LINGUA ING ESTRUTURA SINT

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LÍNGUA INGLESA - ESTRUTURA SINTÁTICA I 
Aula 1
Word Class (Parts of Speech) - A word class may be defined as a set of words that display the same formal properties, especially their inflections and distribution.
What is a word?
A word is the smallest free form found in a language. A free form is an element that can occur in isolation. It does not have an entirely fixed position.
e.g.
the birds left
birds avoid cats
cats chase birds
Words can be put together to build larger elements of language, such as phrases (a red rock), clauses (I threw a rock), and sentences (He threw a rock too but he missed).
The term word may refer to a spoken word or to a written word, or sometimes to the abstract concept behind either. Spoken words are made up of units of sound called phonemes, and written words of symbols called graphemes, such as the letters of the English alphabet.
If you noticed, indefinite and demonstrative pronouns are placed as pronouns or determiners. What’s the difference? Let’s analyze some examples:
Both of the students came - In this case, both is a determiner, as it which co-occurs with a noun (students). 
Both came.. - In this case, both is a pronoun, as it is replacing a noun (students).
Almost all English words belong to one or another of the eight word classes. A word is placed in a particular class according to how it is used in building phrases: nouns are used in noun phrases, verbs in verb phrases, adjectives in adjective phrases, adverbs in adverb phrases and prepositions in prepositional phrases.
Determiners (including the articles “a” and “the”) are used in connection with nouns. Pronouns are used to replace either single nouns or whole noun phrases. Conjunctions are used to connect the clauses that make up compound and complex sentences.
Some words, such as NUMBERS, do not fit in any of the word classes given above. They can behave as adjectives (one loaf or two?) or pronouns (I want one now!).
Functional Classification
Some word classes are OPEN (OR FORM CLASSES), that is, new words can be added to the class as the need arises. The class of nouns, for instance, is potentially infinite, since it is continually being expanded as new scientific discoveries are made, new products are developed, and new ideas are explored. They are:
Nouns
Lexical Verbs (or Full Verbs)
Adjectives
Adverbs
Interjections
Important: One used as a noun-substitute (as in the red dress and the blue one). The verbs be, have, do, will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, must (auxiliaries).  These verbs are stressed when they come at the end of the sentence and when they are used in tag questions.
Note: The same lexical word can function as either content or function word depending on it's function in an utterance.
The word class of a word is  a permanent characteristic of a word and part of its definition, but many words can belong to more than one word class. It depends on:
The meaning of the word (less important). 
The grammatical characteristics of the word (more important).
Neither written nor spoken English generally marks words as belonging to one part of speech or another, as they tend to be understood in the context of the sentence. Words like neigh, break, outlaw, laser, microwave, and telephone might all be either VERB FORMS OR NOUNS. 
Although -ly is a frequent adverb marker, not all adverbs end in -ly (-wise is another common adverb marker) and not all words ending in -ly are adverbs. 
For instance, tomorrow, fast, very can all be adverbs, while early, friendly, ugly are all adjectives (though early can also function as an adverb).
Verbs can also be used as adjectives: 
The unfolding spectacle astonished the child (verb)
The astonished child watched the spectacle unfold (adjective)
AULA 2
A preposition is a connector that introduces a prepositional phrase. It usually connects a noun or noun phrase to the part of the sentence modified by the whole prepositional phrase, and it shows the relation between the two.
You can sit before the desk (or in front of the desk). The professor can sit on the desk (when he's being informal) or behind the desk, and then his feet are under the desk or beneath the desk. He can stand beside the desk (meaning next to the desk), before the desk, between the desk and you, or even on the desk (if he's really strange). If he's clumsy, he can bump into the desk or try to walk through the desk (and stuff would fall off the desk).
The choice of preposition in a sentence is often idiomatic, and may depend either on the verb preceding it or on the noun which it governs: it is often not clear from the sense which preposition is appropriate. Different languages and regional dialects often have different conventions. Learning the conventionally preferred word is a matter of exposure to examples.
For example, most dialects of American English have "to wait in line", but some have "to wait on line". Because of this, prepositions are often cited as one of the most difficult aspects of a language to learn, for both non-native speakers and native speakers.
Where a preposition is required in one language, it may not be in another. In translations, prepositions must be dealt with on a case-by-case basis, and one may be either supplied or omitted.
Classification
Simple prepositions consist of a single word, while complex prepositions consist of a group of words that act as one unit. Some examples of complex prepositions in English are: in spite of, with respect to, except for, by dint of, next to.
Preposition of Agent (By)
Preposition for agent is used for a thing which is cause of another thing in the sentence. Such prepositions are by, with etc. Following examples will help in better understanding. Examples:
Different preposition are used by different devices, instruments or machines. e.g. by, with, on etc. Following examples will help in better understanding. Examples:
All and all of - Before a noun with a determiner (e.g. the, this, my), all and all of are both possible in British English. American English usually has all of.
Informal use of like - In an informal style, like is often used instead of as if/though, especially in American English. This is not considered correct in a formal style.
On - In American English, it is common to leave out on before the days of the week.
I am seeing her Sunday morning. (US) 
British people say at the weekend; Americans say on the weekend.
What did you do at the weekend? (GB) 
What did you do on the weekend? (US)
In and for - In American English, in can be used, like for, to talk about periods up to the present. (British English only for).
Unnecessary Prepositions
Prepositions in Parallel Form
When two words or phrases are used in parallel and require the same preposition to be idiomatically correct, the preposition does not have to be used twice.
You can wear that outfit in summer and in winter.
The female was both attracted by and distracted by the male's dance.
 
However, when the idiomatic use of phrases calls for different prepositions, we must be careful not to omit one of them.
The children were interested in and disgusted by the movie.
It was clear that this player could both contribute to and learn from every game he played.
He was fascinated by and enamored of this beguiling woman.
AULA 3
Prepositions are words which begin prepositional phrases. A prepositional phrase is a group of words containing a preposition, a noun or pronoun object of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object. A preposition sits in front of (is “pre-positioned” before) its object. The bolded phrases are examples of prepositional phrases in English:
PARTICLE
A prepositional phrase should not be confused with the sequence formed by the particle and the direct object of a phrasal verb, as in turn on the light. This sequence is structurally distinct from a prepositional phrase. In this case, "on" and "the light" do not form a unit; they combine independentlywith the verb "turn". A word that looks like a preposition but is actually part of a verb is called a Particle.
Four armed men held up the bank. (Held up is a verb meaning “to rob.”)
Therefore, up is not a preposition, and bank is not the object of a preposition.
Instead, bank is the direct object of the verb held up.
In order to avoid confusing prepositions with particles, test by moving the word (up) and words following it to the front of the sentence: Up the bank four armed men held. 
Made of / Made from
"Paper is made from trees."
"Wine is made from grapes." 
"This cake is made from all natural ingredients."
You can notice that there's a common theme - a common pattern. The cotton in the shirt is still cotton – it hasn't changed its form and become something else. In the same way, the bricks in the walls of the house – they're still bricks. They didn't stop being bricks when the house was made. And the plastic in my computer keyboard is still plastic.
On the other hand, the trees in the example where we say:
"The paper is made from trees." - These trees are not trees anymore – they stopped being trees when they became paper. 
"Wine is made from grapes." - The grapes are no longer grapes – they've been changed into a different type of stuff – a different type of substance - in this case, wine.
"This cake is made from all natural ingredients." - And the flour and the eggs and the sugar in the example about the cake; these have all changed their forms as well when they became cake.
HOME AT HOME
Compare these sentences:
A: Is Mr. Jones in (the house)?
B: No, I am afraid he is out.
A: Is Mr. Jones at home?
B: No, I am afraid he is not at home.
 
At is the only preposition used with home. No preposition is used with verbs of movement,
A: What time did he arrive home? (What time did he arrive at his house?).
B: He got home at ten o’clock (He got to his house at ten o’clock).
POSITION
Misconception: A sentence must not end in a preposition. Mignon Fogarty ("Grammar Girl") says, "nearly all grammarians agree that it's fine to end sentences with prepositions, at least in some cases." Fowler's Modern English Usage says that "One of the most persistent myths about prepositions in English is that they properly belong before the word or words they govern and should not be placed at the end of a clause or sentence. Preposition stranding was in use long before any English speakers considered it to be incorrect. This idea probably began in the 17th century, owing to an essay by the poet John Dryden, and it is still taught in schools today.
ut, "every major grammarian for more than a century has tried to debunk" this idea; "it's perfectly natural to put a preposition at the end of a sentence, and it has been since Anglo-Saxon times." "Great literature from Chaucer to Milton, to Shakespeare, to the King James version of the Bible was full of so called terminal prepositions." Winston Churchill is said to have written, "This is the sort of nonsense up with which I will not put, illustrating the awkwardness that could result from a rule prohibiting sentence-ending prepositions.
When Can a Sentence End with a Preposition?
English has a type of verb called a phrasal verb. These are verbs made up of multiple words, and one is always a preposition. “Cheer up,” “run over,” “log on,” and “leave off” are all examples of phrasal verbs, and often sentences that use phrasal verbs end with a preposition:
I wish he would cheer up.
You should leave it off.
When Can't You End a Sentence with a Preposition?  
But, you can't always en
d sentences with prepositions. When you could leave off the preposition and it wouldn't change the meaning, you should leave it off. Here is a cell phone commercial: 
Where are you at?
The problem is that “Where are you at?” doesn't need the preposition at the end. If you say “Where are you?” it means the same thing. So the "at" is unnecessary. You should leave it off. 
Other positions:
1. Some prepositions can appear on either side of their complement; these can be called ambipositions:
He slept {through the whole night}/{the whole night through}.
2.  Another preposition surrounds its complement, called a circumposition. A circumposition has two parts, which surround the complement to form a circumpositional phrase. 
English: from now on
3. Interposition is used for prepositions in the structures such as the following:
word for word, page upon page.
Classification by Complement
Prepositional phrases generally act as complements and adjuncts of noun phrases (adjectives) and verb phrases (indirect object, prepositional object or adverbs). For example: 
The man from China was enjoying his noodles. (Adjunct of a noun phrase - adjective).
She ran under him. (Adjunct of a verb phrase - adverb).
A student of physics. (Complement of a noun phrase - adjective).
She argued with him. (Complement of a verb phrase – prepositional object).
She handed the money to me. (Complement of a verb phrase – indirect object).
Give this man your name. (Complement of a verb phrase – indirect object with preposition understood).
Let’s analyze:  The boy from the shop is waiting at the corner.
at the corner: The head of this prepositional phrase is the preposition at. The function of the phrase is adverbial - it does the work of an adverb by modifying the verb waiting. It answers the question: where is he waiting?
at the corner: The head of this prepositional phrase is the preposition at. The function of the phrase is adverbial - it does the work of an adverb by modifying the verb waiting. It answers the question: where is he waiting?
AULA 3
Prepositions are words which begin prepositional phrases. A prepositional phrase is a group of words containing a preposition, a noun or pronoun object of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object. A preposition sits in front of (is “pre-positioned” before) its object. The bolded phrases are examples of prepositional phrases in English:
The flock of tiny swallows flew over the trees near the lake
a) of tiny swallows = prepositional phrase
of = preposition
tiny swallows = object of preposition
b) over the trees = prepositional phrase
over = preposition
the trees = object of preposition
c) near the lake = prepositional phrase
near = preposition
the lake = object of preposition
Do not confound object of preposition and direct object:
Compare:
We drove to the store
To the store is a prepositional phrase.
Store is the object of the preposition to, not the direct object of the verb drove.
We drove our car to the grocery store.
Car is the direct object of the verb drove.
To the grocery store is a prepositional phrase. 
Important:
Some verbs need a preposition before an object or another verb. The preposition is only grammatical, it doesn't change the meaning of the verb.  
A prepositional phrase should not be confused with the sequence formed by the particle and the direct object of a phrasal verb, as in turn on the light. This sequence is structurally distinct from a prepositional phrase. In this case, "on" and "the light" do not form a unit; they combine independently with the verb "turn". A word that looks like a preposition but is actually part of a verb is called a Particle.
MADE OF/MADE FROM
You can notice that there's a common theme - a common pattern. The cotton in the shirt is still cotton – it hasn't changed its form and become something else. In the same way, the bricks in the walls of the house – they're still bricks. They didn't stop being bricks when the house was made. And the plastic in my computer keyboard is still plastic.
On the other hand, the trees in the example where we say:
"The paper is made from trees." - These trees are not trees anymore – they stopped being trees when they became paper. 
"Wine is made from grapes." - The grapes are no longer grapes – they've been changed into a different type of stuff – a different type of substance - in this case, wine.
"This cakeis made from all natural ingredients." - And the flour and the eggs and the sugar in the example about the cake; these have all changed their forms as well when they became cake.
At is the only preposition used with home. No preposition is used with verbs of movement,
A: What time did he arrive home? (What time did he arrive at his house?).
B: He got home at ten o’clock (He got to his house at ten o’clock).
POSITION
Misconception: A sentence must not end in a preposition. Mignon Fogarty ("Grammar Girl") says, "nearly all grammarians agree that it's fine to end sentences with prepositions, at least in some cases." Fowler's Modern English Usage says that "One of the most persistent myths about prepositions in English is that they properly belong before the word or words they govern and should not be placed at the end of a clause or sentence. Preposition stranding was in use long before any English speakers considered it to be incorrect. This idea probably began in the 17th century, owing to an essay by the poet John Dryden, and it is still taught in schools today.
But, "every major grammarian for more than a century has tried to debunk" this idea; "it's perfectly natural to put a preposition at the end of a sentence, and it has been since Anglo-Saxon times." "Great literature from Chaucer to Milton, to Shakespeare, to the King James version of the Bible was full of so called terminal prepositions." Winston Churchill is said to have written, "This is the sort of nonsense up with which I will not put, illustrating the awkwardness that could result from a rule prohibiting sentence-ending prepositions.
When Can a Sentence End with a Preposition?
English has a type of verb called a phrasal verb. These are verbs made up of multiple words, and one is always a preposition. “Cheer up,” “run over,” “log on,” and “leave off” are all examples of phrasal verbs, and often sentences that use phrasal verbs end with a preposition:
I wish he would cheer up.
You should leave it off.
When Can't You End a Sentence with a Preposition?  
The problem is that “Where are you at?” doesn't need the preposition at the end. If you say “Where are you?” it means the same thing. So the "at" is unnecessary. You should leave it off. 
Other positions:
1. Some prepositions can appear on either side of their complement; these can be called ambipositions:
He slept {through the whole night}/{the whole night through}.
2.  Another preposition surrounds its complement, called a circumposition. A circumposition has two parts, which surround the complement to form a circumpositional phrase. 
English: from now on
3. Interposition is used for prepositions in the structures such as the following:
word for word, page upon page.
Classification by Complement
Prepositional phrases generally act as complements and adjuncts of noun phrases (adjectives) and verb phrases (indirect object, prepositional object or adverbs). For example: 
The man from China was enjoying his noodles. (Adjunct of a noun phrase - adjective).
She ran under him. (Adjunct of a verb phrase - adverb).
A student of physics. (Complement of a noun phrase - adjective).
She argued with him. (Complement of a verb phrase – prepositional object).
She handed the money to me. (Complement of a verb phrase – indirect object).
Give this man your name. (Complement of a verb phrase – indirect object with preposition understood).
at the corner: The head of this prepositional phrase is the preposition at. The function of the phrase is adverbial - it does the work of an adverb by modifying the verb waiting. It answers the question: where is he waiting?
at the corner: The head of this prepositional phrase is the preposition at. The function of the phrase is adverbial - it does the work of an adverb by modifying the verb waiting. It answers the question: where is he waiting?
AULA 4
An adjective is a word whose the main syntactic role is to modify a noun or pronoun, giving more information about the noun or pronoun's referent. Look at the word in bold in the following sentences. They are all adjectives:
• The quick, brown fox jumps over the lazy dog. 
• Most monkeys are arboreal creatures that inhabit tropical or subtropical areas. 
• The tall, thin, beautiful and intelligent girl entered into the room.
An adjective gives information about the color, size, characteristic, quality, quantity or personal traits of a noun or pronoun:
• White, red, black, green, purple, yellow, orange, brown, and black are adjectives because they mention the colour of noun or pronoun.
• Beautiful, pretty, ugly, thin, slim, fat, tall, and short are adjectives and they describe physical characteristic of a noun or pronoun.
• Intelligent, brave, courageous, determined, exuberant and diligent are adjective and they describe the personal traits of a noun or pronoun.
Types of Adjectives
Attributive Adjectives are part of the noun phrase headed by the noun they modify in English. Attributive adjectives precede their nouns in simple phrases. I saw three happy kids. 
Attributive adjectives come before the noun which they modify. 
• He ate a delicious mango.
• Poor can’t afford expensive clothes. 
• Severe headache and fever are symptoms of malaria.
• He is facing a difficult problem.
Predicative Adjectives are linked via a copula or other linking mechanism to the noun or pronoun they modify: They are happy. They made me happy.
Predicative adjectives come after a verb.
• Your problem seems difficult.
• That book was good.
• This pizza tastes delicious.
• The story sounds interesting.
Absolute Adjectives belong to a larger adjective phrase, and typically modify either the subject of a sentence or whatever noun or pronoun they are closest to: The boy, happy with his lollipop, did not look where he was going.
Substantive Adjectives act almost as nouns. It may occur in the following cases: A noun is elided and an attributive adjective is left behind: "I read two books to them; he preferred the sad book, but she preferred the happy," (happy is a substantive adjective, short for "happy one" or "happy book.")
Postpositive adjectives come immediately after the modified noun. In some languages this is the normal syntax, but in English it is rare, largely confined to archaic or institutional expressions. Aplenty, galore, and the informal extraordinaire are examples of adjectives that are primarily used postpositively in modern English. Name suffixes, such as Junior and Senior, also function as postpositive adjectives modifying proper names.
• Aplenty: In plentiful supply; abundant: "There were warning signs aplenty for their candidates as well" (Michael Gelb).
• Galore: In great numbers; in abundance: "with balloons and hot dogs . . . and fireworks galore" (Anne Armstrong).
• Extraordinaire: Extraordinary: a jazz singer extraordinaire.
Postposition is obligatory when the adjective modifies a pronoun:  
• something useful   
• everyone present   
• those responsible
Postpositive adjectives are commonly found together with superlative, attributive adjectives:  
• the shortest route possible   
• the worst conditions imaginable   
• the best hotel available
NOTE: Most adjectives can freely occur in both the attributive and the predicative positions. However, a small number of adjectives are restricted to one position only. For example, the adjective main (the main reason) can only occur in the attributive position (predicative: *the reason is main). Conversely, the adjective afraid (the child was afraid) can only occur predicatively (attributive: *an afraid child). 
Inherent and Non-Inherent Adjectives
Stative and Dynamic Adjectives
As their name suggests, stative adjectives denote a state or condition, which may generally be considered permanent, such as big, red, small. Stative adjectives cannot normally be used in imperative constructions:  
*Be big/red/small  
Further, they cannot normally be used in progressiveconstructions:  
*He is being big/red/small 
In contrast, dynamic adjectives denote attributes which are, to some extent at least, under the control of the one who possesses them. For instance, brave denotes an attribute which may not always be in evidence (unlike red, for example), but which may be called upon as it is required. For this reason, it is appropriate to use it in an imperative:   
Be brave! 
All dynamic adjectives can be used in imperatives (Be careful!, Don't be cruel!), and they can also be used predicatively in progressive constructions:   
• Your son is being disruptive in class. 
• My parents are being foolish again.   
• We're being very patient with you. 
 
The majority of adjectives are stative. The stative/dynamic contrast, as it relates to adjectives, is largely a semantic one, though as we have seen it also has syntactic implications. 
NOMINAL ADJECTIVES
Certain adjectives are used to denote a class by describing one of the attributes of the class. For example, the poor denotes a class of people who share a similar financial status. Other nominal adjectives are: 
• the old   
• the sick   
• the wealthy 
• the blind   
• the innocent
A major subclass of nominal adjectives refers to nationalities:
• the French   
• the British   
• the Japanese 
However, not all nationalities have corresponding nominal adjectives. Many of them are denoted by plural, proper nouns:  
• the Germans.   
• the Russians.   
• the Americans.   
• the Poles. 
Nominal adjectives do not refer exclusively to classes of people. Indeed some of them do not denote classes at all:
  
• the opposite   
• the contrary   
• the good 
 
Comparative and superlative forms can also be nominal adjectives: 
• the best is yet to come   
• the elder of the two   
• the greatest of these   
• the most important among them
We refer to all of these types as nominal adjectives because they share some of the characteristics of nouns (hence `nominal') and some of the characteristics of adjectives. They have the following nominal characteristics: 
• They are preceded by a determiner (usually the definite article the).
• They can be modified by adjectives (the gallant French, the unfortunate poor).
 
• They have the following adjectival features:  
• They are gradable (the very old, the extremely wealthy).
  
• Many can take comparative and superlative forms (the poorer, the poorest).
ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS
We have seen that attributive adjectives occur before a noun which they modify, for example, red in red car. We need to distinguish these clearly from nouns which occur in the same position, and fulfill the same syntactic function. Consider the following: 
  
• rally car   
• saloon car   
• family car
Here, the first word modifies the second, that is, it tells us something further about the car. For example, a rally car is a car which is driven in rallies. These modifiers occur in the same position as red in the example above, but they are not adjectives. We can show this by applying our criteria for the adjective class.
We have seen that attributive adjectives occur before a noun which they modify, for example, red in red car. We need to distinguish these clearly from nouns which occur in the same position, and fulfill the same syntactic function. Consider the following: 
  
• rally car   
• saloon car   
• family car
Here, the first word modifies the second, that is, it tells us something further about the car. For example, a rally car is a car which is driven in rallies. These modifiers occur in the same position as red in the example above, but they are not adjectives. We can show this by applying our criteria for the adjective class.
Firstly, they do not take very:
• *a very rally car   
• *a very saloon car   
• *a very family car 
Secondly, they do not have comparative or superlative forms:
 
• *rallier *ralliest / *more rally / *most rally.   
• *salooner *saloonest / *more saloon / *most saloon.   
• *familier *familiest / *more family / *most family.
 
And finally, they cannot occur in predicative position:
  
• *the car is rally.   
• *the car is saloon.   
• *the car is family.
So although these words occupy the typical adjective position, they are not adjectives. They are nouns.
However, certain adjectives are derived from nouns, and are known as denominal adjectives. Examples include:     
• a mathematical puzzle [`a puzzle based on mathematics'];
  
• a biological experiment [`an experiment in biology'];
  
• a wooden boat [`a boat made of wood'].
Denominals include adjectives which refer to nationality:   
 
• a Russian lady [`a lady who comes from Russia'];
   
• German goods [`goods produced in Germany'].
 
Denominal adjectives of this type should be carefully distinguished from nominal adjectives denoting nationalities. Compare:
     
• Nominal Adjective: The French are noted for their wines;
  
• Denominal Adjective: The French people are noted for their wines.
Participial Adjectives
Many adjectives can be identified by their endings. Another major subclass of adjectives can also be formally distinguished by endings, this time by -ed or -ing endings:    
• -ed form computerized, determined, excited, misunderstood, renowned, self-centred, talented, unknown.
• -ing formannoying, exasperating, frightening, gratifying, misleading, thrilling, time-consuming, worrying.
Remember that some -ed forms, such as misunderstood and unknown, do not end in -ed at all. Adjectives with -ed or -ing endings are known as pratical adjectives, because they have the same endings as verb participles. Like other adjectives, participial adjectives can usually be modified by very, extremely, or less (very determined, extremely self-centred, less frightening, etc). 
They can also take more and most to form comparatives and superlatives (annoying, more annoying, most annoying). Finally, most participial adjectives can be used both attributively and predicatively:
Alcohol + based chemicals   
battle + hardened soldiers   
drug + induced coma   
energy + saving devices   
fact + finding mission   
purpose + built accommodation 
When participial adjectives are used predicatively, it may sometimes be difficult to distinguish between adjectival and verbal uses:    
[1] the workers are striking.
 
In the absence of any further context, the grammatical status of striking is indeterminate here. The following expansions illustrate possible adjectival [1a] and verbal [1b] readings of [1]:   
 
[1a] the workers are very striking in their new uniforms (=`impressive', `conspicuous').
[1b] the workers are striking outside the factory gates (=`on strike').
THE ORDER
When two or more adjectives come before a noun, their relative order is fixed to a certain degree. Adjectives cannot be written in any order. There are rules, so you should use the following order.
TO REMEMBER:
1. Imagine that you arrive at the door of your home. On the door is the letter 'A', and you are greeted by someone who lives there. This helps you to remember the article 'A' or the determiner(s); e.g. my Mother's.
2. Imagine that you are happy to see each other. This helps you to remember the opinion adjective. 
3. Imagine the size of your home: is it big, small, or long? This helps you to remember the size adjectives. 
4. Imagine that you go into your home and you see an object. Remember the shape of the object. 
5. Now imagine that you walk around your home; e.g. towards your room. Think of another object further from the door. Think of the age of that object; e.g. new or old.
6. Move on to another object, this time a colorful one. Remember what color it is. your flat.
2. We often have two adjectives in front of a noun:
a handsome young man; a big black car; that horrible big dog.
 
Sometimes we have three adjectives, but this is unusual:
• a nice handsome young man; 
• a bigblack American car; 
• that horrible big fierce dog.
 
It is very unusual to have more than three adjectives.
AULA 5
A text consists of one or more sentences (frases)
2. A sentence consists of one or more clauses (orações)
3. A clause consists of one or more phrases (sintagmas)
4. A word consists of one or more morphemes (morfemas)
5. A phrase consists of one or more words (palavras)
The Uses of Adjective Phrases
Adjective phrases have two primary uses.: they can be used to modify nouns inside noun phrases (Attributive); they can be predicatives in clause structure (Predicative).
First, they can be used to modify nouns inside noun phrases , they expand noun phrases, as in the following example:
The scarcity of supplies has become [an increasingly difficult problem].
Here, the noun phrase within square brackets has the noun problem as its head, and the adjective phrase increasingly difficult serves as a modifier. This function of adjective phrases is referred to as attributive.
The second main function of adjective phrases is as predicatives in clause structure, following verbs like be, become, seem, etc. Maintaining a reasonable level has become increasingly difficult.
 This function of adjective phrases is referred to as predicative.
Tree Diagrams
The structure of adjective phrases is often represented using tree structures. There are two modern conventions for doing this: constituency-based trees of phrase structure grammars; dependency-based trees of dependency grammars. Both types of trees are produced here.
How Can I Identify an Adjective Phrase?
Many people wonder how to pick out adjective phrases within sentences. The trick to identifying one in a sentence is to look at the first word of the group of words. If the first word is an adverb or preposition, there is a good chance that the phrase is an adjective phrase. Ask yourself, what is this phrase modifying? Is it describing the noun? If the group of words does in fact modify the noun or subject of the clause or sentence, then the phrase is in fact an adjective phrase. 
Adjective Phrase Vs. Adjectival Phrase
The term adjectival phrase is sometimes used instead of adjective phrase. However, there is tendency to call a phrase an adjectival phrase in such a case where that phrase is functioning like an adjective phrase would, but does not contain an actual adjective. For example:
Mr. Clinton is a man of wealth. (the prepositional phrase of wealth modifies a man the way an adjective would.)
1. Adnominal Adjective - Adjective phrase head (adjuntos adnominais)
2. Subject predicative (aka Subject complement)
3. Object predicative (aka Object complement)
4. Appositive
Adjective phrases, includes adjectives, perform four main grammatical functions within sentences in the English language. Students of the English language must learn about the four functions to fully understand adjectives and adjective phrases in spoken and written English. The four functions of adjectives and adjective phrases are: PDF
AULA 6
In  grammar, the voice (also called diathesis) of a verb describes the relationship between the action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments (subject, object, etc.). When the subject is the agent or doer of the action, the verb is in the active voice. When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice.
In a transformation from an active-voice clause to an equivalent passive-voice construction, the subject and the direct object switch grammatical roles. The direct object gets promoted to subject, and the subject demoted to an (optional) complement.
The active voice is the most commonly used in many languages and represents the "normal" case, in which the subject of the verb is the agent. The thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing receiving the action is the object. [Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]
The passive voice is employed in a clause whose subject expresses the theme or patient of the verb. That is, it undergoes an action or has its state changed.  [Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action]
The passive forms of a verb are created by combining a form of the "to be verb" with the past participle of the main verb. Other helping verbs are also sometimes present: "The measure could have been killed in committee." The passive can be used, also, in various tenses.
Verbals or verb forms can also take on features of the passive voice. An infinitive phrase in the passive voice, for instance, can perform various functions within a sentence (just like the active forms of the infinitive). 
Subject: Being elected by my peers is a great honor.
Object: That child really likes to be read to by her mother. 
Modifier: Grasso was the first woman to be elected governor in her own right.
The same is true of passive gerunds. 
Subject: Being elected by my peers was a great thrill. 
Object: I really don't like being lectured to by my boss. 
Object of preposition: I am so tired of being lectured to by my boss.
The same is true of passive gerunds. 
Subject: Being elected by my peers was a great thrill. 
Object: I really don't like being lectured to by my boss. 
Object of preposition: I am so tired of being lectured to by my boss.
Personal Passive:
simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive.
They build houses. – Houses are built.
Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive.
he says – it is said
Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. Portuguese, German). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know).
They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live longer than men.
Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common.
They say that women live longer than men. – Women are said to live longer than men.
The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped).
Dynamic and Static Passive
"Static" means that an action was done to the subject at a certain point in time resulting in a state in the time focused upon. Static passive auxiliary verb: be (the "be-passive"). E.g. The grass is cut (static).
"Dynamic" means that an action takes place. 
The grass is being cut (dynamic).
Dynamic passive can also use the auxiliary verb get (the "get-passive").
The grass gets cut or 
Note that for some speakers of English this is not accepted and is considered colloquial or sub-standard. E.g. The grass is being cut (dynamic).
Myths
1. Use of the passive voice constitutes a grammatical error.
Use of the passive voice is not a grammatical error. It’s a stylistic issue that pertains to clarity—that is, there are times when using the passive voice can prevent a reader from understanding what you mean.
2. Any use of “to be” (in any form) constitutes the passive voice.
The passive voice entails more than just using a being verb. Using “to be” can weaken the impact of your writing, but it is occasionally necessary and does not by itself constitute the passive voice.
3. The passive voice always avoids the first person; if something is in first person (“I” or “we”) it’s also in the active voice.
On the contrary, you can very easily use the passivevoice in the first person. Here’s an example: “I was hit by the dodgeball.”
 4. You should never use the passive voice.
While the passive voice can weaken the clarity of your writing, there are times when the passive voice is OK and even preferable.
AULA 7
Reported speech is also known as indirect speech or indirect discourse and is commonly used in spoken conversations to report what others have said. 
A keen grasp of correct tense usage, as well as the ability to correctly shift pronouns and time expressions, is essential to proper usage of the reported speech.
1) If the introductory sentence starts in the present (Susan says), present perfect (Susan has said) or future (Susan will say) there is no backshift of tenses in Reported speech.
Direct speech: Susan: "I work in an office." 
Reported speech: Susan says (that) she works in an office.
 
Direct speech: Susan: “I watch TV everyday”.
Reported speech: She has said (that) she watches TV every day.
 
Direct speech: Jack: “I come to school every day.”
Reported speech: Jack will say (that) he comes to school every day.
2) The reporting verb is in the past tense but the meaning refers to something which never changes or is always true, there is no backshift of tense.
Direct speech: “The Earth is round,” the teacher explained.
Reported speech: The teacher explained that the Earth is round.
 
Direct speech: “Monkeys can’t fly,” he said.
Reported speech: He said that monkeys can’t fly.
 
Direct speech: “Phrasal verbs are important”, the teacher said.
Reported speech: The teacher said that phrasal verbs are important.
3) When we are reporting something that was said in the past but is still true, it is not obligatory to make the tense 'more in the past'. The choice is up to the speaker. 
Direct speech: "The train doesn't stop here."
Reported speech: He said the train doesn't stop here.
Reported speech: He said the train didn't stop here.
 
Direct speech: "I like Sarah."
Reported speech: She said she likes Sarah.
Reported speech: She said she liked Sarah.
4) The auxiliary verbs should, could, would, ought to and might do not change in the indirect speech.
Direct speech: “You should do your homework,” mum said.
Reported speech: Mum said (that) I should do my homework.
 
Direct speech: “Aunt Helen might visit us,” she said.
Reported speech: She said that Aunt Helen might visit us.
5) Simple Past and Past Progressive do not normally change in sentences with when/if.
Direct speech: “When I was having breakfast, the telephone suddenly rang.“
Reported speech: She said that when she was having breakfast, the telephone suddenly rang.
 Direct speech: “If I had more time, I would learn French.“
Reported speech: He said that if he had more time, he would learn French.
In the sentences below, the original tense can be used provided that it remains equally valid at the time of the reporting of the statement (Ed is still considered a bore; Benjamin is still expected to come over).
Ed is a bore. 
She said that Ed was/is a bore. (optional change of tense)
 
I am coming over to watch television. 
Benjamin said that he is/was coming over to watch television. (change of person, optional change of tense)
AULA 8
Language is the human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, and a language is any specific example of such a system. Human language is unique because it has the properties of productivity, recursivity, and displacement, and because it relies entirely on social convention and learning. Its complex structure therefore affords a much wider range of possible expressions and uses than any known system of animal communication.
Language Variation
Linguistic variation is central to the study of language use. In fact it is impossible to study the language forms used in natural texts without being confronted with the issue of linguistic variability. Variability is inherent in human language: a single speaker will use different linguistic forms on different occasions, and different speakers of a language will express the same meanings using different forms. Most of this variation is highly systematic: speakers of a language make choices in pronunciation, morphology, word choice, and grammar depending on a number of non-linguistic factors. These factors include the speaker's purpose in communication, the relationship between speaker and hearer, the production circumstances, and various demographic affiliations that a speaker can have.
Architecture of a language: dimensions of variation
PDF
In sociolinguistics a VARIETY, also called a LECT, is a specific form of a language or language cluster. Linguists speak of both standard and non-standard varieties. 
A Speech community is a group of people who share a set of norms and expectations regarding the use of language.  A speech community comes to share a specific set of norms for language use through living and interacting together, and speech communities may therefore emerge among all groups that interact frequently and share certain norms and ideologies. Such groups can be villages, countries, political or professional communities, communities with shared interests, hobbies, or lifestyles, or even just groups of friends. Speech communities may share both particular sets of vocabulary and grammatical conventions, as well as speech styles and genres, and also norms for how and when to speak in particular ways.
(1) Any dialect of English other than Standard English.
(2) A term used disapprovingly by some non-linguists to describe "bad" or "incorrect" English.
It is no simple matter to define the difference between a standard and a nonstandard variety of language. However, for our purposes, we can define a standard dialect as one that draws no negative attention to itself. On the other hand, a nonstandard dialect draws negative attention to itself; that is, educated people might judge the speaker of such a dialect as socially inferior, lacking education, and so on. A nonstandard dialect can thus be characterized as having socially marked forms, such as ain't. A socially marked form is one that causes the listener to form a negative social judgment of the speaker.
Literal translation (word-by-word) of opaque idioms will not convey the same meaning in other languages. 
In English, ‘to kick the bucket’ means ‘to die’. In Portuguese, the expression chutar o balde 'to kick the bucket' has a completely different meaning: it means 'to give up on a difficult task (since a person coming to the end of their patience might kick a bucket in frustration)'.
Some idioms, in contrast, are transparent. Much of their meaning does get through if they are taken (or translated) literally. For example, lay one's cards on the table means to reveal previously unknown intentions, or to reveal a secret. Transparency is a matter of degree; spill the beans (to let secret information become known) and leave no stone unturned (to do everything possible in order to achieve or find something) are not entirely literally interpretable, but only involve a slight metaphorical broadening.
Idioms tend to confuse those unfamiliar with them; students of a new language must learn its idiomatic expressions as vocabulary. Many natural language words have idiomatic origins, but are assimilated, so losing their figurative senses, for example, in Portuguese, the expression saber de coração 'to know by heart', with the same meaning as in English, was shortened to 'saber de cor', and, later, to the verb decorar, meaning memorize.
Every language has idioms, and they can be difficult to learn if you are not a native speaker of that language. The best thing to do is to have conversations with native speakers and ask them about phrases that you don't understand. Since idioms are influenced by the culture, learning the idioms of a language can be very interesting and enlightening!
AULA 9
Meliorative or Pejorative Meaning
Words that "denote" a core meaningare those that are generally used and understood by the users and the audience to represent an object or class of objects, an act, a quality, or an idea. However, because of usage over time, words that denote approximately the same thing may acquire additional meanings, or connotations, that are either positive (meliorative) or negative (pejorative).
Language meaning is continually shifting, is always contextual, and is influenced by historical, cultural, and economic factors.
Homonym - the same spelling and the same pronunciation but have different meanings. 
An example of a homonym is fluke. Fluke can mean:
• A fish, and a flatworm. (O.E. floc "flatfish," related to O.N. floke "flatfish," flak "disk, floe")
• The end parts of an anchor. (Low Ger. flügel "wing.")
• A stroke of luck. (uncertain origin)
• All three are separate lexemes with separate etymologies, but share the one form, fluke.
Other examples:
• rose (flower) and rose (past tense of rise);
• stalk (part of a plant) and stalk (follow/harass a person);
• left (past tense of leave) and left (opposite of right);
• bark (the sound of a dog) and bark (the skin of a tree);
In all the examples above we have the so called true homonyms.
Homophones = same sound, different spelling 
• to, too, two;
• there, their, they’re;
• read (peruse) and reed (waterside plant).
Homographs = different sound, same spelling (Also called in English Heteronym):
• bow (the front of a ship) and bow (a type of knot). 
• row (to argue or an argument) and row (as in to row a boat or a row of seats - a pair of homophones).
 
Other examples:
• Do you know what a buck does to does?
• I like to read. In fact, I read a book yesterday.
• Don't desert me here in the desert!
• With every number I read, my mind gets number and number.
Polyseme = same sound, same spelling, different meaning:
The word polysemes comes from the Greek roots poly meaning “many” and seme meaning “meaning.” Thus, polyseme refers to a multiple meaning word. Polysemy is the state of being a word with multiple meanings. The word polysemes may not be used much, but there are many, many English words with multiple meanings, and this makes it a topic worth knowing about.
AULA 10
"A figure is worth a thousand words."
A figure of speech is a rhetorical device that achieves a special effect by using words in distinctive ways. Figurative language is often associated with literature-and with poetry in particular. But the fact is, whether we're conscious of it or not, we use figures of speech every day in our own writing and conversations.
Figurative language is the opposite of literal language. Literal language means exactly what it says. Figurative language means something different to (and usually more than) what it says on the surface:
In the above example "like the wind" is a figure of speech (in this case, a simile). It is important to recognize the difference between literal and figurative language. There are many figures of speech that are commonly used and which you can learn by heart. At other times, writers and speakers may invent their own figures of speech. If you do not recognize them as figures of speech and think that they are literal, you will find it difficult to understand the language.
For example, common expressions such as "falling in love," "racking our brains," "hitting a sales target," and "climbing the ladder of success" are all metaphors--the most pervasive figure of all. Likewise, we rely on similes when making explicit comparisons ("light as a feather") and hyperbole to emphasize a point ("I'm starving!").
• "Around the rugged rocks the rugged rascal ran" is an example of alliteration, where the consonant r is used repeatedly.
• "Military Intelligence is an oxymoron" is the use of direct sarcasm to suggest that the military would have no intelligence. 
• "I had butterflies in my stomach" is a metaphor, referring to my nervousness feeling as if there were flying insects in my stomach.
• Saying "it was like having some butterflies in my stomach" would be a simile, because it uses the word like which is missing in the metaphor.
REASONS 
Over a century ago, a popular Canadian novelist and professor of rhetoric, James De Mille, offered several good reasons for studying the figures of speech. Though we might word them a bit differently today, the points he made in 1878 still hold true.
FIGURES OF SPEECH
1) Alliteration
(AKA: HEAD RHYME, INITIAL RHYME, FRONT RHYME- From the Latin, "putting letters together")
Alliteration is the duplication of a specific consonant sound at the start of each word and in quick succession. Although alliterations are all about consonant sounds, exceptions can be made, when vowels sounds are also repeated. This figure of speech is commonly seen in poems.
Anaphora
(AKA EPANAPHORA, ITERATIO, RELATIO, REPETITIO, REPORT - From the Greek, "carrying back")
• We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender. (Sir Walter Raleigh.)
 Good food. Good cheer. Good times. (slogan of the Sir Walter Raleigh Inn Restaurant, Maryland)
I want her to live. I want her to breathe. I want her to aerobicize  (Weird Science, 1985)
3) Antithesis
(From the Greek, "opposition") An antithesis is a figure of speech where two very opposing lines of thought or ideas are placed in a somewhat balanced sentenced.
Man proposes: God disposes.
"Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing." (Goethe)
"You're easy on the eyes Hard on the heart."(Terri Clark)
"We must learn to live together as brothers or perish together as fools."(Martin Luther King, Jr., speech at St. Louis, 1964)
4) Apostrophe
(AKA: TURNE TALE, AVERSIO, AVERSION - From the Greek, "turning away") A figure of speech in which some absent or nonexistent person or thing is addressed as if present and capable of understanding.
• "Blue Moon, you saw me standing alone
Without a dream in my heart
Without a love of my own." (Lorenz Hart, "Blue Moon")
 
• "Oh! Stars and clouds and winds, ye are all about to mock me; if ye really pity me, crush sensation and memory; let me become as nought; but if not, depart, depart, and leave me in darkness."(Mary Shelley, Frankenstein, 1818)
5) Assonance 
(AKA: MEDIAL RHYME (OR RIME), INEXACT RHYME - From the Latin, "sound") The repetition of similar vowel sounds in neighboring words like:
• "Blue Moon, you saw me standing alone
Without a dream in my heart
Without a love of my own." (Lorenz Hart, "Blue Moon")
 • "Oh! Stars and clouds and winds, ye are all about to mock me; if ye really pity me, crush sensation and memory; let me become as nought; but if not, depart, depart, and leave me in darkness." (Mary Shelley, Frankenstein, 1818)
6) Asyndeton
(AKA: ASYNDETISM - From the Greek, "unconnected”) It is a figure of speech in which one or several conjunctions are omitted from a series of related clauses.
• Veni, vidi, vici and its English translation "I came, I saw, I conquered". 
• They dove, splashed, floated, splashed, swam, snorted.
Ellipsis
(AKA:  ELLIPTICAL EXPRESSION, ELLIPTICAL CLAUSE - From the Ancient Greek, "omission" or "falling short") In grammar and rhetoric, the omission of one or more words, which must be supplied by the listener or reader.
• "Wise men talk because they have something to say; fools, (talk) because they have to say something." (Plato)
• "Prosperity is a great teacher; adversity (is) a greater."(William Hazlitt)
• "Some people go to priests; others (go) to poetry; I (go) to my friends."(Virginia Woolf) 
• "True stories deal with hunger, imaginary ones (deal) with love."(Raymond Queneau)
Euphemism
(AKA SOFT LANGUAGE, EUPHEMISMUS,CONCILIATIO, PARADIASTOLE, SOOTHER - From the Greek, "use of good words") A euphemism is a polite word or expression that people use when they are talking about something which they or other people may find unpleasant, upsetting or embarrassing. When we use euphemisms we are protecting ourselves from the reality of what is said. There are many euphemisms that refer to sex, bodily functions, war, death, etc. Euphemisms are often good examples of idiomatic language use:
He passed away (i.e. died) after a long illness (i.e. cancer). 
I decided to come out (i.e. admit to being homosexual). I didn't want to be outed (i.e. allow others to let it be known that I am homosexual). 
It's no good. I can't hold it in. I shall have to spend a penny (i.e. urinate). 
We keep the adult (i.e pornographic) magazines on the top shelf and the adult videos under the counter. 
You know that we're in the middle of a rightsizing exercise (i.e. compulsory redundancy programme). We have no alternative but to let you go (i.e. sack you). 
Many of the outlying villages suffered collateral damage (i.e. civilian deaths).
9) Hyperbole
(AKA OVERSTATEMENT, EXUPERATIO - From the Greek, “excess”) An exaggeration that is so dramatic that no one would believe the statement is true.
• “Give me a thousand kisses, then a hundred,
Then another thousand, then a second hundred,
Then still another thousand, then a hundred”  (Catullus)
• They ran like greased lightning.
• He's got tons of money.
• Her brain is the size of a pea.
• He is older than the hills.
• I will die if she asks me to dance.
• She is as big as an elephant!
• I'm so hungry I could eat a horse.
• I have told you a million times not to lie!
10) Irony
(ALSO KNOWN AS: EIRONEIA, ILLUSIO, DRY MOCK - From the Greek, "feigned ignorance”) Irony is used to stress on the opposite meaning of a word. When people are looking to be sarcastic, they employ irony.
• He was so intelligent, that he failed all his tests. 
• "Gentlemen, you can't fight in here! This is the War Room."(Peter Sellers as President Merkin Muffley in Dr. Strangelove, 1964)
11) Metaphor
(From the Greek, "transfer"). A metaphor is a figure of speech that says that one thing is another different thing. This allows us to use fewer words and forces the reader or listener to find the similarities. The word metaphor comes from the:
• His home was a prison.
In the above sentence, we understand immediately that her home had some of the characteristics of a prison. Mainly, we imagine, she could not leave her home. She was trapped inside. Why it was a prison we do not know, but that would be clear from the context-perhaps her husband forced her to stay at home, perhaps she was afraid of the outside. We don't know, but the rest of the story would tell us.
12) Metonymy
(Alvo Known As: Denominatio, Misnamer, Transmutation - From the Greek, "change of name")
A metonymy is a figure of speech where one word or phrase is used in place of another. With metonymies, a name of a particular thing is substituted with the name of a thing that is closely related to it.
13) Onomatopoeia
(AKA: ECHO WORD, ECHOISM - From the Latin, "make names"). Onomatopoeia is the use of words that sound like their meaning, or mimic sounds.  It is used to replicate sounds created by objects, actions, animals and people.
• "Chug, chug, chug. Puff, puff, puff. Ding-dong, ding-dong. The little train rumbled over the tracks." ("Watty Piper" [Arnold Munk], The Little Engine That Could)
• "Brrrrrrriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinng! An alarm clock clanged in the dark and silent room."(Richard Wright, Native Son, 1940)
• "I'm getting married in the morning! Ding dong! the bells are gonna chime."(Lerner and Loewe, "Get Me to the Church on Time," My Fair Lady)
• "Plop, plop, fizz, fizz, oh what a relief it is." (slogan of Alka Seltzer, U.S.)
• "Plink, plink, fizz, fizz" (Alka Seltzer, U.K.)
14) Oxymoron
OXYMORON (PLURAL: OXYMORA, OXYMORONS - From the Greek, "sharp-dull") An oxymoron is a figure of speech that deliberately uses two contradictory ideas. This contradiction creates a paradoxical image in the reader or listener's mind that generates a new concept or meaning for the whole. Some typical oxymorons are:
• A living death.
• Sometimes you have to be cruel to be kind.
• A deafening silence.
• Bitter-sweet.
• The Sounds of Silence (song title).
• Make haste slowly.
• He was conspicuous by his absence.
• Terribly pleased, ill health, turn up missing, jumbo shrimp, loose tights, small crowd, and clearly misunderstood.
• "The best cure for insomnia is to get a lot of sleep."(attributed to W.C. Fields).
• "A yawn may be defined as a silent yell."
15) Personification
(AKA: PROSOPOPOEIA - ANTHROPOMORPHISM - From the Greek, "face, mask") Personification gives human characteristics to inanimate objects, animals, or ideas. This can really affect the way the reader imagines things. This is used in children’s books, poetry, and fictional literature.
• The picture in that magazine shouted for attention.
• Opportunity knocked on the door.
• The sun greeted me this morning.
• The radio stopped singing and stared at me.
• The sun played hide and seek with the clouds.
16) Pleonasm 
(AKA: PLEONASMUS, SUPERABUNDANCIA, MACROLOGIA, TAUTOLOGY, PERISSOLOGY  - FROM THE GREEK, “PLEON”: MORE, TOO MUCH) It is the use of superfluous or redundant words. There are two kinds of pleonasm: syntactic pleonasm and semantic pleonasm.
17) Polysyndeton
(From the Greek, "bound together") Polysyndeton refers to that figure of speech which makes good use of conjunctions and in close succession.
18) Pun
(AKA: PARONOMASIA – Uncertain Origin) A pun is a form of word play which suggests two or more meanings, by exploiting multiple meanings of words, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. Puns are used to create humor and sometimes require a large vocabulary to understand. Puns have long been used by comedy writers, such as William Shakespeare, Oscar Wilde, and George Carlin. You can, for example, use a word that looks like or sounds like another word.
• Grave men, near death, who see with blinding sight". (Dylan Thomas, "Do not go gentle into that good night")
• "Look deep into our ryes."(slogan of Wigler's Bakery)
• "Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana."(Groucho Marx)
19) Simile
(From Latin, "likeness" or "comparison") A simile is a figure of speech that says that one thing is like another different thing. We can use similes to make descriptions more emphatic or vivid. We often use the words as...as and like with similes.
20) Zeugma
Zeugma refers to the employment of a word to bridge two or more words, but here the word makes sense to one word or all words in dissimilar ways.
• She lowered her standards by raising her glass, her courage, her eyes and his hopes.
• You are free to execute your laws, and your citizens, as you see fit."(Star Trek: The Next Generation)
• "Kill the boys and the luggage!"(Fluellen in William Shakespeare's Henry V)
• "She arrived in a taxi and a flaming rage."(John Lyons, Semantics. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977)
• "We were partners, not soul mates, two separate people who happened to be sharing a menu and a life." (Amy Tan, The Hundred Secret Senses. Ivy Books, 1995)