1980s) start of social research on
these populations, compared with the earlier beginnings in other regions like North America
(1940s) and Europe (early 20th century). This delay can be partly attributed to the high levels
of homophobia across Latin America (Flores, 2021). In such prejudicial contexts, few researchers
would take the risk to study these populations, without being afraid of stigmatization and its con-
sequences. It could also be due to population pathologization from psychological disciplines until
very recently in the region. In some countries such as Chile, for example, LGBTIQ+ were not
allowed to enter psychology programs until the 1990s. Other social, political, and cultural fac-
tors were the presence of the Catholic Church and the consideration of same-sex behavior as a sin
(Blancarte, 2008),military dictatorships (which fostered a very particular image ofwhat it is to be a
man) (Simonetto,2017), the armed conflict inColombia (Giraldo-Aguirre, 2020), the role played by
drug trafficking, and a very particular view ofmasculinity (Núñez-Noriega &Espinoza-Cid, 2017).
In addition, a more recent development of some disciplines in the region (for example, social psy-
chology), compared with other regions, could have delayed scientific production on populations.
But this is only a hypothesis that should be studied.
Secondly, this paper was challenged by the limited availability of systematic and scoping
reviews in the literature on these populations and the huge heterogeneity of studies available.
Furthermore, in search engines like Web of Science or Google Scholar, available data on some
countries are scarce. Therefore, the absence of reviews and the vast diversity of data (theoreti-
cal, methodological, and disciplinary) made it challenging to compile this paper and address the
regional situation, thus hindering cross-country comparisons. This challenge highlights the sig-
nificant social and cultural diversity of the region, which is hard to synthesize in a single paper,
without missing the richness and idiosyncrasy of each country (Barrientos, 2016). However, this
situation has improved in recent years, as described above.
Thirdly, this paper reveals the huge disparity in social research on these populations, some
countries being more prolific than others. For example, research from a variety of disciplines
is abundant in Mexico and Brazil, two big countries. This may be associated with stigma and
discrimination persistence in some countries more than others, as shown by attitudes toward
these populations (Barrientos & Bahamondes, 2022). It may also be due to the development
of non-pathologizing research on other disciplines such as anthropology and the persistence
of a very pathologizing view of LGBTIQ+ populations in psychology until very recently. Like-
wise, much research conducted in Latin and America is framed by some disciplines, particularly
anthropology, sociology, and history, psychology being less prevalent. Additionally, qualitative
data are more likely to be found in the literature (i.e., from ethnographic studies, interviews, and
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TRENDS IN PSYCHOSOCIAL RESEARCH 1041
observations), while quantitative data (i.e., from survey-based studies) is less abundant and
frequent in the region.
Akin to other contexts, convenience samples are excessively used for studying these popula-
tions. Although common, they tend to be biased, making it difficult to generalize results to the
whole LGBTIQ+ population. This situation is gradually changing and some efforts are beingmade
to conduct studies with probability samples. Furthermore, this paper shows the sub-populations
studied to a greater extent, such as the focus on gay men, revealing the differences between
this study and those conducted on other groups, such as lesbians, bisexuals, transgender, and
non-binary individuals. This could be partly explained by the origins of research on LGBTIQ+
individuals that can be traced back to HIV studies on the population of men who have sex with
men in the region and other contexts, funded by international agencies like UNAIDS. The greater
number of studies on these populations, compared with others (e.g., lesbian women), could also
be due to the greater invisibility of the latter, which could mirror the development of the social
mobilization of these populations in the region.
Much of the research conducted has been exploratory and descriptive in nature, more recent
progress being made in correlational or explanatory models. The minority stress model (Meyer,
2003) is the most frequently used theoretical framework, although its use is relatively recent.
Moreover, it is not used in the same way in all contexts. In some countries, the most important
disciplinary research tradition is based on anthropology and sociology, rather than psychol-
ogy. Furthermore, research is mainly conducted by university research centers, international
organizations (PAHO, UNAIDS, World Bank), and to a lesser extent by LGBTIQ+ organizations.
Therefore, this study reveals the significant geographical, cultural, and research heterogeneity
in the region, along with various challenges faced by the scientific community when conducting
research on LGBTIQ+ populations in Latin America, alongwith the need to increase comparative
research between countries and collaboration networks to conduct such research.
CONFL ICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
ORCID
JaimeBarrientos https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8497-3552
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at LGBTIQ+ populations in digital conversations highlights the increasing discourse hostility
in American countries. Here, a relevant issue is the emergence of anti-gender movements and
policies against LGBTIQ+ rights progress, particularly those favoring transgender individuals
(Murray, 2022).
Therefore, social research on LGBTIQ+ populations is crucial not only for accurately depicting
and characterizing these communities, but also for understanding the consequences of violence
against them. Nonetheless, research efforts are asymmetrically distributed across countries in the
Americas. In some cases, research is diverse and has continued for several years, as inMexico and
Brazil, but it is almost non-existent particularly in Central America andCaribbean countries, with
a few exceptions such as Costa Rica, where Jiménez (2014) analyzes the development of LGBTIQ+
studies and El Salvador, where Arévalo (2016) analyze the prejudice against LGBTIQ+ population
(2016). For this reason, this paper focuses on a small selection of LatinAmerican countries, chosen
because of their relatively larger amount of literature on LGBTIQ+ populations.
This paper considers the theoretical frameworks used in LGBTIQ+ research in Latin America.
It explores what is studied, how it is studied, and what populations are studied. Specifically, this
study delves into research on countries such as Mexico, Colombia, Chile, Argentina, and Brazil.
This selection includes authors who wanted to join us to work on this special issue. To do so,
the following procedure was followed. All authors received the same instructions to prepare their
review for each country. Each author was asked to include some contextual aspects regarding the
norms and laws related to the topic and some historical aspects regarding the beginning of the
study on LGBTIQ+ populations in each country. Next, each one was asked to describe the state
of research on LGBTIQ+ populations considering the impact of stigma, prejudice and discrimi-
nation, and their effects on individuals, particularly mental health. In addition, considering that
each of these countries has different disciplinary and theoretical traditions for the study of such
populations, they were asked to mention these differential aspects. Throughout this process, the
lead author conducted an exhaustive literature review on Google scholars and databases such as
Web of Science and Scopus. Also, key informants and experts were included. Finally, although this
paper is strongly inspired by social psychology, it also draws on other disciplines such as anthro-
pology, history, and sociology, which have been fundamental for the development of research on
these populations in the region.
THE HISTORY OF LGBTIQ+ POPULATION RESEARCH IN LATIN
AMERICA
Identifying the exact beginning of social research on LGBTIQ+ populations in the countries of
the Americas is not easy. It is important to add some historical references since the beginning of
research on these populations in this region started later.
To date, there are no studies comprehensively covering the countries in Latin America, except
for a few theoretical or state-of-the-art reviews. One notable exception is thework of Foster (2008),
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TRENDS IN PSYCHOSOCIAL RESEARCH 1025
who describes the study of gay men issues from the 1980s onwards, including scientific and lit-
erary sources. Additionally, there are some theoretical literature reviews focusing on countries
such as Costa Rica (Jiménez, 2014) and Brazil, which analyze prejudice against non-heterosexual
orientation (Costa et al., 2013), same-sex behavior, the Brazilian armed struggle of the 1960s and
1970s (Green, 2012), and Mexico (List, 2017). Peter Fry’s review (1982) is worth mentioning as it
explores the historical construction of homosexuality in Brazil (Fry, 1982).
The spread of the HIV/AIDS epidemic played a significant role in starting and advancing these
studies during the 1980s and 1990s as research on the topic typically focused onmenwho have sex
with othermen. In the same decade, various publications began examining historical, activist, and
identity issues, particularly related to gaymale populations and, to a lesser extent, lesbian popula-
tion. Among noteworthy historical works are LuizMott’s publications, such as “O lesbianismo no
Brasil” and “Sexo Proibido: Virgens, Gays e Escravos nas garras da Inquisição” (Mott, 1987, 1989)
and “Beyond Carnival: male homosexuality in the Twentieth century Brazil” (Green, 1999).
The 1980s and 1990s also witnessed the rise of anthropological and/or sociological publications
on the topic. Notable among theseworks are “MaleHomosexuality inCentral and SouthAmerica”
by Murray (1987), “Bodies, Pleasures, and Passions: Sexual Culture in Contemporary Brazil” by
Parker (2009), “Homosexuality, Society, and State in Mexico” by Lumsden (1991), and “From the
Others: Intimacy and Homosexuality among Mexican Men” by Carrier (1995). In this period, the
first works about HIV/AIDS effects on men who have sex with men began to be published. It was
not until the late 1990s and early 2000s that social research on the LGBTQ+ population began to
develop.
OBJECT AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
Social science contributions: Main topics, concepts, and theoretical
frameworks
Even though homosexuality was officially removed from the list of mental disorders decades ago
(Drescher, 2015), pathologizing bias toward gay men and lesbian populations remains in certain
disciplines such as psychology, psychoanalysis, psychiatry, and medicine in Latin America. Until
very recently, this has perpetuated bias and pathologized treatment for both sexual minority and
gender-diverse populations, undoubtedly shaping and hindering social research. In Latin Amer-
ica, Spain, and Portugal, a recent study analyzing same-sex behavior and attraction treatment in
psychology indicates that this discipline constructs the image of people with same-sex behavior as
a population with a pathologized vulnerable, and victimized sexuality; a gaymale population that
is perceived as sexualized risk-takers; and invisible female population (Yang & Íñiguez-Rueda,
2020).
Only recently, these biases and associated issues began to be critically examined, conversion
practices or efforts for changing sexual orientation and gender identity being partly banned in
the region (Martínez & Tomicic, 2020). For instance, Brazil was the first country to consolidate a
resolution from the Federal Board of Psychology (Conselho Federal de Psicologia, responsible for
regulating the profession in Brazil) against the so-called conversion therapies in 1999. From then
on, countries such as Argentina in 2010 andMexico in 2020 passed laws against these practices. In
2021, Chile banned diagnoses based on sexual orientation or gender identity and in 2023, a regu-
lation was issued to prohibit them. However, in the same country, in 2024, an anti-discrimination
law reform aiming to set its legal prohibition was rejected. In Colombia, although the Colombian
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779028
How to cite this article: Barrientos, J., Nardi, H. C., Mendoza-Pérez, J. C., Navarro, M.
C., Bahamondes, J., Pecheny, M., & Radi, B. (2024). Trends in psychosocial research on
LGBTIQ+ populations in Latin America: Findings, challenges, and concerns. Journal of
Social Issues, 80, 1022–1055. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12637
AUTH OR BIOGRAPH IES
Jaime Barrientos, PHD, is a full professor of Psychology at the Universidad Alberto Hurtado,
Chile. His pioneer in the research about LGBTIQ+ population in Chile and Latin América. His
research is focused on prejudice against LGBTIQ+ population and its consequences in their
mental health.He ismember of the IASR, and consulting editor of The Journal of SexResearch,
International Journal of Sexual Health, Revista de Psicologia Social.
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https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12637
TRENDS IN PSYCHOSOCIAL RESEARCH 1055
Henrique Caetano Nardi, PhD, is a full professor in the graduate and undergraduate pro-
gram on social and institutional psychology at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul
(UFRGS) In Brazil. He is also head of the social psychology department at the same univer-
sity. Associated researcher at the IRIS-EHESS (Institut de Recherches Interdisciplinaires des
Enjeux Sociaux at the Ecole der Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales) In Paris France and direc-
tor of the research center on sexuality and gender studies at UFRGS. Chief Editor of Polis &
Psique Journal.
Juan Carlos Mendoza-Pérez, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Public Health of the
Faculty of Medicine at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. His work is addressed
to researching the health and well-being of LGBT populations.
María Camila Navarro, Psychologist (PhD). Lecturer-researcher at the Universidad del
Sinú (Cartagena-Colombia). María Camila has co-authored projects and articles published in
indexed journals on evolutive, and sociocultural factors associated with attitudes toward gay
and transgender people in Colombia, public opinion about homosexuality in South American
countries, and effects of intergroup contact on attitudes toward gay people, among others. She
is co-founder of a Colombian non-profit organization of lesbian, bisexual, and trans women,
Raras No TanRaras, where she has coordinated social advocacy projects sponsored by national
and international funds.
Joaquín Bahamondes, PhD, is an associate professor at the School of Psychology, Uni-
versidad Católica del Norte and deputy-director in OLES (Observatorio de Legitimidad
Social y Violencia). Joaquín’s main lines of research are framed within social and political
psychology, specifically in understanding how diverse forms of ideology impact percep-
tions of justice/injustice, with particular interest in the “palliative hypothesis” among the
disadvantaged—that is, their effects on the psychological well-being of minoritized popula-
tions (such as sexual and ethnic minorities). His research is more broadly aimed to address
the psychological underpinnings of structural inequality.
Mario Pecheny, PhD, is a full professor of Sociology of Health at the University of Buenos
Aires and Principal Research at the National Council of Scientific and Technological Research
(CONICET, Argentina). His research examines politics and rights related to health, gender,
and sexuality.
Blas Radi is a public philosopher and a trans activist. His current work focuses on social
epistemology, ethics, politics, and Trans Studies. He is currently pursuing his PhD in Philos-
ophy at the University of Buenos Aires, Argentina, through a doctoral scholarship awarded
by the National Scientific and Technical Research Council. He is an assistant professor at the
Department of Philosophy, UBA, where he founded the Independent Chair of Trans Studies
in 2018.
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	Trends in psychosocial research on LGBTIQ+ populations in Latin America: Findings, challenges, and concerns
	Abstract
	INTRODUCTION
	THE HISTORY OF LGBTIQ+ POPULATION RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA
	OBJECT AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
	Social science contributions: Main topics, concepts, and theoretical frameworks
	METHODOLOGICAL AND ETHICAL APPROACH: OBJECT OF THE STUDY AND POPULATION INVOLVED
	Mexico
	Colombia
	Chile
	Argentina
	Brazil
	FUTURE CHALLENGES FOR RESEARCH ON LGBTIQ+ POPULATIONS IN LATIN AMERICA
	DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
	CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
	ORCID
	REFERENCES
	AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIESbeing filed in 2022.
In sum, pathologizing approaches toward LGBTIQ+ populations have recently shifted to more
affirmative perspectives and approaches which influence the nature and scope of local research.
However, the commitment of some states is still necessary.
The beginning and development of social research on LGBTIQ+ populations are not homoge-
neous across the regions. HIV/AIDSwas an important catalyst, but not the only one. Likewise, the
socio-cultural and legal transformations of these populations as well as their social mobilization
are fundamental. Furthermore, the social study of the LGBTIQ+ population is directly connected
to the struggles of LGBTIQ+ movements and legal changes. This was done in contexts where
prejudice against these populations was high, and the situation was slowly changing.
At the outset, non-pathologizing social research on LGBTIQ+ populations began adopting an
anthropological approach, later moving toward sociological and psychological scopes. Perhaps,
this happened because these populations were perceived as exotic. According to Galván (2019),
“anthropology of sexuality” has become significantly important due to research on this topic in
countries such as Brazil and Argentina. Initially, these studies were exploratory and descriptive,
aiming to advance on understanding of LGBTIQ+ communities. In this regard, knowledge in this
area was non-existent, largely due to the prevailing social stigma and laws penalizing sodomy or
other same-sex relationships and behaviors between men. Again, the influence of pathologizing
bias made the lack of understanding more complex.
Many studies have focused on adapting, validating, and constructing measurement scales to
assess issues such as emerging attitudes and beliefs, meeting a crucial need for locally contex-
tualized measures in the absence of such resources. Likewise, our continent has witnessed a
recent emergence of hypothesis-driven explanatory studies. In this regard, most empirical stud-
ies in Latin America have lacked explicit theoretical frameworks and, instead, sought to build
knowledge about local populations, operating as inductive inquiries to construct theory from
generated data. Only very recently, theoretical models from other contexts and disciplines were
considered, such as those conceptual frameworks more intrinsic to disciplines like sociology or
psychology (e.g., the Minority Stress Model, Meyer 2003). Consequently, studies using notions
such as resilience, stigma, social support, or internalized homophobia proliferated after the 2000s.
More recently, queer theory has influenced the definition of new goals and struggles within
LGBTIQ+ movements, including non-binary identities, this framework being important for
research (Martínez, 2008; Viteri et al., 2011). However, the use of these theories is not simple,
as described by Pérez and Radi (2020). These authors raise both ethical and epistemological con-
cerns, referring to the moral and political dimensions of academic practice and how these modes
affect knowledge produced in the United States and Latin America today.
One of the main challenges in reviewing the state of social research on LGBTIQ+ populations
in Latin America is the limited number of systematic reviews providing a cross-cultural perspec-
tive of these populations. The lack of such reviews makes comparative analyses between and
within countries of this region more complex. Additionally, most of these reviews are theoretical
in nature, rather than being a synthesis of empirical research (Baez et al., 2019; Barrientos, 2016;
Corrales, 2015). These reviews mostly focus on specific issues, such as violence against LGBTIQ+
individuals, particularly gay and lesbian populations (Martínez et al., 2023; Vargas, 2013; Yang &
Íñiguez-Rueda, 2020), heterosexual population attitudes toward LGBTIQ+ individuals (Barrien-
tos & Bahamondes, 2022; Chaux et al., 2021), and factors associated with LGBTIQ+ health and
education (Barrientos & Lovera, 2020; Martínez et al., 2023). Only in the last decade, the focus on
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TRENDS IN PSYCHOSOCIAL RESEARCH 1027
the study of transgender individuals has increased (Organización Panamericana de la Salud, OPS,
2013).
Two reports provide information on Human Rights: for example, “Advances and Challenges
toward the recognition of LGBTI people’s rights in Latin America” (Instituto Nacional de Estadís-
tica e Informática, INEI, 2018) and “Violence against Lesbians, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex
Persons in Latin America” (Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, CIDH, 2015). In the
realm of health, Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) reports are worth noting, including
“Por la salud de las personas trans. Elementos para el desarrollo de la atención integral de per-
sonas trans y sus comunidades en Latinoamérica y el Caribe” (OPS, 2013) and “Closing the Gap:
The health disparities of LGBTI people in Latin America” (PAHO, 2023).
Furthermore, efforts are made to conduct censuses particularly focusing on characterizing
LGBTIQ+ population, for example, in Ecuador (Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos,
INEC, 2013), Perú (INEI, 2018), México (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía, 2021), and
Argentina (Faigón, 2023), although these often involve intentional or non-probabilistic sampling.
Similarly, there are ongoing population census initiatives including questions about LGBTIQ+
population, as in Chile (Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas, INE, 2019; Stang, 2019) and Colombia
(Ham et al., 2024), although these initiatives are relatively recent. Additionally, some national
surveys use probabilistic sampling to achieve reliable social, health, or sexuality characteriza-
tions, includingmodules or questions about LGBTIQ+population. Themost recent example is the
Chilean National Survey of Sexuality (Ministerio de Salud de Chile, 2023) or the Chilean National
Socioeconomic Characterization Survey (Ministerio de Desarrollo Social, 2016, 2021).
METHODOLOGICAL AND ETHICAL APPROACH: OBJECT OF THE
STUDY AND POPULATION INVOLVED
As mentioned above, research initially focused on gay men and other men who have sex with
men. So the number of studies notably increased in the 1990s and early 2000s due to the great
vulnerability of these populations to HIV/AIDS (Coelho et al., 2021). These studies used conve-
nience sampling, yielding valuable but often biased insights into these populations. Transgender
women were included in these studies because, from an epidemiological standpoint, they were
uncritically categorized with the label of men who have sex with men (Silva-Santisteban et al.,
2016). Recently, research has expanded to other populations such as lesbian women and, in
recent decades, to transgender and intersex individuals. In the region, Mauro Cabral is one of
the activists promoting the inclusion of innate variations to sex characteristics (i.e., intersex sta-
tus) as a pending issue on a world and regional basis (Cabral & Benzur, 2005). However, research
on this population is a pending challenge (Aguirre-Arauz, 2023). Also, the anti-gender attack on
researchers, directly affecting funding, must be properly studied and understood (Butler, 2024).
Many of these studies use convenience sampling and, in some cases, Respondent-Driven
Sampling (Montealegre et al., 2013). During the COVID-19 pandemic, online sampling methods
gained prominence (Barrientos et al., 2021). Qualitative and ethnographicmethods are alsowidely
utilized, particularly in Brazil (e.g., Carrara et al., 2007) and Argentina (e.g., Sivori, 2005). How-
ever, studies using probabilistic samples are not well-documentedin these countries. Only very
recently, some countries began to study issues related to LGBTIQ+ populations in their censuses,
including Ecuador (INEC, 2013) and Chile (INE, 2022).
As mentioned above, an important difficulty in describing and characterizing the situation of
LGBTIQ+ populations in the region and the extant research on LGBTIQ+ issues is the limited
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1028 BARRIENTOS et al.
number of papers conducting systematic scoping or literature reviews of countries in this region.
Some theoretical papers synthesize research on discrimination and rights (Abbate et al., 2024; Bar-
rientos, 2016; Barrientos & Bahamondes, 2022; Malta et al., 2019; Martínez et al., 2023); on how
LGBTIQ+ people are represented in Latin America (Yang & Iñiguez-Rueda, 2021); on LGBTIQ+
bullying (Arango-Restrepo & Corona-Vargas, 2015; Kosciw & Zongrone, 2019); and on how to col-
lect LGBTIQ+ demographic data for surveys and censuses (Stang, 2019). Also, systematic and
scoping reviews are scarce, for example, two refer to discrimination and homophobia (Baez et al.,
2019; Cuenca, 2021), one to HIV (Coelho et al., 2021), and another on the health of women who
have sex with women (Caceres et al., 2019). More recently, some systematic reviews are found on
LGBTQ+ populations in certain countries. Most of these reviews are found in Brazil: Costa et al.
(2013) analyze prejudice; de Brito et al. (2023) analyze gay men and lesbian parenting, and Silva
and Araújo (2023) conduct a systematic review about LGBTQ+ populations. A systematic review
is also found in Colombia, where Gómez-Muñoz and Gómez-Parra (2020) examine transgender
population.
Finally, comparative studies among some countries in the region are also scarce. Henry et al.
(2021) deal with mental health and suicide in Latin American LGBTIQ+ populations; Swan
et al. (2021) study discrimination and intimate partner violence victimization in Latin American
LGBTIQ+ populations; Chaux and León (2016) study homophobic attitudes among young people
in Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Paraguay Chile, Colombia, and Mexico; Silva-Santisteban
et al. (2016) study HIV prevention among transgender women in Latin America; and Hoyos-
Hernández et al. (2023) analyze health care for transgender people in Latin America and the
Caribbean.
Below are five countries with substantial scientific research outputs on LGBTIQ+ populations:
México, Colombia, Chile, Argentina, and Brazil. As stated in the introduction, the differences
in the presentation of each country come from historical, cultural, academic, theoretical, and
methodological specificities. Argentina and Brazil are more influential from psychoanalytic and
poststructuralist perspectives and put less emphasis on methodologically-guided positivist and
post-positivist empirical research, although more recently Brazilian researchers have adopted
a mixed approach using psychological metrics and minority stress guidelines, unlike Mexico,
Chile, and Colombia that have historically been stronger in empirical research. The difficulties
of expanding research on sexual and gender diversity during military and civil dictatorships also
had a strong influence in shaping national academic scenarios. These differences are expected to
contribute to a more global reading of research complexity as it is associated with institutional,
historical, and cultural contexts.
Mexico
In the 1980s and 2000s (Diez, 2011; Ortiz-Hernández, 2004), HIV and sexual health in Mexico
became central topics in healthcare strategies due to high mortality, particularly among gay men
and transgender women. Initially, most studies were conducted inMexico City, the country’s cap-
ital. However, data were also available at a national level, collected by the government: “Encuesta
Nacional sobre Diversidad Sexual y de Género” (INEGI, 2021). The study of social health deter-
minants on primarily gay men populations gained prominence through two pioneering studies
in the field: “El SIDA en México: Los efectos sociales” (Galván-Díaz, 1988) and “SIDA, ciencia y
sociedad en México” (Amor & Bronfman, 1989). These were early discussions to understand how
HIV infection was socially determined, by analyzing sexual orientation, social inequality, and
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TRENDS IN PSYCHOSOCIAL RESEARCH 1029
barriers to access health care services (Amor & Bronfman, 1989; Díaz, 1988). In the early 2000s,
mental health emerged as a relevant category to address health disparities in these populations.
Over the past two decades, nearly all studies have strived to demonstrate that these disparities
are determined by discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity, not by a causal
relationship.
As to the type of research in the country,many studies on the adaptation and validation of scales
assessing attitudes toward LGBTIQ+ populations are found (Lozano-Verduzco & Díaz-Loving,
2010; Moral, 2011) on homophobia (Lozano-Verduzco & Sánchez, 2011; Ortiz-Hernández & Gar-
cía, 2005). Also, much quantitative and qualitative research on bisexuality has been conducted
(Izazola-Licea et al., 1988; Liguori, 1995; Ortiz-Hernández, 2005).
Although the study of LGBTIQ+ health inMexico ismainly based on theMinority StressModel
(Meyer 1995, 2003), other studies explore the dynamics of sexual dissidence from different theo-
retical and methodological approaches. Among these are, for example, studies on intimacy in
Mexican gaymen (Carrier, 1995), transvestites’ life (Prieur, 2007), youth sexuality in times of AIDS
(Carrillo, 2002), sexuality amongmen andHIV vulnerability (Núñez-Noriega, 1999), and intimacy
amongwomen (Garrido, 2020).More recently, research has been done on sexual identity constitu-
tions based on gender analysis (List, 2010) and some identities of sexual dissidence from pleasure,
corporality, and cultural practices (Parrini, 2018).
Quantitative methodology is the main approach used here. Most studies are based on cross-
sectional designs with statistically non-representative samples. Data are collected through
questionnaires including validated scales or surveys based on the expertise and academic expe-
rience of research teams. Recently, surveys have transitioned from paper-based questionnaires
to self-administered online instruments. Another novelty is the growing adoption of qualitative
studies based on techniques such as in-depth interviews and focus group discussions.
Research categories primarily relate to discrimination and violence experience based on sexual
orientation and gender identity. To analyze these experiences, criteria such as temporality, spaces
where discrimination events occur, and the type of violence exerted (e.g., microaggressions, verbal
abuse, physical violence, or structural violence) are typically used. Additionally, mental health is
examined through criteria such as suicidal ideation and attempts, depression, anxiety, self-esteem
levels, mood, substance abuse, and internalized homophobia, among other cognitive, emotional,
and behavioral issues. Furthermore, some studies explore structural elements related to mental
health, such as social support. Several studies conduct a combined analysis of LGBTIQ+ popu-
lations, research focusing on discrimination and violence based on sexual orientation or gender
identity as primarymental health determinants (Granados-Cosme et al., 2008). Findings indicate
that these factors are associated with depressive symptoms, substance abuse, anxiety, depres-
sion, and suicidal behavior (Bonilla et al., 2023; Lozano-Verduzco, 2016; Ortiz &Granados-Cosme,
2003), suggesting that mental health may improve if systematic discrimination practices based on
sexual orientation or gender identity are eliminated.
Publications on social mental health determinants are frequent, although they typically focus
on gay men, bisexual men, and other men who have sex with men, (Granados-Cosme &
Delgado-Sánchez, 2008; Lozano-Verduzco, 2014; Mendoza-Pérez & Ortiz-Hernández, 2019; Ortiz-
Hernández & Valencia-Valero, 2015). While these studies generally show results for LGBTIQ+
population, some delve into recent topics such as the impact ofmicroaggressions (Mendoza-Pérez,
Trejo-Hernández et al., 2023), conversion practices (Olvera-Muñoz, 2021), internalized sexual
prejudice (Lozano-Verduzco, 2016), and more recently, the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic
(Ramírez-García et al., 2022).
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1030 BARRIENTOS et al.
Studies onMexican lesbian and bisexual women are scarcely found. These studies report higher
levels of depression and anxiety, suicidal ideation, and prevalence of mental health issues, com-
pared to other LGBTIQ+ groups (Lozano-Verduzco et al., 2018; Mendoza-Pérez, Vega-Cauich
et al., 2023; Ortiz-Hernández & García, 2005). Research on the connection between discrimi-
nation and health impairments for transgender individuals is also scarce. Research does report
high levels of transphobia experienced by Mexican trans population (Mendoza-Pérez & Salazar-
Ballesteros, 2018) in the family, at work, at school, and in public spaces. Other studies highlight
health challenges for this population due to their psycho-medical and social transition process,
as well as discrimination events in healthcare services. Moreover, the danger of pathologizing
transgender identities and gender-sex adaptation is emphasized (Granados-Cosme et al., 2017;
Molina et al., 2015). A study on Mexican non-heterosexual male adolescents reported significant
differences, compared with their heterosexual counterparts, in experiencing emotional violence
during childhood (Gayet & Mendoza-Pérez, 2019). This work highlights the importance of iden-
tifying responsibilities in childhood maltreatment, arguing that parents are primarily responsible
for physical violence, while mothers and siblings are responsible for emotional violence.
Finally, two issues attracting international attention toward Mexico are drug trafficking and
migration to the USA. Concerning drug trafficking and LGBTIQ+ populations, an exploratory
study on gay men’s drug abuse found that forced recruitment and sexual exploitation of trans
people and other LGBTIQ+ populations by criminal organizations are a problem (Valenzuela-
Barreras & Anguiano-Téllez, 2022). Furthermore, insecurity and violence associated with these
criminal groups negatively affect the safety and well-being of LGBTIQ+ people who consume
substances since they may face risky situations when purchasing them or selecting a supplier
(Mendoza-Pérez, López-Barrientos et al., 2023). Regardingmigration andLGBT+ populations, the
main places where LGBTIQ+ people come from are Central American countries such as El Sal-
vador, Guatemala, and Honduras, where they face discrimination, rejection, and violence due to
sexual orientation and gender identity (Cano-Collado & Priego-Alvarez, 2020; Solano et al., 2023;
Valenzuela-Barreras & Anguiano-Téllez, 2022). Concerning migration, some events LGBTIQ+
migrants face during their journey in Mexico include non-compliance with heterosexist and cis-
genderist mandates (e.g., challenges for trans people in accessing documentation corresponding
to their gender expression), and the constant threat of discrimination, extortion, kidnapping, labor
exploitation, human trafficking, and sexual and gender violence (Berenzon-Gorn et al., 2024;
Solano et al., 2023; Valenzuela-Barreras & Anguiano-Téllez, 2022).
The act of migrating has significant implications for the mental health of LGBTIQ+ individ-
uals, who find social rejection, long-lasting severe victimization, and high levels of stress during
their journey to the USA. Being mistreated and adjusting to changing situations in transit and
receiving countries can make people feel more emotionally vulnerable (Valenzuela-Barreras &
Anguiano-Téllez, 2022). Furthermore, these populations may be affected by particular psycholog-
ical health requirements due to their gender identity, sexual orientation, and intersection with
other categories, such as ethnicity and forced migration status (Berenzon-Gorn et al., 2024).
Colombia
Scientific research on sexual and gender diversity in Colombia, particularly in psychology and
social sciences, is relatively recent. Clinical sexology began to question the pathologizing and psy-
choanalytical view of sexual diversity since the 1960s (Chaparro & Illidge, 2022). In the 1990s, the
first Spanish translation of the American Psychological Association “Psychological Guidelines for
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TRENDS IN PSYCHOSOCIAL RESEARCH 1031
lesbian, gay, and bisexual people” was published (Ardila, 1998; Chaparro & Illidge, 2022; Moreno
et al., 2020). Additionally, the Colombian College of Psychologists was established in 2004, with
a recognized affirmative perspective (Moreno et al., 2020). Some of the most prominent areas of
study in the past were attitudes toward LGBTIQ+ individuals, mental health and its interaction
with prejudice, studies on transgender individuals, and research on LGBTIQ+ people’s experi-
ence in the armed conflict. Currently, research in Colombia deals with broad andmore diversified
aspects of the LGBTIQ+ community.
Concerning attitudes toward LGBTIQ+ people in Colombia, studies analyzing public opin-
ion about same-sex behavior and using surveys on large samples (e.g., World Values Survey)
are acknowledged (Chaux et al., 2021; Chaux & León, 2016; Navarro et al., 2019). These stud-
ies describe the main social variables interacting with attitudes toward same-sex behaviors, for
example, post-materialism, the importance of religion, gender, and political involvement. Other
studies that focus on changing these negative attitudes following Intergroup Contact Theory and
its related versions (Allport, 1954; Crisp&Turner, 2011; Pettigrew&Tropp, 2006) find that interact-
ing with gay and lesbian people has a positive effect on stereotypes about same-sex behaviors and
variables such as psychological well-being and cognitive flexibility (Navarro et al., 2023). Despite
improvements in attitudes toward same-sex behaviors over the past decade, these attitudes gen-
erally remain negative, which is related to frequent acts of violence against LGBTIQ+ individuals
(Sin violencia LGBTI, 2019).
In the realm of mental health research, the predominant focus in Colombia is elucidating
adverse mental health outcomes experienced by LGBTIQ+ individuals. This approach, charac-
terized as damage-centered research is a prevalent trend on a world basis, (Cipollina et al., in
press). Consequently, many studies in Colombia use theoretical frameworks such as Minority
Stress Model (Meyer,2003; Meyer & Frost, 2012) to study this phenomenon. Internalized sexual
prejudice in youngmen is associatedwith suicidal ideation (Pineda-Roa, 2019). There is also a rela-
tionship between prior experiences of violence and discrimination with higher levels of anxiety
and depression in Colombian gay and bisexual men (Restrepo, 2022), as well as substance abuse
in men who have sex with men (Zea et al., 2022). In sexual minorities, the risk of suicide is higher
compared to heterosexuals (Pineda-Roa, 2019). Del Río-González et al. (2021) found that conver-
sion practices aimed at changing either sexual orientation or gender identity (SOGICE) further
increase this risk in Colombia. Although being the only study in Colombia, it showed a particu-
larly high prevalence of conversion practices compared with other countries (Salway et al., 2023),
estimating a 22% overall prevalence of conversion practices (prevalence among samples ranging
from 2% to 35%). Choi et al. (2020) indicate that more than 50% of the Colombian participants
reported moderate levels of psychological distress in the last 30 days, while 25% had attempted
suicide at least once in their lifetime.
Additionally, there is an increasing development of best practice guidelines for LGBTIQ+ psy-
chological care and continuous training ofmental health professionals in affirmative perspectives
in Colombia (Ardila, 2007; Campo-Arias & Herazo, 2018; Chaparro & Abreu, 2023; Nieves-Lugo
et al., 2020).
Recent studies have explored transgender issues from both empirical and theoretical perspec-
tives. Some findings show that gender affirmation usually occurs outside the formal healthcare
system due to persisting stigma and limited access to medical care (Aguayo-Romero et al., 2015;
Ritterbusch et al., 2018). Moreover, transgender women’s social representations about their own
identity are generally negative, considering personal experiences of violence, discrimination, fam-
ily rejection, and rights denial (Sánchez-Fuentes et al., 2021). Evidence also shows that living
conditions are difficult for transgender individuals because their autonomy is limited (Beltrán,
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2020). There is still a long way to go in studying gender identity and improving attitudes toward
transgender individuals in Colombia.
Studies on intersex issues and people with different sexual characteristics are not prominent
in Colombia, the dominant focus being on medical and political aspects over the psychological
perspective. Some scholars examine how the country’s judicial discourse shapes bodies and lives
in a hetero-centered society. Despite the Constitutional Court recognition of autonomy in surgical
decisions since 2014 (ruling T-622/14), heterosexuality power dynamics still exceed individuals
with intersex variations (García-León & García-León, 2017).
Studies addressing queer theory suggest a constant review of: categories associated with gender
and sexuality, opening the debate about who is or is not allowed to embody those categories (Cor-
dova Quero, 2020); the category of sex as the exclusive territory of the body (Martínez, 2015); and
how language and culture helpmaintain or question Colombian queermasculinity normalization
(García-León, 2023).
Lastly, studies on LGBTIQ+ individuals and the Colombian armed conflict reveal phenom-
ena such as the legitimization and justification of violence against these individuals by the state,
police, and general public, based on prejudice and rigid gender stereotypes (Bates, 2022; Lima-
Serrano et al., 2017). Giraldo-Aguirre andMontes (2022) analyze the participation of guerrillas and
paramilitary groups in homoerotic practices and romantic relationships between men, showing
that such relationships are also influenced by war victimization and complicity with armed logic
and homonegativity. They also highlight physical and mental health consequences for LGBTIQ+
victims due to processes of forced displacement, “social cleansing,” andhomonegativity (Zea et al.,
2013). Schwartz (1996) defines “social cleansing” as a euphemism used to describe the targeted
killing of individuals perceived as undesirable. In addition, they emphasize the importance of
constructing a historical memory and showing the truth for the psychosocial processes of these
individuals (Maier, 2020).
In summary, research on LGBTIQ+ issues in Colombia is advancing; however, scientific devel-
opment in these areas is still significantly limited, compared with other countries and areas of
study, further research being necessary for both.
Chile
Scientific research in psychology and social sciences is in its early stages in Chile. This is particu-
larly true for research on sexual and gender diversity. According to Cornejo (2011), since the late
19th century, many Chilean researchers favored a medicalization paradigm of LGBTIQ+ issues,
regarding same-sex attraction and behavior as a disease, deviation, or perversion. This view pre-
vailed until the 1960s, when some advances in sexology began questioning the pathologizing
nature of homosexuality (Barrientos et al., 2014). However, the military dictatorship prohibited
further examination on this subject for a long time since it arguably compromised traditional
family values (Htun, 2010). While there was no explicit persecution of sexual diversity, there were
laws, such as Article 365 in the Penal Code, criminalizing same-sex relations. This article was
repealed in 1999; however, different ages for sexual consent based on sexual orientation persisted
until recently (repealed in 2022).
In 1987, one of the first sexual diversity studies was conducted by the Chilean Corporation
for AIDS Prevention, addressing various aspects, including vulnerability to HIV/AIDS, which
shed light on diverse forms of erotic expression. In 2000, the first official study, a comprehensive
national sexuality survey called COSECON (Ministerio de Salud de Chile, 2000), was published.
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This study evaluates the prevalence of non-heterosexuality in the country, along with associated
levels of sexual prejudice. Later, studies related to the attitudes and practices of non-heterosexual
about HIV/AIDS were funded.
Classifying research in psychology and social sciences, particularly LGBTIQ+ individuals in
Chile over recent decades, into a few thematic categories is challenging. Nevertheless, some recur-
ring themes are in line with research in other countries, for example, assessment of attitudes
toward LGBTIQ+ individuals. In the last decade, particularly the last five years, research on
transgender individuals increased.
In relation to the adaptation, validation, and construction of scales of attitudes toward
LGBTIQ+ individuals, the following studies are found: ATLG (Cárdenas & Barrientos, 2008);
HATH (Barrientos & Cárdenas, 2010); beliefs about children’s adjustment in same-sex families
scale (BCASSFS) (Barrientos et al., 2013); subjective scale of stigma and discrimination (SISD) for
gay men and transgender women population in Chile (SISD) (Barrientos & Cárdenas, 2014); and
polymorphous prejudice scale (PM) (Barrientos et al., 2015).
Also, some studies were conducted on discrimination and stigma perceived by LGBTIQ+ pop-
ulation (Barrientoset al., 2010; Barrientos & Bozon, 2014). Regarding attitudes toward LGBTIQ+
individuals in Chile, some studies analyze the public opinion of sexual minorities, using surveys
such as the World Values Survey (Barrientos & Bahamondes, 2022; Chaux et al., 2021; Chaux &
León, 2016; Navarro et al., 2019) on college populations and other samples. Results describe the
levels of sexual prejudice in the country and the primary social variables associated with this prej-
udice (e.g., post-materialism, religion, gender, and political involvement). Additionally, various
aspects related to sexual practices among men who have sex with other men are explored in the
context of HIV/AIDS vulnerability (Barrientos-Delgado et al., 2014).
Concerningmental health,most studies in Chile address the topic, based on theMinority Stress
Model (Meyer, 2003;Meyer&Frost, 2012). For instance, Cárdenas et al. (2018) examined the effects
of perceived stigma on posttraumatic growth, resulting from different coping strategies (posi-
tive reappraisal, social support, and active coping strategies) on a sample of gay men and lesbian
women. Results reveal that the association between perceived stigma and posttraumatic growth
is mediated by positive reappraisal coping. Other studies address the health conditions and risk
factors of participants identified as sexual and gender minorities, compared with those identified
as cisgender heterosexual, using data from the 2016–2017 Chilean National Health Survey (Ferrer
et al., 2022). Findings show that, despite reporting higher self-rated physical health than hetero-
sexual men, gay men have a higher risk of lifetime diagnosis with sexually transmitted infections.
Compared with heterosexual women, the prevalence of depression was higher among bisexual
women, who were also less likely to have been tested for HIV. Another recent study shows that
sexual minority respondents report poorer self-rated health and greater health care utilization,
while sexual minority men are more likely to have private health insurance relative to hetero-
sexual men (Nettuno et al., 2024). The growing development of guidelines for best practices in
psychological care for LGBTIQ+ individuals in Chile and the ongoing training of mental health
professionals in affirmative perspectives are also worth noting (Martínez et al., 2018).
In Chile, research on transgender people is relatively recent (Barrientos et al., 2019). To date,
research is conducted on sociodemographic aspects (Barrientos et al., 2021), identity construction
processes (Gonzalez & Bernales, 2023), perceived prejudice and discrimination (Barrientos et al.,
2016; Barrientos & Cárdenas, 2014), coping with prejudice and discrimination (Barrientos et al.,
2023), aspects related to the transition process (Barrientos et al., 2021), quality of life and mental
health (Mendoza et al., 2021), and health access (Bernales et al., 2024; Gonzalez & Bernales, 2022;
Roselló-Peñaloza et al., 2023). Also, a study shows that transgender participants were more likely
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1034 BARRIENTOS et al.
to report higher levels of depression and poorer self-rated health than cisgender participants (Fer-
rer et al., 2022). However, there is still much work ahead in studying gender identity, particularly
non-binary gender identities.
Research using queer theory is more recent. CUDS (Coordinadora Universitaria de la Diversi-
dad Sexual) members and other activists used this theory and criticized it in the 2000s (De Perra,
2015; Rivas, 2011). In the last decade, these and other theories have been used to study issues asso-
ciated with young people’s identity (Barrientos et al., 2019), migration (Galaz et al., 2023), family
(Ramm et al., 2024), and military dictatorship (Hiner et al., 2019).
So, research on LGBTIQ+ issues is advancing in Chile. Nevertheless, scientific development in
these areas falls behind other countries and areas of study, indicating the urgent need of further
research on both the lines of research mentioned above and others not addressed yet. It is worth
noting that a second Chilean national survey of sexuality called ENSSEX (Ministerio de Salud de
Chile, 2023) will soon provide additional data on LGBTIQ+ research on the area.
Argentina
In Argentina, academic work on LGBTIQ+ issues began in the 1980s. These issues expanded
across universities a decade later (Gogna et al., 2009) and continue to date. According to Fer-
nández (2013), before returning to democracy in 1983, LGBTIQ+ experiences in Argentina were
mainly invisible, clandestine, and secret (Pecheny, 2010). This changedwith the democratic open-
ing, when the first organized LGBTIQ+movements emerged, together with a social recognition
process often fostered by the mass media (Meccia, 2003).
In the 1980s, sex research predominated, often based on clinical experiences and/or special-
ized literature reviews, which only occasionally dealt with topics related to LGBTIQ+ populations
(Gogna, 2005). Social research on these populations had not yet proliferated because, as in other
Latin-American countries, Argentina mainly viewed same-sex attractions and behaviors as an ill-
ness (Gemetro, 2009). Unlike other countries in Latin America, psychoanalysis in Argentina has
had a significant impact on the pathologizing view of LGBTIQ+ populations for decades. In this
regard, Meler (2000) notes that the most widespread stance among psychoanalysts was assuming
that same-sex tendencies originate exclusively from individuals’ life history. According to Talak
et al. (2008), there has been a sexuality psychologization process, together with sexuality medical-
ization. However, the study of LGBTIQ+ populations from a non-pathologizing logic occurs very
late, perhaps due to the impact of psychoanalysis on the country. More recently, psychoanalytical
institutions have critically discussed and modified their previous heteronormative approaches,
particularly during and after the debate around marriage equality in the 2000s and 2010s.
From the 1990s onwards, a growing concern about the epidemiological and social aspects of
HIV/AIDS has been increasingly reflected in the research agendas of social sciences. This opened
the door to the study of sexuality in general and male same-sex sexuality in particular (Lareo &
Guevara, 2022). In 1990, the Health and Population Area at Buenos Aires University was estab-
lished (Spataro & Blanco, 2023). Among its pioneering research efforts are “And AIDS is Among
Us: A Study on Attitudes, Beliefs, and Behaviours of Groups Affected by the Disease” (Kornblit,
2000), which addresses the differential impact of the disease on gay men groups. In the same
year, “AIDS: Between Care and Risk” (Kornblit, 2000) included studies on sexual behavior and
menwho have sexwith othermen. In 1997, the first study on same-sex sexuality and human rights
was conducted at UBA, results being documented in “Gay Men and Lesbians: Identity Formation
and Human Rights” (Kornblit et al., 1998). In the 1990s and 2000s, social research development
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TRENDS IN PSYCHOSOCIAL RESEARCH 1035
was significant, ranging from historical works such as those of Salessi (1995) and Bazán (2004)
to anthropological and sociological studies, such as the those of Sebreli (1997) and Rapisardi and
Modarelli(2002), who described “locas” (effeminate gay men), their movements in public spaces,
and their interaction codes and gender performance. Later, Sivori (2005) ethnographically exam-
ined their ways of interacting in Rosario city, while Insausti (2011), studied LGBTIQ+ pride in
Tigre in the early 1980s. Simultaneously, ErosUniversityCollective remained active atUBASchool
of Philosophy and Letters from 1993 to 1996. One of its objectives was analyzing sexual diversity.
For this purpose, they promoted meetings at various academic institutions across the country
(Barrancos, 2014).
Eros Group experience gave rise to the Area of Queer Studies andMulticulturalism, a joint pro-
posal between the School of Philosophy and Letters and Ricardo Rojas Cultural Centre (Blanco,
2019), being active from 1997 to the early 2000s. This academic and political proposal aimed to
analyze and deconstruct constructions perpetuating discrimination, oppression, and exclusion
based on sexuality, gender, class, and race. To this end, it sought to ground queer theory in local
coordinates and exploit its tools to challenge both political culture and academic institutionaliza-
tion (Delfino & Rapisardi, 2022). This involved avoiding research and teaching scholarly formats
opting for disruptive forms of intellectual action, among other things (Blanco, 2019). Among its
activities were weekly discussion meetings linking theoretical and practical interests, inviting
researchers and activists. Bellucci (2016) highlights the participation of travesti individuals (this
term is retained, because its use by some groups has a more political identity character) in these
meetings, including Lohana Berkins, who brought up the need of a joint policy against police
repression. In this context, research on travesti/transgender populations gained momentumwith
works such as the “Preliminary Report on the Situation of Travesti in Buenos Aires City” (Maf-
fía & Berkins, 1999) and the definition of a travesti/transgender agenda focusing on citizenship.
The Queer Area fragmented in the early 2000s, giving rise to more specific projects: Gender Tech-
nology Area at Ricardo Rojas Cultural Centre (operating until 2012), Queer Theory Program at
the University Extension Secretariat, Student Welfare at UBA School of Philosophy and Letters,
as part of the XXII UBA Program for education in prisons, and collaboration with the Argentine
Federation of Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, and Transgender People (FALGBTB, for its acronym in
Spanish).
The National Feminist Meeting in 2000 — which prohibited travesti and transgender women
participation — gave rise to the feminist autonomous group Ají de Pollo. Its members adopted
a queer perspective to repudiate gender bureaucratization, while seeking to contest, challenge,
and even oppose the hegemonic regional feminist agenda, particularly the trans-exclusive fem-
inist agenda. In 2003, together with the Queer Studies Area, they organized the International
Forum “Inescapable Bodies” at Ricardo Rojas Cultural Centre. In 2004, they published the col-
lection “Feminist Conversations,” which challenged local feminist movements. In the same year,
one of its members published the first ethnography on transgender communities in Argentina:
“Disobedient Bodies: Transvestism and Gender Identity” (Fernández, 2004).
Simultaneously, the Sexuality Study Group was established as part of the Health and Popula-
tion Area (School of Social Sciences, UBA). This group is an interdisciplinary research collective
engaged in studies on non-hegemonic sexualities and gender, teaching, outreach activities, and
participation in public social intervention events such as protests. Among its early publications
are “Sexualities, Politics, and Violence: The LGBTIQ+ Pride Parade. The 2005 LGBTIQ+ Pride
Parade in Buenos Aires, Second Survey” (Libson & Hiller, 2006) and “All sex is political: Studies
on sexualities in Argentina” (Pecheny et al., 2008).
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1036 BARRIENTOS et al.
LGBTIQ+ studies gained strength owing to the pioneering work of these groups. They were
later joined by others, including “Incorporations,” a research group at Cordoba National Uni-
versity; the “University Program for Sexual Diversity,” established in 2009 at Rosario National
University; the “Centre for Sexual Diversity Studies” at the School of Philosophy and Letters from
Tucuman National University, created in 2017; and the “Applied Philosophy and Queer Politics
Group,” founded in 2018 at UBA School of Philosophy and Letters. As a result, undergradu-
ate and postgraduate seminars on topics related to LGBTIQ+ populations increased throughout
Argentine universities, as well as theses, publications, outreach proposals, graduate programs,
and institutional protocols. In 2021, a Federal Network on Gender and Diversity was established
by CONICET (National Council on Scientific and Technological Research), with researchers on
LGBTIQ+ in diverse disciplines and provinces. This network gave rise to the First National Survey
of the Living Conditions of Sexual and Gender Diversity in Argentina (Relevamiento Nacional,
2023).
Finally, quantitative social research on populations in Argentina has been scarce compared
with other countries studied in this paper. Such research has focused on two main topics: assess-
ing attitudes toward LGBTIQ+ and transgender populations. The former include, for example,
Attitudes Toward Gay Men Scale adaptation (Etchezahar et al., 2016) and the study of attitudes
toward marriage equality (Dion & Díez, 2022; Jorge, 2012; Ruediger & Borland, 2013). The latter
includes research on trans people’s suicide (Marshall et al., 2016) and access to health care (Socías
et al., 2014).
Brazil
Social science research on sexual and gender diversity in Brazil has developed since the early 20th
century, although it has increasedmuchmore since the 2000s (da Silva &Araújo, 2023). Same-sex
behavior was not considered a crime in Brazil, although various laws were used simultaneously
to imprison travesti (a specific identity not corresponding to the term transvestite, although being
a transgender identity), transgender, gay men, and lesbian people. These laws related to offense
against morality or the enactment of forced imprisonment due to a sexual disease, framed as sex-
ual inversion or degeneration. The early 20th-century studies, eugenicist in nature and combining
medical and sociological elements, associated same-sex behavior and transgender with racial mis-
cegenation and sexual promiscuity. Making the Brazilian population “Whiter” was a mission of
national salvation and so was sexual and gender purity.
The first studies from a different perspective began in the 1960s with José Fábio Barbosa da
Silva’s thesis, supervised by Florestan Fernandes, one of the founding figures of Brazilian sociol-
ogy and a pioneer in studies on racial relations and the historical formation of prejudice and racial
and sexual discrimination in Brazil (da Silva et al., 2021).
During the military dictatorship in Brazil, unlike other Latin American countries, the first
anthropological studies on same-sex behavior emerged. These studies were conducted on African
cosmological matrices and sexual diversity in Brazil (Fry, 1982), laying the foundations for a
research line that continues to date, now less influenced by Eurocentric epistemology and more
concerned with knowledge rooted in Afro-Indigenous epistemologies. In addition to these early
contributions on sexual and gender diversity by both medicine and sociology, the most devel-
oped disciplinary field on the topic was anthropology. Here, studies by Peter Fry (1982), EduardMacrae (Fry&MacRae, 1991),MariaHelenaHeilborn (1999), Nestor Perlongher (1987), SergioCar-
rara (1994), and Veriano Terto Jr (2002), among others are found. These authors made essential
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TRENDS IN PSYCHOSOCIAL RESEARCH 1037
contributions to understand Brazilian cultural specificity in sexual and gender diversity. They
addressed issues from men who sell sex to other men to the importance of gender performativity
in understanding men’s sexual positions in erotic sociability. As to the latter, they allowed under-
standing the relationship between an active-masculine man and a passive-feminine man as an
organization of sexual sociability, a common reality in Latin America.
The acknowledgement of the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Brazil in the 1980s produced the conver-
gence of this health context with its re-democratization. The recovered harmony between power
and knowledge, along with the relationship between health professionals and activists became
particularly important. There was significant funding for HIV/AIDS research from both interna-
tional organizations and the Brazilian government. In this time, research was largely conducted
jointly with social movements. Research centers such as NEPAIDS (Núcleo de Estudos para a
prevenção do SIDA) at Universidade de São Paulo (USP) and ABIA (Asociación Brasileña Inter-
disciplinaria del SIDA)were born in this context. Funding fromBrazilianHIV/AIDS programwas
crucial for fostering research groups and civil associations of LGBTIQ+ activist groups throughout
Brazil.
The 1988 Constitution was also crucial in creating an anti-discrimination agenda in Brazil,
including discrimination associated with sexual and gender diversity. From the 1990s onwards,
Brazil made a shift from studies focusing on health to the field of social vulnerability, sexual
practices, discrimination, prejudice, and human and social rights. Historical production on same-
sex behavior was significant (Green, 1999, 2022; Silveiro, 2002) and initially centered on major
cities (Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo), recently expanding to other parts of the country (Souto &
Quinalha, 2023). Brazil cannot be considered homogeneous; on the contrary, it exhibits significant
cultural, geographical, historical, climatic, and income diversity, which is interwound with mul-
tiple ways of performing gender and sexuality in intersection with ethnicity and race, influenced
by African or Indigenous cosmologies (Fernandes, 2016; Rios, 2013).
In terms of research fields, anthropology initially dominated scientific production (Piscitelli
et al., 2004) from the classic studies of Peter Fry andEdwardMacrae, articulating a particular form
of gender expression (masculine and feminine, regardless of sex) and sexual positions (active, pas-
sive). This gave rise to the category of men who have sex with men in HIV/AIDS epidemiology,
and also in structuring sexual practices (stereotypes around virile active men and feminine pas-
sive men) in Brazil and other countries. These articulations are much more diverse today due to
political changes and the emergence of other identity categories (gender fluid, asexual, and non-
binary, among others), although they are still present (Costa et al., 2013). As to the contribution
of anthropology, studies on travesti identity (Benedetti, 1997, 2005; Kulick, 1998, 2009) are worth
mentioning. Educational sciences are also an important field of study. Guacira Lopes Louro was
a pioneer in introducing queer theory in Brazil (Louro, 2008). Contributions from psychology are
remarkable, ranging from more positivist research with scales and surveys to study social repre-
sentations to queer (Prado & Machado, 2022), intersectional, post-structuralist perspectives, and
now those associated with Brazilian-African and decolonial frameworks questioning production
from the global north. This shift in theoretical approachesmeets one of the goals of doing research
marked by a more global perspective as pointed out by (Hässler et al., in press).
Concerning quantitative studies, various scales were adapted and validated to measure and
understand the particular characteristics of prejudice toward LGBTQIA+ people in Brazil (Costa
et al., 2016; deMedeiros et al., 2019; Lira &Morais, 2019). Prejudice and discrimination were stud-
ied in many settings, mainly in education (in universities and high schools) and public health
systems. These researches considered the continental size of Brazil and explored the differences
between regions and rural and urban settings (Magno et al., 2022; de Medeiros et al., 2023; Stucky
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1038 BARRIENTOS et al.
et al., 2020). Also, surveys were conducted to evaluate various characteristics of the Brazilian
LGBTIQIA+ population (Spizzirri et al., 2022; Torres et al., 2021; Vasconcelos et al., 2023).
Although the country has been somewhat historically isolated from Spanish-speaking Latin
America, centers like CLAM (Centro Latino Americano en Sexualidad y Derechos Humanos) at
Universidade Estadual do Rio de Janeiro have contributed significantly to Latin America integra-
tion. Additionally, some feminist journals such as Estudios Feministas and Cuadernos Pagu were
the first to publish articles on gender and sexual diversity. Today, there are many specialized jour-
nals such as Periodicus (Bahia FederalUniversity) or Revista Latinoamericana Sexualidad, Salud y
Sociedad (Rio de Janeiro StateUniversity). Thus, gender and sexuality studies arewell-established
in Brazil, production being broad and diversified in theoretical, thematic, and methodological
terms. The anti-gender offensive that intensified after the parliamentary coup against Dilma
Rousseff in 2016 and, above all, the election of the far right in 2018, caused damage to research
funding and also led to researchers’ persecution. However, the field survived and remains strong
and creative, now strengthened by the return of the centre-left and new funds.
FUTURE CHALLENGES FOR RESEARCH ON LGBTIQ+ POPULATIONS
IN LATIN AMERICA
If research in the countries above is compared, findings show that LGBTIQ+ populations are
studied in all of them. However, the origins and trajectories of their research histories vary. Stud-
ies became more systematic during the HIV/AIDS pandemic, with a strong emphasis on MSM
research (Parker, 1996), including gay men, bisexual men, and transgender women. These studies
typically focused on HIV risk behavior and vulnerability. A little later, other topics began to be
explored, with different focus on prejudice and discrimination (Saavedra et al., 2008). Studies on
lesbians came later. Finally, after the 2000s and particularly a decade ago, studies on transgen-
der population and much more recently on non-binary people and those with intersex variations
began.
Except for studies on MSM, the others are mostly qualitative. More recently, quantitative stud-
ies on these populations began. In countries such as Mexico and Colombia, the study of these
populations are often interwound with research on migration processes and drug-trafficking sit-
uations. In addition, the situation of the armed conflict in Colombia is unique to this country. In
other countries such asMexico, Brazil, andArgentina, due to the development of sexuality anthro-
pology (Galván, 2019),