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e um . N , Sta Accepted 29 December 2014 tha open the possibility of mapping the many parameters determining the rate of a full catalytic reaction value that corresponds to the highest activity. This means a lack ested expe d to chara rmediate a catalyst, or what value of the ‘‘bond strength’’ corresponds optimum catalyst. For these reasons, the Sabatier principle be used as a basis for catalyst design rules. The advent of computational electronic structure methods that are efficient enough to treat reactions on metal surfaces and accu- rate enough to have predictive power has significantly changed the availability of systematic data for adsorption energies and activa- tion energies for surface chemical reactions. An enormous amount of effort has gone into establishing methods and data describing transition-metal surfaces [4–21]; this has enabled a priori q Paper submitted in recognition of the enormous influence Haldor Topsøe has had on the advancement of the science of heterogeneous catalysis and his continued interest and support of the development of a predictive theory of the phenomenon. ⇑ Corresponding authors at: SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, CA 94025, USA. E-mail addresses: alevoj@stanford.edu (A. Vojvodic), norskov@stanford.edu (J.K. Nørskov). Journal of Catalysis 328 (2015) 36–42 Contents lists availab Journal of journal homepage: www.e how they determine the activity and selectivity of a catalytic mate- rial. This will allow an understanding of trends from one catalyst to the next, and it will open the possibility to design catalysts by searching for materials with descriptors close to the optimum the major shortcoming that it is not quantitative. of predictive power, and hence, that it cannot be t tally. It is not clear which quantity should be use the ‘‘bond strength’’ between the relevant inte http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcat.2014.12.033 0021-9517/� 2015 Published by Elsevier Inc. rimen- cterize nd the to the cannot Understanding how solid surfaces work as catalysts is attracting renewed interest. Not only is the majority of the chemical industry relying on catalysis, but the search for renewable energy solutions and for sustainable production processes also requires completely new chemical processes and catalysts [1]. The hope is that through a fundamental understanding of basic concepts in heterogeneous catalysis, we can develop new catalyst design strategies. The chal- lenge is to identify descriptors of catalytic activity and discover optimum catalyst [2,3]. The idea is that the best catalysts should bind atoms and molecules with an intermediate strength: not too weakly in order to be able to activate the reactants, and not too strongly to be able to desorb the products. This leads to a vol- cano-type relationship between activity and bond strength as illus- trated in Fig. 1. This picture has been very successful in providing a general qualitative understanding of why there might be an opti- mum catalyst. As a theory of heterogeneous catalysis [3], it has Keywords: Heterogeneous catalysis Transition metals Theory Computational catalysis DFT Sabatier principle Scaling relation Descriptor 1. Introduction onto a few descriptors. The resulting activity map can be viewed as a quantitative implementation of the classical Sabatier principle, which states that there is an optimum ‘‘bond strength’’ defining the best catalyst for a given reaction. In the modern version, the scaling relations determine the relevant ‘‘bond strengths’’ and the fact that these descriptors can be measured or calculated makes it a quantitative the- ory of catalysis that can be tested experimentally by making specific predictions of new catalysts. The quantitative aspect of the model therefore provides new possibilities in catalyst design. Finally, the d- band model provides an understanding of the scaling relations and variations in catalytic activity in terms of the electronic structure of the transition-metal surface. � 2015 Published by Elsevier Inc. Since the early part of the 20th century, the Sabatier principle has provided a conceptual framework for our thinking about the Received 19 November 2014 Revised 22 December 2014 in transition-metal catalysis: scaling relations, activity maps, and the d-band model. Scaling relations are correlations between surface bond energies of different adsorbed species including transition states; they From the Sabatier principle to a predictiv heterogeneous catalysisq Andrew J. Medford, Aleksandra Vojvodic ⇑, Jens S. H Felix Studt, Thomas Bligaard, Anders Nilsson, Jens K SUNCAT Center for Interface Science and Catalysis, Department of Chemical Engineering SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, CA 94025, USA a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: a b s t r a c t We discuss three concepts theory of transition-metal melshøj, Johannes Voss, Frank Abild-Pedersen, ørskov ⇑ nford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA t have made it possible to develop a quantitative understanding of trends le at ScienceDirect Catalysis lsevier .com/locate / jcat identification of good descriptors for a given catalytic reaction, and it has made it possible to map out optimum regions of descriptor space to help discover leads for new catalysts. In the present per- spective, we briefly highlight some of these new developments. 2. Quantifying the bond strength One of the first challenges toward a quantified heterogeneous theory of catalysis is determining a suitable quantity, or ‘‘descrip- tor’’, to represent the ‘‘bond strength’’ of interest. The early lit- erature often used bulk properties such as the heat of formation of the metal oxide [22] or suitable compound [23], or the number of d-orbital electrons [24]. As noted already by Sabatier, the rele- vant bond strengths should of course be related to bonds at the adsorption energies. In this case, there are two descriptors since Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the qualitative Sabatier principle. A.J. Medford et al. / Journal of Catalysis 328 (2015) 36–42 37 surface and not in the bulk or in molecules [3]; however, prior to the recent advances in computational chemistry, bulk formation energies were the simplest and most reliably determined quanti- ties to use. An example using the oxide heat of formation to describe ammonia synthesis activity is shown in Fig. 2a. It can be seen that while there is some correlation, the ‘‘volcano relation- ship’’ is far from convincing. The volcano plot is much improved when the actual nitrogen adsorption energies on the relevant metal surfaces are used as the descriptor (see Fig. 2b). Here the same experimental rates are plotted against the nitrogen adsorption energies as determined by density functional theory (DFT) calculations [25]. The improved relationship of the volcano plot in Fig. 2b indi- cates that the adsorption energy of N⁄ at the surface site provides a much better quantitative description of the ‘‘bond strength’’ con- cept of the Sabatier principle than the oxide heat of formation. This is intuitive, since the N⁄ adsorption energy is a surface property, and the reaction is mediated by the surface. Furthermore, the N⁄ adsorption energy probes the interactions between the transition metal and nitrogen (rather than oxygen), which is present in all intermediates of the ammonia synthesis reaction. 3. Dimensional reduction: scaling relations While nitrogen is undoubtedly a key intermediate for ammonia synthesis, there are also several other intermediates and transition states that play a role in the reaction. In order for the bond strength to be a valid descriptor, it must describe the interaction between the surface and all relevant intermediates and transition states. To illustrate why a single descriptor is sufficient,consider the fol- lowing very simple mechanism for ammonia synthesis: N2ðgÞ þ 2� ! N—N�þ� ! 2N� N� þ 3=2H2ðgÞ ! NH3ðgÞþ� Fig. 2. (a) Volcano plot for the ammonia synthesis reaction over K-promoted transition-m descriptor (adapted from Ref. [22]). (b) Volcano plot of the same rates with the nitrogen a the RPBE functional (from Ref. [25]) as a descriptor. Let us also assume that the first step, N2 dissociation, is rate lim- iting. Both experiments and theory show that this is the case for the most active catalysts [26–28]. In this simple model, the rate is determined by two variables that are in principle independent: the transition-state energy (activation barrier) for N2 dissociation (EN–N) (determining the rate of dissociation) and the adsorption energy of nitrogen (EN) (determining the coverage on the surface). Fig. 3a shows the rate calculated with this mechanism and a mean- field kinetic model as a function of these two variables. Values of (EN, EN–N) of stepped transition-metal surfaces are overlaid on the plot. It can be seen that there is a clear linear scaling relation between the two variables. This means that a single variable is enough to define the catalyst in terms of the ammonia synthesis rates, thus explaining why the experimental data in Fig. 2b and the model data in Fig. 3b can be ordered very well using the nitro- gen adsorption energy as the descriptor. The approach outlined above for a simple reaction can be gen- eralized to much more complex reaction networks. Consider for example the hydrogenation of CO to form methane, methanol, or ethanol. Even a very simple model for this reaction network con- tains 52 elementary reactions (a subset of which are shown in Fig. 4, see Ref. 30 for more details) and therefore, in principle, has approximately 104 independent energy variables (one reaction energy and one activation energy for each elementary reaction step) characterizing the reaction. Understanding trends in a space with more than 3 dimensions is a daunting task, leaving very little space for intuition or for developing catalyst design principles. A very considerable reduction in complexity is needed. The solution to this problem lies in the generality of the scaling relations. Fig. 4 shows that the intermediates and transition states of many different classes of elementary steps can be determined using only a linear combination of the carbon and oxygen etal catalysts at 523 K and 0.8 bar using oxide heat of formation as a bond strength dsorption energy at stepped metal surfaces as determined by DFT calculations using of C 38 A.J. Medford et al. / Journal the bonding at the surface takes place through both C and O atoms, and the binding energy of these two atoms is relatively indepen- dent. The bond energy of H to the surface scales well with that of C and therefore does not need to be considered an independent variable. By using the concept of scaling relations, the effective dimensionality of the problem has therefore been reduced to only 2, leading to a much more manageable problem in terms of both optimization and understanding. 4. Activity maps: understanding trends in catalytic activity and selectivity The scaling relations define the descriptors for a given reaction, and by combining the scaling relations with a kinetic model we can Fig. 3. (a) Potential energy diagram for simplified ammonia synthesis reaction, along with synthesis rate as a function of nitrogen adsorption energy and N2 dissociation barrier w theoretical limit since the activation barrier (Ea) must always be positive (c) Rate shown a of EN. The red point marked ‘‘CoMo’’ denotes the expected rate on a mixed site contain energies [29]. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the rea Fig. 4. Scaling relations for 26 intermediates and 16 transition states in the conversion o on transition-metal (211) surfaces. Tick marks are 1 eV apart; scaling parameters and m analysis along with color code are shown (top right) along with the error between scale references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of thi atalysis 328 (2015) 36–42 define a mapping of catalytic activity onto descriptor space. This mapping, which is a generalization of the volcano relations of Figs. 2 and 3b, we denote activity maps. For CO hydrogenation, the activity maps for different products as a function of the C and O adsorption energies are shown in Fig. 5a–c. In such a map, an active site on a catalyst surface is defined by the values of the two descriptors, and in the figure, the values for (211) step con- figurations of a number of relevant transition metals are included. The maps provide a means to rationalize the known trends about transition-metal catalysts for these reactions: Cu is the best ele- mental metal catalyst for methanol synthesis [31], Ru, Co, Ni, and Rh are the best for methanation [32], and no good elemental metal catalyst is known for ethanol synthesis (rhodium has been shown to catalyze the synthesis of ethanol with reasonable selectivity in active site motif for the (211) surfaces with the step as the active site. (b) Ammonia ith energetics for FCC/HCP metal step sites and scaling line. Shaded area shows the s a function of the nitrogen adsorption energy, utilizing that EN–N is a linear function ing both Co and Mo based on interpolation between the two nitrogen adsorption der is referred to the web version of this article.) f CO and H2 to ethanol (left) as a function of carbon and oxygen adsorption energies ore details can be found in Ref. [30]. Classes of elementary reactions included in the d and DFT energies for all scaling relations (bottom right). (For interpretation of the s article.) Fig. 5. Rates and selectivities for the formation of methane, methanol, and ethanol as a o re rate whit of C the presence of specific promoters or supports, but is often selec- tive to methane, especially on inert supports [33]). Knowing the rates of different parallel reaction pathways lead- ing to different products also allows us to map out the selectivity of different catalysts as a function of descriptor values. This is illus- calculated using a microkinetic model, which utilizes the scaling relations of Fig. 4 t PH2 = 60 bar. (a) The rate of methane formation, (b) rate of methanol formation, (c) with carbon and oxygen binding energies of A3B transition-metal alloys (indicated as catalysts. See Ref. [30] for more details. A.J. Medford et al. / Journal trated in the selectivity map in Fig. 5d for the production of methane, methanol, and ethanol over stepped metal surfaces. Selectivity toward higher alcohols (modeled by ethanol) is only found in a narrow strip of parameter values, far from elemental metal values. 5. The electronic structure factor in transition-metal catalysis: the d-band model Scaling relations between activation energies and reaction ener- gies have been known in various subfields of chemistry for decades as Brønsted relations [34], Evans–Polanyi relations [35,36], or the Hammett equation [37]. The adsorption energy scaling relations represent a significant extension of this concept since they cover not only activation energies but also energies of intermediates, and since they relate these energies to any suitable adsorption energy rather than just the reaction energy [38]. Establishing the scaling relations relies on access to adsorption energies and transi- tion-state energies for many adsorbates on a statistically large enough number of surfaces. Systematic data did not become avail- able until theoretical methods for calculating such quantities became accurate and fast enough to treat the complex systems of interest in heterogeneous catalysis [38]. Benchmarking the compu- tational methods against measurements is a very important part of establishing such a procedure, and it has been shownthat modern theoretical methods provide reasonably accurate adsorption ener- gies [39,40]. Most recently, it was shown that the scaling relations and the position of the maximum in activity maps are quite insen- sitive to errors in underlying electronic structure treatment for exchange and correlation effects, a result that helps understand the success of the approach outlined above [41]. One important question is to understand the physical basis for these relationships and why they are so general. Electronic struc- ture calculations and spectroscopic measurements have been used to provide detailed answers to this question. Fig. 6a shows the cal- culated variations in the adsorption energy of nitrogen, EN, and in function of carbon and oxygen adsorption energies. The rates and selectivities are duce the complexity. The reaction conditions are as follows: T = 593 K, PCO = 30 bar, of ethanol formation, and (d) selectivity map for the three different products along e x’s). The inset of (d) shows several alloys that were identified as promising ethanol atalysis 328 (2015) 36–42 39 the energy of the transition-state energy, EN–N, as a function of a parameter describing the electronic structure of the metal surfaces. The parameter chosen is the upper band edge of the metal d band projected onto the surface atom(s) to which the adsorbates bond [42,43]. In the d-band model, this parameter (or the d-band center, in cases where the coupling matrix elements are roughly constant [44]) correlates with the hybridization energy. The reason is that the interaction strength is related to the filling of the anti-bonding states formed between themetal d states and the adsorbate valence states. The higher the d states are in energy relative to the highest occupied states at the Fermi energy, the higher in energy the anti- bonding states are, the more empty they are, and the stronger the interaction becomes. This picture has been confirmed by direct spectroscopic measurements, as illustrated in Fig. 6. Since both EN–N and EN depend linearly on a parameter describ- ing the surface electronic structure, they also depend linearly on each other. The explanation of the scaling relations is therefore that both transition-state and adsorption energies of different intermediates depend on the surface electronic structure in similar ways. Different adsorbate states hybridize with the surface d elec- trons to form bonding and anti-bonding states. The strength of the interaction depends critically on the degree of filling of the anti- bonding states, which in turn depends on the position of the d states relative to the Fermi level. This picture has been confirmed in detailed X-ray spectroscopy experiments probing the filled and empty states in adsorbate systems, see inset in Fig. 6 [43,45]. 6. Catalyst design strategies Perhaps the most important consequence of a quantitative model of catalytic activity and selectivity is the possibility of using 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 εTd [eV] 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 N itr og en ad so rp tio ne ne rg y [e V ] Fe CoNi Cu RuRh Pd Ag Re Pt (a) 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 εTd [eV] 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 N 2 di ss oc ia tio nb ar ri er [ eV ] FeCo Ni Cu RuRh Pd Ag Re Pt (b) XES XAS XES XASN/Cu N/Ni Fig. 6. Nitrogen adsorption energy (a) and N2 transition-state potential energy (b) as a function of the upper band edge of the d projected density of states of the metal surface atoms. The insets in (a) show experimental X-ray absorption and emission spectra for N adsorbed on the (111) surface of Cu and Ni measuring the filled (indicated by shaded N-2p 40 A.J. Medford et al. / Journal of Catalysis 328 (2015) 36–42 activity and selectivity maps to aid the search for new catalysts, either for known reactions or for new reactions and process conditions. The reduction in the number of parameters characterizing a cat- alyst system for a given reaction offered by the scaling relations allows for identification of a few descriptors and enables one to identify the optimum values. This accrued knowledge opens the possibility for a more rigorous route to catalyst design. An early example of such an approach was the suggestion based on a vol- cano relation similar to Fig. 2b that a mixed Co–Mo catalyst should be close to optimum as a catalyst for ammonia synthesis [29]. The idea is quite intuitive from Fig. 2b or 3b: having N adsorption ener- gies somewhere between Co, which binds N too weakly, and Mo, which binds N too strongly, should give a close to optimum cata- lyst. The intermediate bond energy is borne out by detailed calcu- lations of different model systems of the Co–Mo active site. These Co–Mo mixed metal catalysts were shown experimentally to give activities comparable to Ru [29]. Such an intuition could not have been obtained from Fig. 2a. More generally, calculation (or measurement) of descriptor val- ues for a range of possible catalysts can be used to screen for new catalysts. Fig. 5d includes a screening of clean (211) stepped metal sites for higher alcohol synthesis (the effect of additives is not included here). The calculations point to a series of potentially areas) and empty N-induced states, respectively. The emptying of the anti-bonding considerably stronger [43,45]. interesting catalyst candidates. The prediction that unpromoted Pt–Co and, in particular, Cu–Co should be good candidates with a high selectivity has been verified experimentally [46,47]. Fig. 7. (a) Ammonia synthesis rate as a function of nitrogen adsorption energy and N2 dis packed (111) surfaces (red), (211) steps (black), and (211) K-promoted steps (blue). (b other conditions are the same as in Fig. 3. (For interpretation of the references to color The scaling relations, here presented for the stepped (211) met- al surfaces, provide some very stringent restrictions on the possi- bilities of finding good catalysts. Take the example of ammonia synthesis to illustrate this. It would be desirable to find an ammo- nia synthesis catalyst that has a lower barrier for N2 dissociation and does not bind N atoms stronger at the same time. Fig. 3a shows how the scaling relation effectively makes that impossible for the elemental (211) stepped transition-metal surfaces. Given the scal- ing relations, finding a good catalyst becomes a question of identi- fying the best compromise between different competing factors (e.g., N2 dissociation and NH3 desorption). An alternative strategy is to find ways in which to circumvent the scaling relations, that is, find ways to stabilize the adsorbed state of one of the intermediates or transition state without stabi- lizing others. Fig. 3a indicates that there is ample room for finding a better ammonia synthesis catalyst if we could find effective ways of circumventing the scaling relations, or find active site motifs that have a lower-lying scaling relation than the (211) stepped metal surfaces [42]. For example, if the close-packed surface is con- sidered as the active site, the scaling relation will change, as shown in Fig. 7a; however, this shift leads to a significant increase in the transition-state energy, and thus a decrease of many orders of magnitude in the rate as seen in Fig. 7b. Another possible strategy is to add alkali metals as promoters. As seen in Fig. 7, a potassium /metal-3d states on going from Cu to Ni is clearly seen, explaining why Ni binds N promoter stabilizes the transition state for N2 dissociation without affecting the N adsorption energy significantly [48], leading to a different scaling relation and an order of magnitude increase in sociation barrier, similar to Fig. 3b. Scaling relation lines correspond to metal close- ) Volcano plots corresponding to each scaling relation line. The kinetic model and in this figurelegend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) of C rate. Designing active site motifs with a three-dimensional charac- ter that can distinguish between various intermediates and transi- tion-state structures is a very important path toward engineering catalyst structures that can further escape the scaling relations; biological catalysts exploit this strategy extensively. Two recent studies show possibilities of escaping the scaling relations by exploiting the strategy of metal doping [49] and the importance of 3D confinement in oxides [50]. The quantitative theory outlined above for thermal heteroge- neous catalysis has been extended to a predictive theory of hetero- geneous electrochemical systems by taking the electrochemical potential and pH effects into account when modeling the thermo- dynamics of electrocatalytic reactions on surfaces [51,52]. This the- ory has formed the basis for computational searches for new electrode materials [16,53,54]. We have briefly outlined elements of a consistent quantitative theory of transition-metal surface catalysis. There are many chal- lenges ahead before we have a complete theory of heterogeneous catalysis. Outstanding issues include an understanding of finite size effects, the role of supports, and a proper description of the surface chemistry of transition-metal compounds. All of this requires new theoretical methods, increased accuracy, better kinetic models including the ability to treat complex systems and reaction networks, and better methods for storage, retrieval, shar- ing, and mining of data and information [55,56]. Given the devel- opments in the last decade this is not outside our reach. Author contributions The manuscript was written through contributions of all authors. All authors have given approval to the final version of the manuscript. Funding sources U.S. Department of Energy Office of Basic Energy Science. 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