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AULA 01 – INTRODUCTION TO THE WORLD OF TRANSLATIONS AND THE WORK MARKET 
 
Ao final desta aula, você será capaz de: 
1. Identify the different types of translation - (identificar os diferentes tipos de tradução) 
2. Evaluate the role of the translator in relation to different types of translation described - (Avaliar o papel do tradutor 
em face aos diferentes tipos de tradução descritos.) 
 
The Meaning of Translation 
The word translation comes from the Latin translation, which means “to bring across”. If you think about the work 
performed by a translator, this meaning becomes more than evidenced: bringing information from one language to 
another so that the speaker/ writer of the second language can understand the message sent by the speaker/ writer of 
the first. 
The first translator was a hermeneutic who was given the task of interpreting the message sent from God to the 
Human beings. As time went by, the need to decode information among different peoples became more and more 
needed. Nowadays, there are many different ways and means by which languages can be translated and technology has 
come as an invaluable aid to the process of translation. Nevertheless, the process remains the same: there will be a 
person who knows both languages and will bridge the gap between the two to make the message known by the speaker 
of the second language. Thus, from here on we will call the language in which the text was originally written as the 
source language (SL) and the language into which the text will be translated the target language (TL). 
 SOURCE LANGUAGE (SL) – Língua de origem 
 TARGET LANGUAGE (TL) – Língua de destino 
 
A Brief History of Translation 
After you watch the video, decide if the following statements are True or False: 
1. (V) According to the video, the Tower of Babel collapsed because of the amount of translation inside of it. 
2. (F) The translators escaped, but they did not need any tools for translation. 
3. (V) If translators get parallel data, they can do their job very efficiently. 
4. (V) The 17th Century European was puzzled by the number of languages at their time – they did not know where 
the truth was. 
5. (F) The computer did not help translators in the beginning, as they needed more sophisticated programs to 
work. 
 
Now that you had this overview of the history of translation, let’s move on. The Tower of Babel is part of a story 
told in the book of Genesis in the Bible as a place where there was one people and one single language. God would have 
dismantled the place and scattered the languages all around the world to prevent them to get organised as a nation, 
and that was when the varied languages were created. 
Thus, as you could see, the need of translation has been present in the history of mankind since the very beginning 
of times, and the first attempt to decode messages across language was that of translating the message from God to 
the language of man. There have been many translations of the Bible and the 16th century witnessed many of these 
attempts, all of which were consequences of the attempt to understand the religious controversy of the time. 
One of the first icons of translation is the Rosetta Stone and dates back from 196 BC. The Rosetta Stone is an ancient 
Egyptian granodiorite stele inscribed with a decree issued at Memphis on behalf of King Ptolemy V. The decree appears 
in three scripts: the upper text is Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, the middle portion Demotic script, and the lowest 
Ancient Greek. All the three scripts present basically the same text (with minor differences) and provided the key to 
the modern understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphs. 
Moving ahead in time, we can see the translation of Latin and Greek texts into many European languages. Humanism 
inspired the translation of many ancient texts and the job of translating a text from a foreign language into one's 
vernacular was seen by many as a noble challenge and a contribution to national literature. Others, however, considered 
it a job of minor importance, which would be performed by diplomats in the beginning of their careers or by writers 
who did not have fruitful careers. 
The Renaissance was known as “the great age of translations” and many ancient documents were translated into 
European languages as a way of enriching those peoples with the so-valued knowledge that the great thinkers could 
provide. In the early 16th Century, the French had translated the works of Xenophon, Suetonius, Sallust, Thucydides, 
and Caesar but English translations would only come much later. Nicholas Grimshaw, in the preface to his 1558 English 
translation of Cicero focused on this phenomenon, and criticized the English for not having done for their country what 
Italians, Frenchmen, Spaniards, Dutchmen and other foreigners have done for theirs. 
Sir Thomas Hoby, an English Diplomat and translator, declared that it was his duty to his fellow countrymen to make 
available in English a useful guide about Renaissance court life, and translated Castiglione's The Book of Courtier into 
English in 1561. This book is considered to be one of the most important and widespread books of that time. English 
translations gradually increased; indeed, a study of Elizabethan translations is a study of the means by which the 
Renaissance came to England. However, the more translations were made, the more evident it became for the 
translators that in certain areas such as theology or medicine they would not find exact equivalents in English. There 
was a time they would say that English was not fit for the library but for the street (Crystal, 1995). At this time many 
foreign borrowings occurred. Some examples are: 
 From Latin and Greek: anonymous, appropriate, autograph, chaos, climax, contradictory, disability, disrespect, 
emphasis, encyclopaedia, excursion, exist, impersonal, lexicon, relevant, scheme, system, temperature, 
thermometer, virus, among others. 
 From or via French: anatomy, chocolate, detail, entrance, grotesque, invite, moustache, muscle, passport, 
ticket, tomato, volunteer, among others. 
 From or via Italian: balcony, ballot, carnival, design, giraffe, lottery, opera, rocket, volcano, among others. 
 From or via Spanish and Portuguese: alligator, banana, canoe, cockroach, guitar, hammock, hurricane, 
mosquito, potato, tobacco, among others. 
 
Theoretical Issues 
In 1476, William Caxton set up his press in Westminster. This event is considered by many as the key factor that 
might have determined the shift from Middle to Modern English. Caxton was neither a linguist nor a literary scholar; he 
was a merchant who wanted the books he printed to be sold. In order to be successful, he was conscious that the 
language he used had to be understood throughout the country. 
At that time he already posed some questions dealt with by many translators in the years ahead: 
 Should he use foreign words in his translation or replace them by native English words? 
 Which variety of English should he follow, given the existence of major regional differences? 
 How should language be spelled or punctuated, given the scribal variations of the previous centuries? 
 In publishing native writers, should he change their language to make it more widely understood? 
 
These are just a few of the issues translators have to face when choosing their way through translations. Other 
issues have arisen as time went by and translations started to bloom. Theories about the nature of translation started 
to emerge. The distinction between Metaphrase (referring to the literal translation - word-by-word and Paraphrase 
(reformulation of the original text) which had already been brought up by the Greeks was only one of them. In general, 
it has been agreed that translators would seek equivalents in the TL to match the meaning in the SL but wouldborrow 
terms from the TL if that was the only way to keep faithful to the message originally being conveyed. 
 
Other issues are listed below: 
 The grammatical structure: some languages have fixed word order (English, French, Portuguese) whereas others 
have free word order (Latin, Greek). The declinations in Latin and Greek will determine their grammar, whereas 
in English, for instance, the position the words have in the sentence will do so. 
 Etymological knowledge: eg. the use of cognates (for example: pretend/intend in English and 
pretender/intencionar in Portuguese). 
 Fidelity or Transparency: if a TL text is faithful to the ST it means that it kept its full meaning, without 
distortion; if a TL text is transparent, it means that it appears to a native speaker of the TL to have originally 
been written in that language, and conforms to its grammar, syntax and idiom. 
 Back translation: if a text in the TL is translated back to its SL will it keep the same meaning as in the original 
text? 
 
The Role of the Translator 
 
Before we come to an end in this section, let’s take a look at the attributes of a good translator. Below you will 
find some statements about the work of a translator. Tick the characteristics you consider suitable for a competent 
translator. 
A competent translator… 
(V) must have very good knowledge (written and spoken) of the SL. 
(V) must have an excellent command of the TL. 
(F) does not need to have any previous experience in translating texts. 
(V) must have a profound understanding of the etymological and idiomatic correlates between the two languages. 
(F) does not have to know about the TL culture. 
(V) should show good sense in the use of metaphrase and paraphrase. 
(F) must act as a censor of the text being translated. 
(F) does not need to be familiarized with the content of the text being translated. 
 
You have probably checked the answers to the exercise above and have confirmed or rejected some of the answers 
you have provided. Let’s examine each of the items carefully. 
• A competent translator must have very good knowledge (written and spoken) of the SL and an excellent 
command of the TL. Translators have to make choices when transferring information from a SL to a TL, and 
therefore, they must be well aware of the alternatives they have. Moreover, they also have to know about the 
etymological and idiomatic correlates between the two languages so as to make informed choices. 
• A competent translator does need experience and the more translations he does the more practice will he get. 
It has been suggested that it will take a person about 10 years of practice to become an accomplished translator. 
Simply being able to speak the SL and the TL is not enough. 
• A competent translator must be not only bilingual but bicultural as he needs to make use of intercultural 
references so as to be able to make choices in order to make his translation transparent. 
• A competent translator must have a profound understanding of the etymological and idiomatic correlates 
between the two languages in order to avoid using equivalents that do not carry the meaning being implied by 
the author. 
• A competent translator must never censor the text being translated. The work of a translator is simply 
transferring the information from a SL to a TL as faithfully as possible without placing any sort of judgment on 
what is being said. 
• A competent translator needs to be familiarized with the content of the text being translated. Kasparek (1983) 
states that translations inescapably involve choice, and choice implies interpretation. Thus, the familiarity with 
the content is mandatory so translators can make sensible choices while translating. 
Now that you already know a bit about the history of translation and the qualities of a good translator, let’s have 
a quick look at the alternatives available nowadays. Who knows you may find the job of a translator an attractive one 
and may want to venture into it? 
 
The Present Job Market 
If after reading all the attributes for a competent translator you feel you would like to invest your future in the 
translation market, you may want to have a look at the possible alternatives you have to choose from. 
 Translating means converting writing from a SL to a TL. This is the same kind of work done by an interpreter, 
but unlike interpreters, who have to translate in real time, translators can spend more time considering the 
best words and expressions to express their meaning. This usually involves a very nuanced understanding of 
language's more complicated aspects, such as connotation. Computers and online translation tools constitute 
an invaluable aid for the translator’s job but they cannot understand connotation and other figures of speech. 
 Interpreting means having to listen to what a person says in a SL and converting it, either immediately or after 
a few sentences, into a TL. Interpretation requires extremely strong listening and concentration skills. 
 Dubbing consists of changing the audio track of a film itself so that the characters appear to be speaking in the 
TL. 
 Subtitling involves providing written captions that appear at the bottom of the screen and are synchronized 
with the dialogue in the film. 
Each of these alternatives can be subdivided into other categories, depending on the area of specialty being dealt with. 
We hope this first unit has given you enough information about the History of Translation and the possible opportunities 
in the market of translation nowadays. If you got interested and want to know more, have a look at these sites: 
http://www.abrates.com.br 
This is the official site of the ASSOCIAÇAO BRASILEIRA DE TRADUTORES E INTERPRETES. Based in São Paulo, they can 
offer you updated information on what to do to start preparing to be a skilled translator as you finish your course. 
 
 
AULA 02 – TYPES OF TRANSLATIONS 
 
Ao final desta aula, você será capaz de: 
1. Identify the different types of translation; (identificar os diferentes tipos de tradução) 
2. Evaluate the role of the translator in relation to different types of translation described. (Avaliar o papel do tradutor 
em face aos diferentes tipos de tradução descritos.) 
Miguel de Cervantes in his Don Quixote, once wrote that: “Translating from one language to another, unless it is 
from Greek and Latin, the queens of all languages, is like looking at Flemish tapestries from the wrong side, for although 
the figures are visible, they are covered by threads that obscure them, and cannot be seen with the smoothness and 
color of the right side.” 
This enlightening quotation can illustrate how challenging the work of a translator can be and how important it 
is in giving meaning to a message sent in a SL to a TL. The idea that the meaning proposed by an author can be obscured 
in TL if not translated carefully is strengthened when we come across badly translated texts in which the message is 
totally different from the original one. 
In our previous lesson, we had an overview of the story of translation through times and started studying the role 
of the translator. In this second lesson, we will go through the different types of translation and continue analysing the 
work of a translator, this time comparing the jobs of the translator and the interpreter. 
 
Types of Translations 
Translations can be classified into many different categories, depending on the form (oral, written), type (literal, non-
literal), method (simultaneous, consecutive), the medium (human, computer-assisted, mechanic). Observe the 
following chart. Click on each of the boxes to know more about each of them: 
 Human – Translation from SL to TL made by a human translator. 
 Mechanical – Translation in which a computer program analyses a source text and produces a target text withoutany human intervention. This kind of translation can usually be used with texts with limited range of vocabulary 
and simple sentence structure. 
 Computer-aided – Translation in which a human translator decodes language from SL to TL with the assistance 
of a computer. Usually the computer does the first round of translation and the professional translator revises 
the produced text for fine-tuning. 
 Written – Translation performed in written form, irrespective of the text format, and can be literal or non-
literal, consecutive or simultaneous. 
 Oral – Translation performed in oral form, irrespective of the text format, and, differently from the written 
mode, can only be non-literal, consecutive or simultaneous. 
 Literary – Translation of texts that belong to the world of imagination (eg. literature and other similar texts). 
 Non-literary - Translation of texts that belong to the world of facts (eg. weather forecast, reports). 
 Consecutive – Type of oral translation in which the SL is translated into the TL after the utterance has been 
made. 
 
 
 Simultaneous – Type of oral translation in which the SL is translated into the TL almost at the same time in 
which the utterance has been made. 
 Sight-translation – Type of translation in which a written text in the SL is translated orally into the TL. It can 
occur both consecutively or simultaneously. 
 Machine Translation (MT) - Translation in which a computer program analyses a text in a SL and produces a 
text in the TL without human intervention; this sort of translation, however, involve pre- or post-editing from 
a translator. 
 Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT)/ Machine-Assisted Translation (MAT) – Translation in which human 
translators interact with a translation system, as an assistance tool, and which offers, a list of translations that 
best complete the part of the sentence already translated. 
 Human-Assisted Machine Translation (MAMT) - Translation in which a computer system does most of the 
translation, appealing in case of difficulty to a (mono- or bilingual) human for help. 
 
Types of Translation According to the Level os Analysis and Synthesis 
Another way of classifying the types of translation is related to the level of analysis/ synthesis of the text. They can 
be: 
 The classification according to the Unit of Translation is quite self-explanatory. Focus your attention on the 
other classifications. 
 Using the number in parentheses next to the classifications above, match the categories to the following 
definitions listed below: 
 
 
 Back Translation - Kind of translation in which the translated text in the TL is translated back to SL to determine 
if the original meaning has been preserved. 
 Common Language Translation - Kind of translation in which a text in a SL is translated in the same SL in an 
idiomatic version to suit the average speaker. The grammar and lexis of the text is chosen very carefully to 
ensure understanding of the text. 
 Free translation - Kind of translation that keeps the meaning from the SL but uses the natural forms of the TL. 
This is a kind of idiomatic translation. 
Activity: Translate the following paragraphs into Portuguese in two different ways: literary translation and summative 
translation. After you finish, click on the boxes to read the suggested answers and compare your version. How similar 
were they? 
AEROSMITH: Music from another dimension - ROB SHEFFIELD - November 6, 2012 
And just like that, Steven Tyler's solo career seems like a strange dream we all had. The Aerosmith album is the first 
collection of new tunes the bad boys from Boston have managed since 2001. Nobody knows why Aerosmith can't seem 
to do anything the easy way – you'd think these five guys could knock out an Aerosmith album in their sleep. (And it 
wouldn't be the first time they made a record that way.) But that's all just part of their long-running mystique as rock 
& roll's ultimate dysfunctional family. The best thing about Music From Another Dimension! is the chance to hear Joe 
Perry and Brad Whitford play guitar – always the best thing about any Aerosmith album. "LUV XXX," despite the dippy 
title, revives the Rocks-style riff glory no other band can replicate. Best song by a mile: "Legendary Child," where they 
take on their own legacy, looking back musically and emotionally, as Tyler concludes, "We got that golden fleece from 
tokin' on that pipe o' peace.” 
 
Literary Translation: Sample Answer 
E assim como um piscar de olhos, a carreira solo de Steven Tyler parece um estranho sonho que tivemos. O álbum de 
Aerosmith é a primeira coletânea de novas músicas que os bad boys de Boston juntaram desde 2001. Ninguém sabe ao 
certo por que o Aerosmith não segue fazer nada da maneira mais simples - você poderia achar que esses cinco caras 
poderiam produzir um álbum do Aerosmith enquanto dormiam. (E não seria a primeira vez que fariam um álbum dessa 
maneira.). Mas isso tudo é apenas uma parte da longa história de mistério desta família desajustada e sem comparação 
do rock & roll. A melhor coisa de Music From Another Dimension! é a chance de ouvir Joe Perry e Brad Whitford tocar 
guitarra - sempre a melhor coisa de qualquer album do Aerosmith. "LUV XXX", apesar do título bobo, revive a glória 
constante do estilo Rock que nenhuma outra banda conseguiu replicar. A melhor canção de todas: "Legendary Child", 
onde eles assumem seu próprio legado, fazendo uma retrospectiva musical e emocional. Como Tyler conclui: "We got 
that golden fleece from tokin' on that pipe o' peace." ("Conseguimos o velo de ouro acendendo o cachimbo da paz.”) 
 
Summative Translation: Sample Answer 
O primeiro álbum de coletânea do Aerosmith com as novas musicas do grupo desde 2001 nos dá a impressão que a 
carreira solo de Steven Tyler foi apenas um sonho estranho. O melhor de Music From Another Dimension! é a chance de 
ouvir Joe Perry e Brad Whitford tocar guitarra. A música "LUV XXX” revive a glória constante do estilo Rock que nenhuma 
outra banda conseguiu replicar. A melhor canção de todas: "Legendary Child", faz uma retrospectiva musical e 
emocional. 
 
Translators or Interpreters? 
In our first lesson, we studied the role of the translator and the different opportunities available for this professional 
in the job market. Now that we have been through some of the different types of translation, we can see that none of 
the types described, except for the machine translation type, would be feasible without the interference of the 
translator. We have already studied some of the requirements needed for a good translator; now we shall expand what 
we studied about the translator’s role vis-à-vis the different types of translations studied in this lesson. 
In this lesson we saw that two of the possible types of translation are the oral or written mode. And based on these, 
the translators can work both as translators (in a broad sense) or interpreters. The difference between these two 
professionals is that the final product of a translator’s job is a written document, whereas the final product of an 
interpreter is in oral mode. 
The work of an interpreter is very stressing and requires a lot of ability and practice from the professional. Some 
of the skills required include: 
 High degree of proficiency in both English and the other language. 
 Impartiality. 
 Ability to accurately and idiomatically turn the message from the SL into the TL without any additions, omissions 
or other misleading factors that alter the intended meaning of the message from the speaker. 
 Be used to doing simultaneous and consecutive interpretation and sight translation. 
 Ability to communicate orally including appropriate delivery and poise. 
 Having high professional standards and professional conduct. 
 
Translation Workflow 
Once the translatorhas accepted a translation task, there are certain basic stages that should be followed. The 
process of translation may vary from one translator to another but basically the stages include: 
1. Evaluation: The project is evaluated using the following criteria: Target Language/Audience and Subject Matter 
2. Glossary Development: A glossary is created to ensure consistency of terminology, so that translations 
complement one another and are consistent. 
3. Initial Translation: The source document is translated. 
4. Quality Assurance: After the completion of the initial translation, the translation undergoes a review by a 
senior translator or an editor. The translation is edited and proofread for grammatical and syntactic accuracy 
and appropriateness of style and for possible omissions. The editor then works with the original translator to 
decide which changes to be implemented. 
5. Client Approval: The first draft of the document is sent to the client for approval. 
6. Translator Proofreading: The original translator now proofs the formatted text for any discrepancies caused 
by formatting, such as improper hyphenation, omissions, etc. 
7. Final Delivery to Client: The translated and formatted document is now handed in to the client. 
AULA 03 – TRANSLATIONS AND LINGUISTICS 
 
Ao final desta aula, você será capaz de: 
1. Have a brief Idea of the contributions that the study of Linguistics has brought to translation studies; (ter uma 
breve idéia das contribuições que o estudo da lingüística trouxe para o estudo da tradução;) 
2. understand the various aspects which are into play when translating a text a SL to a TL. (entender os vários 
aspectos que devem ser considerados ao fazer a tradução de um texto para a língua alvo.) 
 
In the video you just saw some interesting translation related issues were raised. Among them we can include: 
 Most of the times there will be lexical correspondences between different languages (parts of the body, family 
relations) 
 Some languages don’t have words to describe everything (in the video, chrome handlebars in English, for 
example) 
 Some languages don’t have words to describe items which would be considered essential to other cultures (left, 
right) as they have different kinds of spatial orientation (cardinal orientation). 
These few issues are enough to give us just a glimpse of the great amount of differences one can find between 
languages, 
and provide us with an overview of the importance that the study of Linguistics has acquired in helping translators 
cope with such differences. 
We have already studied that translations have been present in the history of man since its early years, however 
translation was not considered a field of studies before the 1980’s. Since then, the interest in translation literacy has 
been evidenced by the proliferation of translation training programmers worldwide and nowadays most universities 
have a department of translation studies interested in investigating the differences among languages and how to deal 
with such diversity when having to translate texts from a SL to a TL. 
The more translators investigated into their field the more interdisciplinary the study of translation became and 
contribution from various fields of study such as linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, philosophy and 
anthropology, among others, was welcome into the investigation. 
In this unit we shall focus our attention on some of the contributions linguistics has offered to the study of 
translation and the important insights it has brought to this field of study. 
 
Jakobson and the Linguistic Aspects of Translation 
Roman Jakobson (1959) was one of the first linguists to consider the contributions of linguistics to the study of 
translation. In his text On Linguistic Aspect of Translation he deals with issues that are crucial in understanding the 
translation process such as interlingual, intralingual and semiotic differences. 
Let’s take for example the word snow. Except for the inhabitants of a few cities in the south of Brazil, the concept 
of snow to the average Brazilian is limited to the idea of falling snowflakes taken from movies. Even in textbooks, when 
students learn the question What’s the weather like? the idea of snow does not go beyond the symbol used to represent 
snow in weather reports and other related texts. 
How would a Brazilian translate the words crust, crud, slush, powder, ice, all of them referring to different types 
of snow without having to resort to other linguistic resources rather than that of summoning the pre-conceived 
knowledge that the word snow offers? That is to say that meaning (signatum) cannot exist without a sign (signum). 
So that a listener can fully understand the meaning of a word he must have the concept of this word clear in his 
mind. Thus, when having to translate a text about snow, for example, to a Brazilian, the translator will have to make 
use of more explicit language to try and convey the meaning of certain items to a reader/ listener who does not have 
the same linguistic reference as the one who has produced the text. 
Jakobson makes a distinction among three possible types of translation: 
 Intralingual translation: Or rewording refers to the interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs in the 
same language. For example, the intralingual translation of bring up in the sentence She was brought up by her 
grandparents would be “take care for someone until s/he is an adult, often giving this person particular beliefs”. 
 Interlingual translation: Or translation itself refers to the interpretation of verbal signs by means of another 
language. For example, the interlingual translation of the sentence She was brought up by her grandparents 
into Portuguese would be something similar to Ela foi criada e educada por seus avós. 
 Intersemiotic translation: Or transmutation refers to the interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of 
nonverbal signs systems (music or image). For example, when Edward Munch painted The Scream, he tried to 
translate into an image his concept of a scream. 
 
Let’s examine more deeply the concept of the interlingual translation, which is the focus of our study. 
The example cited and its translation (She was brought up by her grandparents/ Ela foi criada e educada por seus 
avós) leads us to an interesting issue to observe as regards translations: the choice of the words criada and educada in 
the TL somehow accounts for the idea that some sort of “particular belief” would have to be present during the 
upbringing. Thus, both criada and educada have to be present so that the meaning of bring up can be fully translated. 
To the Brazilian Portuguese speaker, the use of the verb criar does not bring along the concept of educar (which, by 
the way, is not equivalent to educate in English), so, in order to keep the meaning implied by bring up a suitable 
translation would have to include the verbs criar and educar. 
As Jakobson says, “there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code-units, while messages may serve as 
adequate interpretations of alien code-units or messages”. 
 
 
Mutual translability 
One of the main concerns in linguistics is the mutual translability between languages: is it possible to find exact 
equivalence in meaning when translating a message from a SL to a TL? 
Nothing can be interpreted without a translation of its 
signs into other signs in the same language or into signs of 
another language. The picture illustrates the process of 
translation from a SL into a TL. Equivalence in difference is 
one of the main concerns of linguistics. 
When translating a text from a SL into a TL, the linguist 
examines the mutual translability between the two languages 
to try and to find a correspondent in the TL that provides the 
exactmeaning to the text (oral or written) in the SL. 
This search for an equivalent will take into account many 
different aspects of both languages so the receiver of the 
message in the TL can understand the message correctly. 
In one of the examples we cited we mentioned the 
translation of the verb to raise from English to Portuguese and 
suggested that the verbs criar and educar be included so as 
to give the exact meaning to the verb in English. 
Many other examples can be cited, for example, the word 
saudade from Portuguese to English can be translated by means of the verb to miss, but the meaning in English would 
have to be complemented in order to fully translate the original meaning in Portuguese. 
When it comes to grammar, the translator has to be even more careful. Eventually one can come across items which 
have no corresponding grammatical equivalent in the TL. In this case the meaning would have to be translated in lexical 
terms. 
Take for example the sentence Joan had her hair cut. The causative have has no equivalent form in Brazilian 
Portuguese and in order to explain the meaning implied by the sentence, the translator would have to make use of 
other verbal resources to explain the fact that Joan did not actually cut her hair herself (in which case the sentence 
would have to be Joan cut her hair). 
The causative have has no equivalent form in Brazilian Portuguese and in order to explain the meaning implied by 
the sentence, the translator would have to make use of other verbal resources to explain the fact that Joan did not 
actually cut her hair herself (in which case the sentence would have to be Joan cut her hair). 
 
Another interesting example would be the lack of gender marker in English. 
The translation of words with dual gender (friend, teacher, baby, doctor, student) requires a gender marker in 
Brazilian Portuguese. For instance, when translating a sentence such as The student decided to study hard for his final 
tests, the translator would have to look for textual clues to help him choose between “o aluno” or “a aluna”. 
Similarly, when translating the sentence Meus irmãos vivem perto da minha casa into English, the translator would 
have to look for elements to define if “irmãos” corresponds to brothers (if the speaker has male siblings only) or if there 
is a sister among them, in which case the translation to English would have to make reference to both brothers and 
sisters. 
Register is another aspect to be considered. For example, the word sibling used in the previous paragraph could be 
used as an equivalent to “irmãos” if the text being translated was of a more formal nature, but would not be suitable 
in a more colloquial exchange. 
Pragmatics is another issue worth investigating for the study of translation. It can be defined the study of the 
purposes for which sentences are used. 
For instance, let’s imagine the following two scenes: Two people in an enclosed room, the weather is cold and the 
window is opened. One of them says: “It’s cold”. The purpose of the sentence is not to say it’s cold, but to suggest that 
the window be closed. Thus, in this case It’s cold = Close the window. 
A mother and a son; the son is leaving home wearing a T-shirt. The mother looks at him and at his clothes. She says: 
“It’s cold”. The purpose of the sentence is not to say it’s cold, but to suggest that son get a coat. Thus, in this case It’s 
cold = Get a coat. 
How would a translator deal with each of the situations? If both situations were part of written texts, and the 
texts were being translated from English to Brazilian Portuguese, the purpose of the sentence “It’s cold” would be 
easily understood in both languages. If, however, the situations were part of a verbal account, the translator would 
probably have to make use of other clues to make the meaning of the utterance clear for the receiver (describing the 
setting or the weather, for example). 
In other situations, the understanding of the function of certain utterances in communication might constitute of 
an issue for the translator (children understanding the use of irony, for instance). 
 
Cultural Equivalents in Translation 
The receiver’s cultural background also plays an important role in translation/ interpretation, as part of the role of 
the translator has to do with his ability in making the message clear. 
The translator has to be able to speak the receiver’s language so as to make him clearly understand the message 
being sent. Newmark (1981) suggests a series of strategies to cater for cultural gaps in translation: 
1. Naturalization: Transferring a word from SL into TL text in its original form. The words fiancé and fiancée, 
which have been taken from French, for instance. 
2. Neutralization: A type of paraphrase at word level (the item is generalized (neutralized) with some culture free 
words. Take, for example, the types of snow described in the beginning of this lesson, instead of describing any 
of the types of snow, the translator could opt for the use of the word snow simply. 
3. Descriptive and functional equivalent: Explaining a SL cultural item in one of either two ways: a descriptive or 
a functional element. The descriptive element deals with size, color and composition. The functional element 
talks about the purpose of the SL cultural-specific word. 
4. Explanation as footnote: The translator may decide to give extra information to the TL reader in a footnote. It 
may come at the bottom of the page, at the end of chapter or at the end of the book. 
5. Cultural equivalent: The SL cultural word is translated by TL cultural word. In this case, there is an equivalent 
word in the TL to translate the one in the SL. 
6. Compensation: A technique used to confront the loss of meaning, sound effect, pragmatic effect or metaphor 
in part of a text. The word or concept is compensated in other part of the text. 
 
Corpus Linguistics 
Corpus linguistics is a study of language and a method of linguistic analysis which uses a collection of natural or 
“real word” texts known as corpus. Corpus linguistics is used to analyze and research a number of linguistic questions 
and offers insights into the dynamism of languages. 
The use of a corpus database constitute of an invaluable tool for the translator as it can help him decide on the use 
of certain words during translation. Let’s have a look at the British National Corpus and search for the word sibling, 
mentioned in the beginning of this lesson. 
We can see that most of the sentences indicate a formal use of the word, which would ratify our decision of using 
siblings in formal contexts and brothers and sisters in more informal ones. 
Corpus Linguistics can aid the translator by: 
1. Allowing access to naturalistic linguistic information (corporal consist of “real word” texts which are mostly a 
product of real life situations, which makes corporal a valuable research source for dialectology, sociolinguistics 
and stylistics); 
2. Facilitating linguistic research, thus reducing the time needed to find particular words or phrases (a research 
that would take days or even years to complete manually can be done in a matter of seconds with the highest 
degree of accuracy); 
3. Enabling the study of wider patterns and collocation of words; 
4. Allowing analysis of multiple parameters at the same time (researchers can analyze a larger number of 
parameters simultaneously); 
5. Facilitating the use of the second language (study of the second language with the use of natural language 
allows the students/ translators to get a better “feeling” for the language and learn the language like it is used 
in real rather than “invented” situations); 
 
 
AULA 04 – TRANSLATION AND SOCIOLINGUISTICS 
 
Ao final desta aula, você será capaz de: 
1. Have a brief Idea of the contributionsthe study of psycholinguistics has brought to translation studies (Ter uma 
breve ideia das contribuições que o estudo da psicolinguística trouxe para o estudo da tradução); 
2. have a brief Idea of the contributions the study of sociolinguistics has brought to translation studies (ter uma 
breve ideia das contribuições que o estudo da sociolinguística trouxe para o estudo da tradução). 
 
Have a look at this ad, which was launched roughly at the same time as the 
one about the videocassette recorder you saw in the introductory activity. 
If you had to translate this ad to a 21st century teenager, it would definitely 
be easier than translating the other one. 
Why is that so? Most of the technological references mentioned in the text 
meet an equivalent nowadays; APPLE is still a very powerful brand in the market 
nowadays; Even though there has been a huge development in the area of 
technology, the computer in the photo sill shares some sort of resemblance with 
the computers nowadays; 
Almost everyone knows what a personal computer is and can find some sort 
of equivalent in his own culture (even if s/he does not own one). 
The two ads you have seen in this lesson prove to be very useful to start us 
thinking in the importance of Psycholinguistics and Sociolinguistics in the work 
of a translator. 
How would it be possible to translate the concept of a videocassette 
recorder or of a video tape for a generation who is used to powerful notebooks 
and who did not have to use any of the equipment advertised? 
Although we may be referring to intralingual translation, the same can be 
applied to the interlingual environment. 
Psycholinguistics will help us evaluate, among other issues, if it is possible 
to translate everything and the importance of a common experience to fully 
understand a given message. 
On the other hand, sociolinguistics will help us deal with different social realities which may involve speakers from 
different cultures and how ready they would be to understand a certain text if they did not share the same experience. 
Think for example, in an african society who has not been exposed to the technological advances of the last decades. 
Would there be any sort of equivalent in their language to all the technical terms a translator would need? What about 
a common human experience? 
 
Translation and Psycholinguistics 
Can you remember the quote from Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes from our second lesson? We will refer back 
it here for it brings light into some important issues we will be dealing with in the next few pages. 
“Translating from one language to another, unless it is from Greek and Latin, the queens of all languages, is like 
looking at Flemish tapestries from the wrong side, for although the figures are visible, they are covered by threads that 
obscure them, and cannot be seen with the smoothness and color of the right side.” 
The idea that “all figures are visible [but] covered by threads that obscures them…” is a very powerful metaphor 
of translation and ever present in psycholinguistic theories of translation. 
Roughly speaking, the idea of obscurity mentioned by Cervantes is closely connected to Quine’s theory that some 
texts cannot be translated due to lack of correspondence in meaning or reference in the TL. That is why the “figures 
are visible [but obscured]”. 
Moreover, Sapir-Whorf go on to describe that certain ideas from a SL language cannot be understood by those who 
speak another language either because the structure or the semantics of the language does not have a corresponding 
message. Let’s examine each of these theories a bit more. 
 
The indeterminacy of Translation 
Quine’s thesis of the indeterminacy of translation is based on the fact that there are different ways with which one 
might break a sentence into words, and different ways to distribute functions among words, and that, depending on 
the translator’s choices the meanings would vary considerably. 
Let’s consider the following sentence: “Never had Joan visited this place before” 
It could well be translated for: 
 Joan nunca havia visitado esse lugar antes. 
 Joan jamais havia visitado esse lugar. 
If we consider that the use of inversions in English has the purpose of adding emphasis to the meaning provided, 
may be the best option would be sentence (2) due to the strength the word jamais has in the sentence. 
But as we are talking about a totally decontextualized sentence, the translator might have to make use of other 
language resources to make the intended meaning clear. 
Another aspect of Quine’s theory has to do with the indeterminacy of reference which accounts for the fact that if 
one has to look for a referential item from a SL to a TL he will find many possible answers which are equally correct. 
Even though Quine’s theory is still cited today it has been prone to inevitable criticism. To our study today we can 
cite the work of Hejwowski (2004) which states that although not any text can be translated, translation IS possible if: 
 there is a common human experience which will allow the TL reader relate to the experience being described 
(this is the case of the Apple ad – even though the reader may not have experienced the launching of the Apple 
computer, the fact that this brand of computer sis still on sale, helps the understanding); 
 there is similarity of mental and linguistic structures which will cater for the understanding of the message (as 
is the case of the translation of one if the types of snow into Brazilian Portuguese, the possible choice would 
be simply neve due to the lack of specific vocabulary); 
 there is empathy (i.e. the message would be interesting enough so as to gain the TL reader’s interest). However, 
texts which would not attract anyone’s attention or which would be translated out of context, would not be 
likely to be translated. 
 
The Impossibility of Translation 
Sapir-Whorf (1950) contributed to the study of psycholinguistics with the hypothesis that translation between 
languages would be impossible as there are certain thoughts of speakers of a language that cannot be understood by 
individuals that speak another language. 
According to them, human languages determine the structure of the real world as human beings perceive it, rather 
than vice versa, and that this structure is different from one language to another. 
An example is that language can create some aspects of reality and that the way a person views the world may be 
affected, for instance, by the limitations in the different number of shades of colors available in a given language. 
They also state that differences between languages are paralleled by non-linguistic cognitive differences such as 
the structure of the language and vocabulary, which might affect cognition. 
Both Quine and Sapir-Whorf showed their uneasiness for the difficulties one can go through when translating 
between languages. 
The fact is that languages are really different and it really takes a skilled translator to transfer information from 
one code to another keeping the message as similar as possible to the original one. The more invisible the translator, 
the better the translation. 
 
Translation and Sociolinguistics 
Sociolinguistics can be defined as the study of language in its social context, which would include different aspects 
such as social class, age, gender, register, among others. Also aims at examining how social categorization can be 
reflected in language differentiation and also how language differences contribute to social distinction. Apparently, 
seeing from a very broad overview, sociolinguistics, just like translation studies, is an interdisciplinary area in which 
the stress is laid either on the linguistic or on the social, and its purpose is to examine the relations betweenboth of 
them. Let’s focus on three aspects studied by sociolinguistics which can be applied to translation: 
1. Variation: 
Languages vary according to location, age, style, ethnic group and social class. Besides, they should also be 
connected to social relations and, more precisely, who the other is and how we interact with him. 
For example: If we adopt a formal style, for example, we establish a particular type of relationship with the reader/ 
receiver. If we resort to a more casual tone, the relationship is completely different. Because of that, the level of 
formality of a text will depend on the social relationship involving all those involved in the communication, author/ 
translator and reader. 
2. Language contact and interaction dynamics 
The contact among languages has also been studied by sociolinguistics particularly when investigating code-
switching (changing from on language to another), code-mixing (mixing languages within the same sentence) and 
borrowing (using codes from one language into another). The interference between languages has to be carefully 
examined during translations. In some text-types and functions, this interference must be kept to a minimum, but must 
reflect the contact between the languages to be faithful to the SL text. 
Take for example the translation of Harry Potter into French in which the French text keeps the British school 
organisation: houses, prefects, 7 years in the same school (in the French educational system there are colleges and 
lycées. 
3. Language as action 
Sociolinguists have observed how language works in and across communities and realized that language use does not 
simply represent but also contributes to the definition of oneself, the other and those to whom they relate. 
 
 
 
 
AULA 05 – CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND BRAZILIAN PORTUGUES 
 
Ao final desta aula, você será capaz de: 
1. Understand the basic difference as regards the use of the articles, passive voice and gerunds and infinitives in 
the translation English to Portuguese; (Entender as diferenças básicas no que diz respeito à tradução do inglês 
para o português;) 
2. Translate a few short texts taking into account the differences between the two languages. (Traduzir alguns 
textos curtos levando em consideração as diferenças entre as duas línguas.) 
 
Articles 
The uses of the definite article in English and BrP are very similar: in both languages, as a rule, it refers to a specific 
situation, as opposed to the indefinite article, which is used to refer to more general situations. 
We can draw a very simple comparative chart between the two articles and their forms in the two languages: 
In more practical terms, however, one has to be very 
careful with the use of articles when translating texts into 
BrP for, unlike English, nouns cannot head sentences. 
Thus, for example: Time flies would be translated => O 
tempo voa. The use of the definite article as the head of 
a sentence (which is not used in English) has to be present 
in BrP and has to agree with the noun both in gender and 
number (time/o tempo; life/a vida; visitors/os visitantes; 
ladies/as senhoras). 
 Generic nouns also need special attention and the use of countable and uncountable nouns will influence the 
translation into BrP. 
 The definite article is not used with plural countable nouns in English but have to be present when the sentence 
is translated into BrP: It’s fantastic what teachers can do./ É fantástico o que os professores podem fazer. 
 The definite article is not used with uncountable nouns in English but have to be present when the sentence is 
translated into BrP: Love can change everything./ O amor pode mudar tudo. 
There are certain nouns that can refer to either a place/object or to an activity: He goes to bed very late (activity)/ 
Hey, Joey, don’t jump on the bed (object). In English, when the noun refers to the activity, the definite article should 
not be used. In the translation, the definite article is used in both cases (Ele vai para a cama muito tarde/ Ei, Joey, 
não pule na cama). 
 
 
 
The indefinite articles are used only with singular nouns 
 
 “A” is used before consonant sounds while an is used before vowel sounds. 
When translating from English into BrP, attention has to be paid to the agreement between the article and the noun 
as they must agree in gender: 
She bough a nice house next to mine => Ela comprou uma bela casa perto da minha. 
Janet is going look for a job next week => Janet vai procurar um emprego na semana que vem. 
The differentiation between a/an does not affect the translation of the sentence in BrP but special attention must 
be paid to the use of uncountable nouns, which are considered singular in English and must be preceded by a determiner, 
usually some, as it represents an indefinite quantity. This, however, does not affect the translation into BrP: 
Can you bring me some money when you go to the bank? => Você pode me trazer algum dinheiro quando for ao banco? 
I need to drink some tea before going to bed. => Eu preciso beber um pouco de chá antes de deitar. 
 
 
So far we have studied the translation from English to BrP. Now, think of sentences in BrP in which the articles are 
used and translate them into English. How would the translation from one language into the other change? 
The formation and basic use of the passive voice in English and BrP are basically the same, being its use preferred 
when the speaker wants to emphasize the person who suffers the action rather than the one who performs it. 
As a rule of thumb, the use of the passive voice should be kept in the translation if it is to keep the author’s original 
message. However, it would be advisable to evaluate the appropriateness of its use, as the use of the passive voice 
tends to make the text sound more formal. Note the examples below: Avocado is eaten without sugar in Brazil. 
A literal translation would be No Brasil, abacate é comido com açúcar. 
Depending on the context this sentence would be feasible, however, in a more informal context the active voice 
would sound more natural: O Brasileiro come abacate com açúcar. 
In BrP there is a distinction between two types of passive voice: the “analítica” and the “sintética”, which does not 
occur in English. 
The two types would correspond to the following examples: 
o William was rescued by the fireman. (“analítica”) 
o Houses are being built in that new neighborhood. (“sintética”) 
In English, this difference is not considered. 
 
Analyse the following sentence and the way in which the passive voice was employed: 
 It is said that money corrupts people. => Diz-se/ É dito que o dinheiro corrompe as pessoas. 
 It was reported that the man was killed cold blood. => Relata-se que o homem foi assassinado a sangue frio. 
 A lot of effort has been made to make Rio the Janeiro the Olympic city for 2016. =>Tem-se feito muito eforço 
para transformar o Rio de Janeiro numa cidade olímpica pta 2016. 
 
So far we have studied the translation from English to BrP. Now, think of sentences in BrP in which the passive voice is 
used and translate them into English. How would the translation from one language into the other change? 
 
The Gerund and the Infinitive 
The gerund and the infinitive are two verb forms used in both English and BrP and their uses are quite different in 
both languages. Let’s start examining the English language! 
 The infinitive is the form of the verb preceded by to (to visit, to study, etc). 
 If the verb is not followed by to it is called the bare infinitive (or, as some prefer, the infinitive without to). 
 The gerund is the verb form in which the verb is followed by the -ing (visiting, studying). 
 In English some verbs may be followed by the gerund and some others by theinfinitive. 
 
Like a substantive, the gerund may: 
 Take a possessive case: Dad did not object to my brothers smoking. (Papai não se opôs ao fato de meu irmão 
fumar); 
 Take a possessive adjective: Would you mind my telling you about the new contract? (Você se importaria de me 
falar sobre o novo contrato?); 
 Be the predicative complement: Travelling is knowing a whole new world. (Viajar é conhecer um mundo 
totalmente novo); 
 Be prepositional object: I'd like to thank you for helping me. (Gostaria de agradecer-lhe por me ajudar); 
 Be the object: Don't ever stop studying. (Jamais pare de estudar); 
 Be the subject: Reading is my favourite pastime. (Ler É meu passatempo preferido); 
 Take articles and adjectives: The falling of the rain, A good ending. (0 cair do chuva, Urn born final). 
 
Like a verb, the gerund may: 
 Follow certain verbs such as like, enjoy, love: We love playing board games. (Adoramos jogar jogos de tabuleiro) 
 Be followed by a direct object: The girls started telling jokes.(As meninas comecaram a contar piadas) 
 Be used in different tenses: She spoke of having been ill last year. (Ela mencionou ter estado doente ano 
passado) 
 Form both active and passive: He objected to being called bossy. (Ele reagiu a ter sido chamado de mandão.) 
 Be defined by an adverb. It is worth while working. (Vale a pena trabalhar) 
 
Below you will find a list of some of the verbs which are followed by the gerund or the infinitive, and verbs that accept 
both: 
 
 
 
When translating a sentence from English to BrP in which either a gerund or an infinitive is used, we have to take into 
account that when a verb follows another, the second verb is always to be used in the infinitive and not in the gerund. 
 I can’t help feeling nervous whenever I have to sit for a test. (Eu não consigo evitar me sentir nervoso quando tenho 
que fazer uma prova.) 
 
So far we have studied the translation from English to BrP. Now, think of sentences in BrP in which either the gerund 
or the infinitive is used and translate them into English. How would the translation from one language into the other 
change? 
 
 
AULA 06 – CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND BRAZILIAN PORTUGUES 
 
Ao final desta aula, você será capaz de: 
1. understand how to translate the causative form English to Portuguese; 
2. understand the possible ways of translating the progressive aspect English to Portuguese; 
 
 
PHRASAL VERBS: 
 
Blow up Explodir Hold on Se segurar Turn up Aparecer (de repente) 
Break up Separar Lie down Deitar Throw out Jogar (no lixo) 
Come back Voltar pra cá Look for procurar Wake up Acordar 
Fall apart Quebrar em pedaços Find out Descobrir Check out Dar uma olhada 
Chill out relaxar Make up (algo) Inventar Put away Guardar 
Look forward to Estar ansioso por 
algo 
Fall out Discutir/ arrumar 
confusão c/alguém 
Run into 
(alguém) 
Encontrar (de 
repente) 
Show up Aparecer Put up with Aguentar Run out Acabar 
Make up with Fazer as pazes Take off Tirar Tear up Rasgar 
Get up Levanter Give up Desistir Go after Seguir 
Go out Sair Go back Voltar pra onde estava Grow up Crescer 
 
Causative Form (Have/ Get Something Done) 
 
The causative form in English is used when the speaker means that the action was performed by someone else 
rather than him. Observe the following sentences: 
(1) I painted my room yesterday. 
(2) I had my room painted yesterday. 
In sentence (1) the speaker implies that he painted the house by himself whereas in sentence (2) another person 
performed the action for him. The structure of the causative form is always the same and can be used in any tense: 
 
 
SUBJECT + VERB HAVE/ GET (in any tense) + OBJECT + MAIN VERB IN THE PAST PARTICIPLE 
I HAD MY HOUSE PAINTED YESTERDAY 
 
 
Observe the variations in tense and modality: 
 
 
Let’s practice a little bit. Complete the following sentences with the causative form of the verbs in parentheses: 
 
1) Julian ____________ his house _____________ (to decorate/ past) by a very skilled professional. 
2) _____________ Carl ____________ his car _______________ (to repair/ future) next weekend? 
3) Bridget ____________ her picture ______________ (to paint/ present perfect) by a very famous painter. 
 
KEY: 
(1) had/ got his house decorated; 
(2) Will Carl have/ get his car repaired/ Is Carl going to have/ get his car repaired; 
(3) has had/ got her picture painted. 
 
In BrP there is no similar structure to the causative form in English. When the causative form is translated into BrP 
we can use the verb “mandar”. 
(1) I painted my room yesterday. = Eu pintei meu quarto ontem. 
(2) I had my room painted yesterday. = Eu mandei pintar meu quarto ontem. 
 
In some cases, you will have to choose to change the structure of the sentence so you can keep the original meaning 
of the sentence. For example, in English the sentences (1) I cut my hair and (2) I had my hair cut have different 
meanings. In sentence (1) what is meant is that the subject of the sentence himself/ herself performed the action, 
where as in sentence (2) the subject of the sentence had someone else do it for him/her. In BrP, when the speaker says 
“Cortei meu cabelo”, the meaning can be either that the subject has performed the action himself or that he had 
someone do it for him/her. 
For this reason, if the meaning is that the subject of the sentence performed the action, then the translation into 
English is going to be I cut my hair. 
Now, if the meaning is that the subject of the sentence had someone else cut his/ her hair, then the translation is 
going to be I had my hair cut. Now, it’s your turn to translate the sentences: 
1) Ian had his leather jacket cleaned at a specialist cleaner. 
Ian mandou lavar sua jaqueta de couro numa lavanderia especializada 
2) Peter got his car washed last Sunday. 
Peter mandou lavar seu carro semana passada 
3) Tom is going to get a tooth taken out next week. 
Tom vai extrair um dente na próxima semana 
4) Philip has he oil of his car changed every two months. 
Philip leva seu carro para trocar o óleo a cada dois meses 
5) Eleanor will have her bike repaired when she comes back from her holidays. 
Eleanor vai consertar sua bicicleta quando ela voltar das férias 
 
The Progressive Aspect (Tense and Aspect) 
Before we start talking about the translation of the progressive aspect in English, it is important for you to 
understand what the word aspect means. In order to facilitate your understanding we must make a distinction between 
the words tense and aspect. Tense refers to the specific location of the action or event in time and the verb used to 
express this action or event is inflected. Thus, we can say that there are only two tenses in the English language: present 
and past. As there is no verb inflection in any of the future forms, we cannot talk of a “future tense”. 
On the other hand, aspect refers to how an event or action can be viewed with respect to time, rather than to its 
actual location in time, and it indicates if an action is completed or not. 
There are four aspects in English: simple (or infinite), perfect (or complete), progressive (or continuous), and the 
perfect continuous. Let’s examine each one of them a bit further. 
1. The Simple Aspect: Does not relate to the flow of time (there is no reference where on a time line an action 
begins or ends), but it simply states whether the action has occurred or not. It is used to indicate habitual or 
repeated actions/ conditions. 
Ex: Monkeys live in trees. (The verbs simply tells where monkeys live) 
2. The Perfect Aspect: Indicates that the action/ condition is known and is used to emphasize the fact that the 
action is complete. The action may, however, be completed in the present, inthe past, or in the future. 
Ex: Susan has lived in London for a long time. (In this sentence, the action took place in the past, but it is 
implied that it took place recently and is still relevant at the time of speaking) 
3. The Progressive Aspect: Indicates that the action/ condition is ongoing in the present, the past, or the future. 
Ex: Helen is working for IBM. (The action of working is still in progress) 
4. The Perfect Progressive Aspect: Indicates that an action has, had, or will be in progress at a particular point in 
time. It is frequently used to indicate the duration of an action/ event. 
Ex: Susan had been living in London for two years when she decided to move to Australia. (in this sentence the 
action of living in London is complete) 
It is important to observe that aspect cannot occur without tense. Thus, the auxiliary verb "be" expresses the tense 
of the verb as in "am eating" (present progressive) or "was eating" (past progressive). 
Tense expresses time while aspect expresses the fact that a state or action is ongoing. 
 
The progressive aspect 
The progressive aspect is a verb form that expresses incomplete or ongoing actions or states at a specific time. All forms 
of the progressive aspect in English include some form of the verb be (am/ is/ are/ was/ were/ has been/ had been/ 
will have been, etc.) followed by a present participle (verb + -ing). 
 
The Present Progressive (or Continuous) 
The present progressive is most often used in sentences that express actions happening at the moment of speaking, 
extended actions that are in progress, actions happening in the near future, repetitive and irritating actions, and actions 
occurring for a limited time. Observe the following sentences: 
1. Bill and Juliet are watching TV. (action happening at the moment of speaking) 
2. I am reading a book by Saramago. (extended action in progress) 
3. Susan is seeing her doctor on Tuesday. (action happening in the near future) 
4. Those children are always shouting at one another. (repetitive and irritating action) 
5. My daughter is staying at her uncle’s home on the weekend. (action occurring for a limited time) 
When translating these sentences into BrP, one must be attentive to the fact that not all sentences are going to be 
translated by the gerund form of the verb. Sentences 1, 2 and 4 would be translated with the gerund (Bill e Juliet estão 
assistindo TV/ Estou lendo um livro do Saramago/ Aquelas crianças estão sempre gritando umas com as outras), where 
as sentences 3 and 5 would be translated with the use of a future form (Susan irá ao médico na terça-feira/ Minha filha 
ficará na casa de seu tio no final de semana). 
The use of the phrases “estará vendo” and “estará ficando” is not correct in BrP, although it is widely observed in 
telemarketing language. 
The past progressive 
The past progressive is most commonly used in sentences that express incomplete or ongoing actions or states that 
began, continued, and ended in the past but over a longer period of time than another completed action expressed by 
the simple past tense. Observe the following sentences: 
1. The phone was ringing when Kate opened the door of the office. 
2. David was taking a shower when his wife arrived 
The past progressive may also be employed in sentences that express past actions that progressed in time in the 
past, that occurred simultaneously, that described the atmosphere of an event, and that were repetitive and irritating. 
Observe the following sentences: 
3. When the detective asked us about the boys, we told him that they were playing volleyball every day on Monday 
(past actions that progressed in time in the past) 
4. Paul was reading the paper while Marian and Fiona were studying in the living room (past actions that occurred 
simultaneously) 
5. When the police arrived everyone was talking about the incident (description of the atmosphere of an event) 
6. When I think about my childhood, I remember a neighbour who was always moving the lawn on Saturday in the 
mornig. The noise always made me wake up earlier than I wanted (repetitive and irritating event) 
 
The Future Progressive (or Continuous) 
The future progressive is used when we want to emphasise that a certain action will be in progress at a given time 
in the future or that an action that started in the present or past will be still in progress in the future (in this case the 
word still must be used). 
It is important to observe that at the moment referred to in the future the action will still be in progress. 
Look the following examples: 
I’m so excited! At this time next week I’ll be watching Les Misérables, my favourite musical ever! 
Jason moved to that house when he graduated and it seems that when he retires he will still be living there. He 
just loves that place. 
 
The Perfect Progressive 
The progressive aspect of the perfect tenses (present perfect, past perfect and future perfect) is used to emphasise 
the continuous aspect of the actions described by these tenses. Observe the following pairs of sentences: 
1. (a) Robert has lived in London for two years. 
 (b) Robert has been living in London for two years. 
2. (a) Robert had lived in London for two years when he was transferred to Paris. 
 (b) Robert had been living in London for two years when he was transferred to Paris. 
3. (a) Robert will have lived abroad for four years when his son graduates. 
 (b) Robert will have been living abroad for four years when his son graduates. 
Sentence (1a) may have two different meanings: (1) that Robert has lived in London for two years (what counts 
here is not the time when he lived in London but the fact itself); he may have started living in London two years 
ago or may have lived there for any two years in the past; or (2) that Robert has lived in London for two years and 
he still lives there (the time when he lived in London is not important). However, if the intention of the speaker is 
to emphasise the fact that Robert is still living in London he should choose to use sentence (1b). When it comes to 
translation, the difference in meaning between the two sentences becomes more evident: 
 Present Perfect: Robert has lived in London for two years (any time in the past) = Robert morou em Londres por 
dois anos. 
 Present Perfect: Robert has lived in London for two years (and still lives there) = Robert mora em Londres há 
dois anos. 
 Present Perfect Continuous: Robert has been living in London for two years = Robert mora em Londres há dois 
anos. (The sentence Robert tem morado em Londres há dois anos is a possible translation but does not sound 
natural. 
Therefore, it should not be used).Sentences (2a) e (2b), follow the same pattern of sentences (1a) and (1b). 
The past perfect in sentence (2a) emphasises the fact that we have two actions happening in the past and that the 
action of the verb to live happened before the action of the verb to transfer. The past perfect continuous in sentence 
(2b) is used to emphasise the continuous aspect of the first action. 
The past perfect corresponds to the “pretérito mais que perfeito” in BrP. However, this tense is not colloquially 
used and using it as a substitute for the past perfect or for the past perfect continuous would not sound appropriate or 
natural. 
 
Now it’s your turn. Match sentences 2a and 2b with the translations that would sound more natural to a BrP speaker. If 
you think the sentence is not appropriate, write an (X). 
a) ( ) Robert morara em Londres por dois anos quando foi transferido para Paris. 
b) ( ) Robert havia morado em Londres por dois anos quando foi transferido para Paris. 
c) ( ) Robert morou em Londres por dois anos quando foi transferido para Paris. 
d) ( ) Robert estava morando em Londres por dois anos quando foi transferido para Paris.e) ( ) Robert havia estado morando em Londres por dois anos quando foi transferido para Paris. 
In the pair of sentences (3a) and (3b), we can see the use of the future perfect and the future perfect continuous, 
respectively. In sentence (3b) the future perfect continuous is used to emphasise the idea of continuity of an action 
that will be completed at a given time in the future. In sentence (3b) Robert will still be living abroad. However, 
sentence (3a) is ambiguous in the sense that he may or may not be still living abroad. 
 
Now it’s your turn. Match sentences 3a and 3b with the translations that would sound more natural to a BrP speaker. If 
you think the sentence is not appropriate, write an (X). 
a) ( ) Robert terá vivido no exterior por quatro anos quando seu filho se formar. 
b) ( ) Robert terá estado vivendo no exterior por quatro anos quando seu filho se formar. 
c) ( ) Robert estará vivendo no exterior por quatro anos quando seu filho se formar. 
Modal verbs can also be used in the progressive and the progressive perfect aspects. Observe the following examples: 
1. Let’s call Helen later. She may be working now. 
2. Don’t phone him now. He must be studying. 
3. I called her last month but she did not answer the phone. She must have been travelling. 
4. Frank was offered a position at IBM but he declined it. He might have been thinking of getting a better job offer. 
 
 
AULA 07 – CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND BRAZILIAN PORTUGUES 
LEXICAL DIFFERENCES: COME X GO AND BRING X TAKE 
 
Ao final desta aula, você será capaz de: 
1. Translate sentences with the verbs come, go, bring and take English to Portuguese; 
2. understand the differences in meaning when translating some of the phrasal verbs derived these verbs English 
to Portuguese. 
 
Lexical Differences 1: Come X Go 
 
Check the following dictionary entries for the verbs come and go: 
<http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/come_1>. 
<http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/go_1>. 
 
As you could see the basic differences between these two verbs are the same in BrP: vir and ir. However, what a 
translator must be careful about is when these verbs are used in combination with a preposition or an adverb (or both) 
to make a phrasal verb. 
In this case, the meaning of the phrasal verb is not obvious and the knowledge of the meaning of the individual 
parts may have nothing to do with the real meaning of the phrasal verb. 
Study some of the meaning of some phrasal verbs with TO COME: 
1. Come about - to take place; happen. 
2. Come across - to meet or find by chance. 
3. Come along - (a) to go with someone else who takes the lead. (b) to show up; appear. 
4. Come around - to recover, revive. 
5. Come at - to rush at; attack. 
6. Come back - to return to or regain past success after a period of misfortune. 
7. Come by - (a) to gain possession of; acquire. (b) to pay a visit. 
8. Come down - (a) to pass or be handed down by tradition; (b) (slang) to happen; occur. 
9. Come down to - to lead to a final result; to Come to a final conclusion. 
10. Come down on - to criticize harshly. 
11. Come down with - to contract an illness. 
12. Come in - to arrive among those who finish a contest or race. 
13. Come in for - to receive criticism or punishment. 
14. Come into - to acquire, especially as an inheritance. 
15. Come into (one’s own) - to succeed. 
16. Come off - to happen; occur. 
17. Come on - to hurry up; move rapidly. Often used in the imperative. 
18. Come out - to be Come known. 
19. Come out with - to put into words; say. 
20. Come over - to change sides, as in a controversy. 
21. Come through - to do what is required or anticipated. 
22. Come to - to recover consciousness. 
23. Come up - to manifest itself; arise. 
24. Come upon - to discover or meet by accident. 
 
Take for example the phrasal verb to break down: 
Meaning of to break: separate into pieces as a result of a blow, shock, or strain 
Meaning of down: to or towards a lower place or position [≠ up] 
Meaning of to break down: to stop working (if a car or machine breaks down, it stops working) 
 
Activity 
( ) At the beginning of his speech, the lecturer came __________ one of the most astonishing statements I’ve heard. 
( ) Because I was walking so slowly, my wife kept saying, "Come __________, come __________ !" 
( ) Sandra said she would come __________ to see me after I got out of the hospital. 
( ) The Graduation Ceremony came __________ as planned. It was a great success. 
( ) What time did the sun come __________ today? 
( ) When did you come __________ such a bad cold. 
( ) When his father died, Lucas came __________ more than a million dollars. 
( ) Within minutes after the thief hit his head, he came __________ and started describing him to the police. 
( ) Yesterday was my lucky day. I came __________ $10 lying in the street. 
 
Now, let’s study some of the meaning of some phrasal verbs with TO GO: 
Read the following sentences in which phrasal verbs with go were used and match them to their meanings. 
 
1. Well, go on being so selfish and you will soon have no friends anymore. 
2. She's going into medicine. 
3. My parents were away when we went by last week. 
4. I really go for progressive jazz. 
5. I cannot go along with his suggestion. 
6. Could you go through the exercise with me? I haven't got a clue what to fill in. 
7. I had just fallen asleep when the alarm went off. 
8. He went at the job with a lot of energy. 
9. The cost of living has gone up. 
 
( ) To increase in price, amount, level etc 
( ) To continue doing something or being in a situation 
( ) To have a special liking for 
( ) To approach; undertake 
( ) To undertake as a profession or course of study 
( ) To cooperate 
( ) To pay a short visit 
( ) To make a noise to warn somebody about something 
( ) To do something you had promised or planned to do, even though it causes problems or you are no longer sure 
you want to do it 
 
Lexical Differences 2: Bring X Take 
Check the dictionary entries for the verbs bring and take: 
<http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/bring>. 
<http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/take_1>. 
As you could see the basic differences between these two verbs are the same in BrP: trazer and levar. However, 
what a translator must be careful about is when these verbs are used in phrasal verbs for their meanings change 
radically. 
The verb to take has the meaning of levar in BrP but can have other meanings when used as part of a phrasal verb. 
Match the phrasal verbs from the grid to their corresponding meanings: 
1. Accept some work or responsibility: __________ 
2. Admit that something you said was wrong: __________ 
3. An airplane leaving the ground and going up into the air: __________ 
4. Have a similar appearance or personality (especially a relative) : __________ 
5. Remove something from a place: __________ 
6. Separate something into parts: __________ 
7. Start doing something regularly: __________ 
8. Take control: __________ 
9. To let somebody stay in your house: __________ 
10. Write information on paper: __________ 
 
 
AULA 08 – CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND BRAZILIAN PORTUGUES 
PRESENT PERFECT/ FALSE COGNATES 
 
Ao final desta aula, você será capaz de: 
1. Understand how to translate the present perfect English to Portuguese; (entender como traduzir o “present 
perfect” do inglês para o português); 
2. translate sentences English to BrP in which false cognates are used; (traduzir frases nas quais são usados falsos 
cognatos do inglês para o português). 
 
Activity 
Read the text and identify and translate the only sentence in the text that is in the present perfect. Type your answer 
in the box bellow: 
Everyday Things That Drain Your Brain - You probably do not notice, but