Uma Agenda para Pesquisas em Coaching

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An Agenda for Coaching-Related Research: A Challenge for
Researchers
Article  in  Consulting Psychology Journal Practice and Research · September 2006
DOI: 10.1037/1065-9293.58.4.240
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An Agenda for Coaching-Related Research
A Challenge for Researchers
John L. Bennett Queens University of Charlotte
The practice of coaching by individuals who
consider themselves professional coaches has
proliferated, yet coaching is not recognized as a
profession. Through a metareview of scholarly
works and a qualitative content analysis, an
agenda for coaching-related research is pro-
posed and applied to the criteria for a profes-
sion as a means of illustrating how coaching-
related research can be utilized to support the
professionalization of coaching. Recommenda-
tions for further study and their linkage to the
criterion for professionalization are suggested.
Keywords: coaching, research, profession
According to the International Coach Fed-
eration (ICF), a professional association for
coaches, there are an estimated 10,000–
15,000 personal and business-related coaches
worldwide. The ICF was formed in 1992.
Worldwide membership in the organization
has grown dramatically from 1,500 coaches
in 2000 to 7,300 in 2004. Today, the United
States Labor Department does not recognize
coaching as a profession. This article summa-
rizes the literature regarding what is required
for a discipline or practice to be recognized as
a profession and shows the gap between that
criteria and the practice of coaching. A par-
ticular gap is a body of knowledge and this
article reports on research conducted to iden-
tify a proposed agenda for coaching-related
research. This agenda also demonstrates how
scholarly research can support the profession-
alization of coaching. The article reports the
results of a metareview of literature in which
a qualitative content analysis was conducted
in order to propose an agenda for coaching-
related research.
One might argue that Socrates was a
professional coach and that the practice of
coaching has a long history: “Coaches help
people set better goals and then reach those
goals; ask their clients to do more than they
would have done on their own; focus their
clients better to more quickly produce re-
sults; [and,] provide the tools, support and
structure to accomplish more” (Interna-
tional Coach Federation, 2001). For the
purpose of this article, clients are consid-
ered the individuals who are/were coached.
The ICF’s definition is focused on the coach
and the focus of this article is on the practice
of coaching and the professionalization of
coaching. Although the ICF definition is im-
portant to recognize, the definition presented
in Wilkins’ (2000) grounded-theory research
on coaching was selected for use in this
study: “Coaching is a one-on-one relationship
where a coach supports, collaborates with,
and facilitates client learning by helping a
client to identify and achieve future goals
through assessment, discovery, reflection,
John L. Bennett, PhD, is assistant professor
and chair of the communication department at
Queens University of Charlotte and is founder of
Lawton Associates an executive coaching and
management consulting firm based in Charlotte,
NC. He holds a MPA from the University of North
Carolina at Greensboro and MA and PhD in hu-
man and organizational systems from Fielding
Graduate University. He has earned the Interna-
tional Coach Federation’s Professional Certified
Coach (PCC) designation. His current research inter-
ests focus on the influence of lived experience on the
formation of scholarly work, leadership develop-
ment, and the professionalization of coaching.
Correspondence concerning this article should
be addressed to John L. Bennett, PhD, Chair,
Communication Department, Queens University
of Charlotte, 1900 Selwyn Avenue, Charlotte, NC
28274. E-mail: John@lawton-assoc.com
Copyright 2006 by the American Psychological Association and the Society of Consulting Psychology, 1065-9293/06/$12.00
DOI: 10.1037/1065-9293.58.4.240
Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, Vol. 58, No. 4, 240–249
240
goal setting and strategic action” (Wilkins,
2000, p. 5). For the purposes of this article,
coaching-related research is defined as
Systematic, hypothesis based, and may be
quantitative and qualitative in method and
outcomes. It uses theoretical frameworks,
hypotheses, and observations to arrive at em-
pirical evidence about the coaching process,
its preconditions, limits, outcomes, and em-
beddedness in larger systemic environments
such as teams, organizations, communities,
and cultures. Such research may also focus
on the parties to the coaching, their potential
for behavioral change and developmental ad-
vance. (Laske, Stober, & Edwards, 2005, p.
170)
The importance of any discipline being
considered a profession is the recognition
of legitimacy and quality of the work per-
formed by those practicing the trade. A
review of the literature indicates that, de-
spite the abundance of literature related to
coaching and its popularity, no one has
approached the question “Is coaching really
a profession?”
A review of the literature related to the
decisive elements of a profession was con-
ducted. What makes a discipline, practice,
or industry a profession? Much of the lit-erature in this area of study originates in
sociology and has been applied to the prac-
tice of accounting, law, medicine, nursing,
and psychology/counseling. Based on the
literature review, the following list of cri-
teria for determining a profession was es-
tablished. These criteria are illustrated us-
ing existing or potential systems, organiza-
tions, and bodies of knowledge, and so
forth related to coaching:
1. Identifiable and distinct skills—for
example, skills that are widely ac-
cepted as required for the perfor-
mance of skilled coaching (Feit &
Lloyd, 1990; Goode, 1960; Harries-
Jenkins, 1970; Larson, 1977;
Ritchie, 1990; Rossides, 1998).
2. Education and training required to
acquire proficiency—for example,
minimum initial and ongoing train-
ing required to coach; generally ac-
cepted competences required for
coaches; means of assessing compe-
tence (Goode, 1960; Harries-Jen-
kins, 1970; Larson, 1977; Ritchie,
1990).
3. Recognition outside the community
as a profession—for example, recog-
nition by established professions as a
profession; federal government iden-
tification/classification of coaching as
a profession (Goode, 1960; Ritchie,
1990).
4. Developed, monitored, and enforced
code of ethics by a governing body
making the profession a self-disci-
plined group—for example, establish
code of ethical conduct; widely un-
derstood and accepted code; systems
for monitoring ethical conducted by
coaches; systems for enforcing ethi-
cal conduct that could result in a re-
quirement to stop coaching (Canadian
Medical Association, 2002; Feit &
Lloyd, 1990; Goode, 1960; Green-
wood, 1966; Harries-Jenkins, 1970;
Ritchie, 1990).
5. Public service that is motivated by
altruistic service rather than finan-
cial gain—for example, provision
of service for altruistic motives
(Ritchie, 1990).
6. Formalized organization—for ex-
ample, widely accepted established
professional organization that repre-
sents the profession and those prac-
ticing coaching (Larson, 1977; Ros-
sides, 1998).
7. Evaluation of merit (credentialing)
and self-regulating, encouraging di-
versity of thought, evaluation, and
practice—for example, accepted re-
quirements for coaches; systems for
accessing competence; systems for
monitoring and regulating service
delivery by coaches; means of en-
couraging a wide array of thought
241Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research
Fall 2006
and discussion about the practice of
the profession (Canadian Medical
Association, 2002; Goode, 1960;
Ritchie, 1990).
8. Established community of practitio-
ners—for example, forums for prac-
titioners to develop relationships and
exchange ideas related to the practice
of coaching; publications that support
establishment of the community of
practice (Harries-Jenkins, 1970; Lar-
son, 1977; Ritchie, 1990).
9. Status or state of recognition asso-
ciated with membership in the pro-
fession—for example, recognition
by those served and the general
public as a profession (Greenwood,
1966).
10. Public recognition from outside the
practicing community that the pro-
fession is distinct and actually in
existence—for example, recogni-
tion as a distinct profession (Goode,
1960; Greenwood, 1966).
11. Practice founded in theoretical and
factual research and knowledge—for
example, defined body of knowledge;
defined theoretical foundation; ongo-
ing evidence-based theoretical and
practical research (Greenwood, 1966;
Harries-Jenkins, 1970; Ritchie, 1990).
Although coaching meets several of these
criteria, it does not meet all of them. For
example, there are currently no generally ac-
cepted identifiable, and distinct skills for
coaches. Training and/or education are not
required before a person can practice coach-
ing; however, there are a variety of coach-
training programs available. The general pop-
ulation and related professions do not recog-
nize coaching as a profession. Less than half
of the estimated coaches in the world belong
to the ICF (the first professional body specif-
ically related to coaching), which serves as an
indication that there is not an established
community of practitioners, and there is a
lack of defined theory on which coaches base
their practice.
A thorough review of the practice of
coaching relative to this set of criteria was
conducted in order to identify gaps was
utilized to develop deliberate strategies for
professionalizing coaching. There are ap-
parent gaps that may be filled, at least in
part, with the support of coaching-related
research. These include the identification
and articulation of a theory(ies) of coach-
ing; distinguishing the relationship of the-
ory to the development of proficiency or
competency-based training and education;
and, the development of rigorous, valid,
and reliable means to evaluate and support
the monitoring of the practice of coaching.
Accomplishing these would increase the
credibility of coaching as a distinct and
recognized discipline and forward the
agenda held by some that coaching should
be recognized as a profession. This article
provides an agenda for coaching-related re-
search that can serve to support the build-
ing of a bridge between what exists today
and the criteria, therefore, furthering the
agenda of professionalization of coaching
and contributing to or establishing a shared
body of knowledge.
Methods
This metareview, qualitative content
analysis (Bickman & Rog, 1998; Neuen-
dorf, 2002; Robson, 2002) was conducted
using two sources of data. Both sources
were from the first annual International
Coach Federation Research Symposium
held in Denver, Colorado, on Novem-
ber 12, 2003. The sources of data for this
study were the Proceedings from the Sym-
posium (Stein & Belsten, 2004) and a set of
transcripts prepared from audiotapes of the
Symposium presenters. A complete list of
presentations and papers is included in the
appendix. The author presented the work of
one researcher who could not attend the
event; therefore, the transcript of that pre-
sentation was not analyzed in the content
analysis in an effort to reduce the risk of
including personal bias. The paper submit-
242 Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research
Fall 2006
ted by the absent research was analyzed.
Submissions of papers for presentation
and/or as posters were peer-reviewed
blindly by two scholar-practitioners. A
panel of symposium planners made the fi-
nal selections for inclusion based on rec-
ommendations from the reviewers. The fol-
lowing 26 documents were reviewed: one
keynote speech (published paper and tran-
script), six speakers’ papers, five presenta-
tion transcripts, seven poster presenters
(published papers), four poster presenters
(published abstracts), and transcripts from
two expert panel presentations/discussions.
The audio-recorded presentations were
transcribed. Transcripts included questions
to the presenter(s) and comments from au-
dience members. The audience was com-
prised of coaches, scholars, and scholar-
practitioners. The proceedings document
was 147 pages long, and the transcripts
consisted of approximately 10 hours of pre-
sentations.
The following process was utilized to
analyze the data. The papers contained in
the proceedings and transcripts were read
to identify themes. Four broad subject
themes (see Findings) were identified and
used to extract passages from the Proceed-
ings. These were entered as text into QS
NVivo software. This text, along with the
transcripts of presentations, was reviewed
and passages related to each of the four
themes were coded using QS NVivo soft-
ware. Coded passages were then analyzed
to identify more specific themes or con-
cepts. Again, passages were reviewed sev-
eral times as a check for coding accuracy.
No comparison was made between the pa-
pers and presentations. The findings are
based on an analysis and synthesis of un-
derstanding and interpretation by the author
of what was presented during the sympo-
sium and included in the published papers.
Findings
In his keynote address to the Sympo-
sium, Grant(2003a, 2003b) reported that
125 peer-reviewed papers (and disserta-
tions) related to coaching had been pub-
lished in the psychological literature since
1937. Grant contends that those publica-
tions might be used as an incipient knowl-
edge base. The majority of these publica-
tions occurred during the 1990s. Most of
them consist of empirical case studies and
tests of methodological frameworks. A few
studies are systemic, considering points of
delivery of coaching such as managers, hu-
man resource staff, and peers (Grant,
2003a, 2003b). Grant’s keynote address il-
lustrated that a shared body of knowledge
exists; however, he did not delineate a spe-
cific program of coaching-related research.
Given the lack of a framework for a re-
search agenda, the papers and presentations
of the symposium offered a rich source of
data from which a coaching-related research
agenda could be derived. A content analysis
was performed and resulted in five general
themes or categories: importance of coach-
ing-related research, obstacles to conducting
and publishing coaching-related research,
methods for conducting coaching related re-
search, an agenda for future coaching-related
research, and the linkage between the criteria
for a profession and the coaching-related re-
search agenda. Each of these is presented
separately.
Importance of Coaching-Related
Research
Many reasons for conducting coaching-
related research were presented through the
Symposium. Since so little is known about
coaching, research is viewed as a way to
support the establishment of coaching as a
field of study and practice. Second, research
can serve to inform practitioner training and
establish credibility of the practice as well as
training organizations. Third, research can be
a means of developing theories specifically
associated with coaching. Finally, research
can support the establishment of coaching as
a profession as identified as a criterion in the
introduction.
243Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research
Fall 2006
Obstacles to Conducting Coaching-
Related Research
Several obstacles or barriers to conduct-
ing coaching-related research were raised
in the data. First, there is a general lack of
funding to support research in this field of
inquiry. Second, there is lack of agreement
about the definition of coaching. Third,
there is a lack of recognition of coaching as
a profession thus providing the legitimacy
and broad interest in this research. Fourth,
there is a lack of a peer-reviewed, scholarly
publications devoted to the dissemination
of this research. Finally, related to the dis-
tribution of research, there is general lack
of perceived appreciation for research and
the ability to understand and apply it to the
practice of coaching by skill-focused train-
ers and practitioners.
Methods for Conducting Coach-Related
Research
The analysis of the data did not provide
a particular track for researching the prac-
tice of coaching. Instead, researchers sug-
gest that future research should be carefully
and clearly linked to theory—especially
grand theories. This type of research will
add credibility to the research and thus to
the field. There is a need to move beyond
the current state of descriptive research into
more exploratory work as discussed below.
Both qualitative and quantitative research
practices were considered relevant to the
field of coaching. Several specific sugges-
tions were offered related to the particular
research approaches that might be consid-
ered by future researchers. These include
theory building, content analysis, surveys,
longitudinal, and cross-sectional studies. It
was suggested that researchers develop
coaching specific instruments. And, re-
searchers underscored the need to maintain
validity and reliability in the future of re-
search efforts.
Agenda for Coaching-Related Research
The analysis produced six themes or cat-
egories of coaching-related research. The
themes relate to the coach, the client, the
coach/client relationship, the process of
coaching, the results of coaching, and theo-
ries related to the practice and teaching of
coaching. The coach in this case is defined as
the person performing the coaching service.
Research on the coach might include charac-
teristics and competencies of effective
coaches. Second, the client is the person(s)
receiving coaching—the person being
coached. Research on the client might in-
clude characteristics of effective coaching cli-
ents. Third, the coach/client relationship is
the interaction between the coach and the
client, for example, criteria for matching
coaches and clients, qualities of the coaching
relationship, and differences between in-
person and telephone coaching relationships.
Fourth, the process of coaching is the techni-
cal aspect of how the coach is working with
the client. Research on the process of coach-
ing might include types/processes/models of
coaching, use of metaphors, effectiveness of
coaching by telephone compared to in-person
coaching, use of coaching as follow-up to
training, and comparisons of various types of
coaching—for example, performance and life
coaching. Fifth, the results of coaching are
the outcomes. Research on the results might
include sustainability of desired results after
coaching services have concluded, return on
the investment in coaching, and the impact of
coaching on the mental health of employees.
Finally, theories related to the practice and
teaching of coaching are the scholarly, evi-
dence-based, theoretical foundation which
serves to guide the coach/client relationship
and coaching process as well as the instruc-
tion of coaches. Research related to this
theme might include the ability to generalize
the model of coaching among a general pop-
ulation; development of a theoretical frame-
work(s) for coaching; application of theories
related to the practice of coaching and to the
244 Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research
Fall 2006
training of coaches; and the definition of
coaching competencies. Additionally, spe-
cific potential research topics were identified
from the research symposium presentations
and papers are included in Table 1.
From the analysis, it was possible to
identify topics or areas for further research
for which Symposium presenters and audi-
ence participants expressed keen interest.
These include research regarding the re-
sults of coaching, specifically return on in-
vestment and measuring the results (im-
pacts) of coaching services on the individ-
ual and/or organization.
Professionalization and Research
Based on the current state of the disci-
pline and practice of coaching stated at the
outset and reviewing the criteria for a pro-
fession, a linkage with the findings of the
content analysis can be made in order to
Table 1
Themes and Potential Research Topics
Theme Potential future research
Coach ● Characteristics of effective coaches
● Competencies for effective coaches
Client ● Characteristics of effective coaching clients
Coach/client relationship ● Criteria for matching coaches and clients—e.g., age, personality type,
gender, sexual orientation, life/work experience, education
● Qualities of the coaching relationship
● Differences between in-person and telephone coaching relationships
● Creating the “feeling of connection”
Process of coaching ● The supportive experience of the client
● Types/processes/models of coaching
● Use of metaphors
● Relationship between theories of adult learning, preferred learning style,
and personality, for example, and the practice of coaching
● Effectiveness of coaching via telephone compared to in-person
● Effectiveness of “coaching skills”—e.g., asking questions, listening,
encouragement
● Use of coaching as a follow-up to training
● Comparisons of various types of coaching—e.g., performance, life
Results of coaching ● Effectiveness of coaching for specific desired results such as
transformation, learning, performance improvement, ongoing
development, improved self-efficacy, knowledgeretention, and skill
application
● Sustainability of desired results after coaching services have concluded
● Impact of coaching on the individual client that produce a broader,
organizational impact
● Return on the investment in coaching
● The impact of coaching on the mental health of employees
● Definition what can and should be measured and the best approaches to
do so
Theories related to the
practice and teaching
of coaching
● Ability to generalize the model of coaching among a general population-
not just those trained as “professional coaches”
● Development of a theoretical framework(s) for coaching
● Relationship between coaching and other theories in such disciplines as
education, leadership/management, and psychology
● Application of theories related to coaching to the training of coaches—
grounding training and education in a theoretical body of knowledge
● Definition of coaching
● Definition of coaching competencies
245Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research
Fall 2006
demonstrate how coaching-related research
can support the professionalization of
coaching. The coaching-related research
agenda themes identified through this anal-
ysis can be linked to 10 of the 11 criteria
(See Table 2). The only one criterion for
which no identifiable research theme was
mentioned was the formalization of a
coaching-related professional organization.
Such an organization already exists as the
ICF. Research on the coach could be used
to support evaluation of the merit (creden-
tialing) and self-regulating, encouraging di-
versity of thought, evaluation, practice, and
support the establishment of a community
of practitioners. Research on coach/client
relationship could be used to support iden-
tification and distinction of coaching-
related skills; development, monitoring,
and enforcement of a code of ethics; and
establishment of a status or state of recog-
nition associated with membership in the
profession. Research on the results of
coaching could be used to support the rec-
ognition outside the community of coach-
ing as a profession and delivery of coach-
ing as a public service. Research on theo-
ries related to the practice of teaching of
Table 2
Professionalization and Research Themes
Criteria for a profession Supportive research theme
1. Identifiable and distinct skills ● Coach/client relationship
● Theories related to the practice and teaching of
coaching
2. Education and training required to
acquire proficiency
● Theories related to the practice and teaching of
coaching
3. Recognition outside the community as a
profession
● Results of coaching
● Theories related to the practice and teaching of
coaching
4. Developed, monitored, and enforced
code of ethics by a governing body
making the profession a self-disciplined
group
● Coach/client relationship
5. Public service that is motivated by
altruistic service rather than financial
gain
● Coach/client relationship
● Results of coaching
6. Formalized organization ● Not applicable
7. Evaluation of merit (credentialing) and
self-regulating, encouraging diversity of
thought, evaluation, and practice
● Coach
● Theories related to the practice and teaching of
coaching
8. Established community of practitioners ● Coach
9. Status or state of recognition associated
with membership in the profession
● Coach/client relationship
10. Public recognition from outside the
practicing community that the profession
is distinct and actually in existence
● Coach/client relationship
● Theories related to the practice and teaching of
coaching
11. Practice founded in theoretical and
factual research and knowledge
● Theories related to the practice and teaching of
coaching
246 Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research
Fall 2006
coaching could be used to support identifi-
cation and distinction of coaching-related
skills, recognition outside the community
of coaching as a profession, and support the
practice of coaching founded in theoretical
and factual research and knowledge.
Limitations
This paper provides an initial step in the
definition and proposal of an agenda for
research related to coaching. As with any
study, it has limitations; however, some of
these may serve to provide opportunities
for further study. First, this content analysis
was based on material from the first annual
ICF Research Symposium. As a result, the
scope of data reviewed was limited because
it was an initial attempt to build a research
community and may not have been fully
representative. Second, since the analysis
in this paper was based solely on the Sym-
posium, other sources of insight such as
data from other researchers and published
literature were not included. Finally, this
study was based solely on printed docu-
ments and transcripts not specifically de-
veloped to articulate a coaching-related re-
search agenda.
Recommendations
Coaching-related research, like the mat-
uration of coaching as a profession, is in its
infancy. Coaching-related research can be
utilized to support the professionalization
of coaching through the development and
execution of strategies designed to meet the
criteria for professionalization outlined
above. In the future, additional research
conferences should be conducted by the
ICF and other organizations. The papers
and proceedings from these events may
provide a broader and deeper source for
insight and analysis. A study might con-
sider a review of published scholarly works
including articles and dissertations. Future
studies might be developed that seek data
from personal sources through other data
gathering means such as interviews with
key informants.
In conclusion, the state of coaching-
related research is just at the dawn of po-
tential; it has the potential to flourish and to
help the emergence of a profession of
coaching. The development and articula-
tion of theories that can drive the teaching,
practice, and evaluation of coaching are
needed. Research can and should be used to
inform consumers, educators, and practitio-
ners in order to make wise decisions and to
develop and evaluate strategies. Coaching-
related research is necessary for the coach-
ing model to be accepted and for coaching
to mature and become a profession. Since
there are now a number of venues for
coaching-related research and dialogue re-
lated to the professionalization of coaching,
a content analysis across these settings
would be useful.
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Appendix
Symposium Papers and Presentations
Name Title Paper Presentation
Dunn, P. E. Perception of change as result of a professional
coaching relationship
�
Edwards, J. Cognitive coaching: Research on outcomes and
recommendations for implementation
� �
Eversole, B. A. W. Metaphor as thought: The use of metaphor in
coaching
�
Gislason, M. Executive coaching project: Evaluation of findings � �
Gonzalez, A. L. Transformative conversations: Executive coaches
and business leaders in dialogical collaboration
for growth
�
Gonzalez, A. L., Stober, D.,
Edwards, J., Bush, M.,
Sanson, M., & Parry, C.
Conversations about research: Insights, issues, and
challenges
�
Grant, A. Keeping up with the cheese! Research as a
foundation for professional coaching of the future
� �
Higuchi, P. The waypoint project: Identifying the critical events
in leadership development
�
Hurd, J. L. Learning for life: An investigation into the effect of
organizational coaching on individual lives
� �
Irwin, J. D., & Morrow, D. The co-active coaching method as a theoretically
grounded strategy for “doing” health promotion
�
Joy, K. The archetypes of coaching: Discovering what
makes a coach successful
�
Kleinberg, J. A. A scholar-practitioner model: Constructing a holistic
theoretical system to organize approaches to
executive coaching
�
Laske, O. E. An integrated model of developmental coaching
(TM): Researching new ways of coaching and
coach education
� �
Lew, S., Wolfred, T., Gislason,
M., & Coan, D. L.
Executive coaching project: Evaluation of findings � �
MacKay, N., Collins-Dodd,
C., & Gemino, A.
A model of website adoption in the coaching
industry
�
Severin, C. S. ROI in executive coaching using total factor
productivity
�
Stein, I. F. The coach-approach as dialogic discourse �
White, K., & Creswell, J. Toward a model of excellence for internal coaching:
Patterns and trends from 20� companies’ internal
coaching initiatives
�
Wilkins, B. M. Wilkins coaching theory: Applications, advances, &
next questions
� *
Zackon, R. The International Coach Federation 2003 survey of
professional coaches
�
Zackon, R., Anderson, S.,
Williams, P., Gentry, C., &
Frankovelgia, C.
My client is on the line: How can research help
me?
�
* The transcript from this presentation was not included since the author of this article made the presentation.
Refer to the Methods section of this article.
249Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research
Fall 2006
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