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Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics By: Khare, R.P. Oxford University Press © 2004 Oxford University Press ISBN: 978‐0‐19‐566930‐5 v Table of Contents 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics 1 1.2 Historical Developments 1 1.3 A Fiber‐Optic Communication System 3 1.3.1 Information Input 3 1.3.2 Transmitter 4 1.3.3 Optoelectronic Source 4 1.3.4 Channel Couplers 4 1.3.5 Fiber‐Optic Information Channel 5 1.3.6 Repeater 5 1.3.7 Optoelectronic Detector 5 1.3.8 Receiver 6 1.3.9 Information Output 6 1.4 Advantages of Fiber‐Optic Systems 6 1.5 Emergence of Fiber Optics as a Key Technology 7 1.6 The Role of Fiber Optics Technology 9 vi 1.7 Overview of the Text 10 Appendix A1.1: Relative and Absolute Units of Power 12 Appendix A1.2: Bandwidth and Channel Capacity 13 Part I. Fiber Optics 2. Ray Propagation in Optical Fibers 16 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 Review of Fundamental Laws of Optics 16 2.3 Ray Propagation in Step‐Index Fibers 17 2.4 Ray Propagation in Graded‐Index Fibers 21 2.5 Effect of Material Dispersion 23 2.6 The Combined Effect of Multipath and Material Dispersion 27 2.7 Calculation of RMS Pulse Width 28 Summary 30 Multiple Choice Questions 31 Review Questions 33 3. Wave Propagation in Planar Waveguides 35 3.1 Introduction 35 vii 3.2 Maxwell's Equations 36 3.3 Solution in an Inhomogeneous Medium 38 3.4 Planar Optical Waveguide 42 3.5 TE Modes of a Symmetric Step‐Index Planar Waveguide 45 3.6 Power Distribution and Confinement Factor 52 Summary 55 Multiple Choice Question 56 Review Questions 58 4. Wave Propagation in Cylindrical Waveguides 60 4.1 Introduction 60 4.2 Modal Analysis of an Ideal SI Optical Fiber 60 4.3 Fractional Modal Power Distribution 70 4.4 Graded‐Index Fibers 73 4.5 Limitations of Multimode Fibers 76 Summary 77 Multiple Choice Questions 78 Review Questions 79 5. Single‐Mode Fibers 82 viii 5.1 Introduction 82 5.2 Single‐Mode Fibers 82 5.3 Characteristic Parameters of SMFs 83 5.3.1 Mode Field Diameter 83 5.3.2 Fiber Birefringence 86 5.4 Dispersion in Single‐Mode Fibers 87 5.4.1 Group Velocity Dispersion 87 5.4.2 Waveguide Dispersion 89 5.4.3 Material Dispersion 93 5.4.4 Polarization Mode Dispersion 95 5.5 Attenuation in Single‐Mode Fibers 95 5.5.1 Loss due to Material Absorption 96 5.5.2 Loss due to Scattering 97 5.5.3 Bending Losses 98 5.5.4 Joint Losses 99 5.6 Design of Single‐Mode Fibers 99 Summary 102 Multiple Choice Questions 103 Review Questions 104 ix 6. Optical Fiber Cables and Connections 106 6.1 Introduction 106 6.2 Fiber Material Requirements 107 6.3 Fiber Fabrication Methods 108 6.3.1 Liquid‐Phase (or Melting) Methods 108 6.3.2 Vapour‐Phase Deposition Methods 110 6.4 Fiber‐Optic Cables 114 6.5 Optical Fiber Connections and Related Losses 115 6.5.1 Connection Losses due to Extrinsic Parameters 117 6.5.2 Connection Losses due to Intrinsic Parameters 122 6.6 Fiber Splices 125 6.6.1 Fusion Splices 125 6.6.2 Mechanical Splices 126 6.6.3 Multiple Splices 128 6.7 Fiber‐Optic Connectors 129 6.7.1 Butt‐Jointed Connectors 129 6.7.2 Expanded‐Beam Connectors 130 6.7.3 Multifiber Connectors 131 6.8 Characterization of Optical Fibers 131 6.8.1 Measurement of Optical Attenuation 132 x 6.8.2 Measurement of Dispersion 135 6.8.3 Measurement of Numerical Aperture 136 6.8.4 Measurement of Refractive Index Profile 137 6.8.5 Field Measurements: OTDR 138 Summary 139 Multiple Choice Questions 140 Review Questions 141 Part II. Optoelectronics 7. Optoelectronic Sources 144 7.1 Introduction 144 7.2 Fundamental Aspects of Semiconductor Physics 145 7.2.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors 146 7.3 The p‐n Junction 150 7.3.1 The p‐n Junction at Equilibrium 150 7.3.2 The Forward‐Biased p‐n Junction 153 7.3.3 Minority Carrier Lifetime 154 7.3.4 Diffusion Length of Minority Carriers 155 7.4 Current Densities and Injection Efficiency 157 7.5 Injection Luminescence and the Light‐Emitting Diode 158 xi 7.5.1 Spectrum of Injection Luminescence 159 7.5.2 Selection of Materials for LEDs 161 7.5.3 Internal Quantum Efficiency 162 7.5.4 External Quantum Efficiency 162 7.6 The Heterojunction 164 7.7 LED Designs 166 7.7.1 Surface‐Emitting LEDs 166 7.7.2 Edge‐Emitting LEDs 167 7.7.3 Superluminescent Diodes 168 7.8 Modulation Response of an LED 169 7.9 Injection Laser Diodes 171 7.9.1 Condition for Laser Action 173 7.9.2 Laser Modes 176 7.9.3 Laser Action in Semiconductors 178 7.9.4 Modulation Response of ILDs 181 7.9.5 ILD Structures 183 7.10 Source‐Fiber Coupling 187 Summary 190 Multiple Choice Questions 192 Review Questions 193 xii Appendix A7.1: Lambertian Source of Radiation 196 8. Optoelectronic Detectors 197 8.1 Introduction 197 8.2 The Basic Principle of Optoelectronic Detection 197 8.2.1 Optical Absorption Coefficient and Photocurrent 198 8.2.2 Quantum Efficiency 199 8.2.3 Responsivity 200 8.2.4 Long‐Wavelength Cut‐off 200 8.3 Types of Photodiodes 202 8.3.1 p‐n Photodiode 202 8.3.2 p‐i‐n‐Photodiode 204 8.3.3 Avalanche Photodiode 205 8.4 Photoconducting Detectors 208 8.5 Noise Considerations 210 Summary 213 Multiple Choice Questions 213 Review Questions 215 9. Optoelectronic Modulators 216 xiii 9.1 Introduction 216 9.2 Review of Basic Principles 217 9.2.1 Optical Polarization 217 9.2.2 Birefringence 219 9.2.3 Retardation Plates 223 9.3 Electro‐Optic Modulators 225 9.3.1 Electro‐Optic Effect 225 9.3.2 Longitudinal Electro‐Optic Modulator 225 9.3.3 Transverse Electro‐Optic Modulator 232 9.4 Acousto‐Optic Modulators 234 9.4.1 Acousto‐Optic Effect 234 9.4.2 Raman‐Nath Modulator 235 9.4.3 Bragg Modulator 237 9.5 Application Areas of Optoelectronic Modulators 238 Summary 239 Multiple Choice Questions 241 Review Questions 242 10. Optical Amplifiers 244 10.1 Introduction 244 xiv 10.2 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers 245 10.2.1 Basic Configuration 245 10.2.2 Optical Gain 246 10.2.3 Effect of Optical Reflections 249 10.2.4 Limitations 250 10.3 Erbium‐Doped Fiber Amplifiers 251 10.3.1 Operating Principle of EDFA 252 10.3.2 A Simplified Model of an EDFA 254 10.4 Fiber Raman Amplifiers 259 10.5 Application Areas of Optical Amplifiers 262 Summary 264 Multiple Choice Questions 265 Review Questions 266 Part III. Applications 11. Wavelength‐Division Multiplexing 269 11.1 Introduction 269 11.2 The Concepts of WDM and DWDM 270 11.3 Passive Components 272 xv 11.3.1 Couplers 272 11.3.2 Multiplexers and Demultiplexers 276 11.4 Active Components 284 11.4.1 Tunable Sources 284 11.4.2 Tunable Filters 284 Summary 287 Multiple Choice Questions 288 Review Questions 289 12. Fiber‐Optic Communication Systems 290 12.1 Introduction 290 12.2 System Design Considerations for Point‐to‐Point Links 291 12.2.1 Digital Systems 291 12.2.2 Analog Systems 297 12.3 System Architectures